Stereotyped behavior and diabetes mellitus in rats: Reduced behavioral effects of amphetamine and apomorphine and reduced in vivo brain binding of [–3H]spiroperidol

Effect of streptozotocin-induced diabetes on performance on a progressive ratio schedule

RATIONALE

It has been suggested that streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes causes a motivational deficit in rodents. However, some of the evidence adduced in support of this suggestion may be interpreted in terms of a motor impairment rather than a motivational deficit.

OBJECTIVE

This experiment examined the effect of STZ-induced diabetes on performance on a progressive ratio schedule. The data were analysed using a new model derived from Killeen's (Behav Brain Sci 17:105-172, 1994) Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement model which enables the effects of interventions on motivation or incentive value to be separated from effects on motor function.

METHOD

Animals were trained under a progressive ratio schedule using food-pellet reinforcement. Then they received a single intraperitoneal injection of 50 mg/kg of STZ or the vehicle. Training continued for 30 sessions after treatment. Running and overall response rates in successive ratios were analysed using the new model, and estimates of the model's parameters were compared between groups.

RESULTS

The parameter expressing incentive value was reduced in the group treated with STZ, whereas the parameters expressing motor capacity and post-reinforcement pausing were not affected by the treatment. Blood glucose concentration was significantly elevated in the STZ-treated group compared to the vehicle-treated group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are consistent with the suggestion that STZ-induced diabetes is associated with a reduction of the incentive value of food.

Insulin signaling and addiction

Across species, the brain evolved to respond to natural rewards such as food and sex. These physiological responses are important for survival, reproduction and evolutionary processes. It is no surprise, therefore, that many of the neural circuits and signaling pathways supporting reward processes are conserved from Caenorhabditis elegans to Drosophilae, to rats, monkeys and humans. The central role of dopamine (DA) in encoding reward and in attaching salience to external environmental cues is well recognized. Less widely recognized is the role of reporters of the "internal environment", particularly insulin, in the modulation of reward. Insulin has traditionally been considered an important signaling molecule in regulating energy homeostasis and feeding behavior rather than a major component of neural reward circuits. However, research over recent decades has revealed that DA and insulin systems do not operate in isolation from each other, but instead, work together to orchestrate both the motivation to engage in consummatory behavior and to calibrate the associated level of reward. Insulin signaling has been found to regulate DA neurotransmission and to affect the ability of drugs that target the DA system to exert their neurochemical and behavioral effects. Given that many abused drugs target the DA system, the elucidation of how dopaminergic, as well as other brain reward systems, are regulated by insulin will create opportunities to develop therapies for drug and potentially food addiction. Moreover, a more complete understanding of the relationship between DA neurotransmission and insulin may help to uncover etiological bases for "food addiction" and the growing epidemic of obesity. This review focuses on the role of insulin signaling in regulating DA homeostasis and DA signaling, and the potential impact of impaired insulin signaling in obesity and psychostimulant abuse.

PI3K signaling supports amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux

The dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) is a major molecular target of the psychostimulant amphetamine (AMPH). AMPH, as a result of its ability to reverse DAT-mediated inward transport of DA, induces DA efflux thereby increasing extracellular DA levels. This increase is thought to underlie the behavioral effects of AMPH. We have demonstrated previously that insulin, through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling, regulates DA clearance by fine-tuning DAT plasma membrane expression. PI3K signaling may represent a novel mechanism for regulating DA efflux evoked by AMPH, since only active DAT at the plasma membrane can efflux DA. Here, we show in both a heterologous expression system and DA neurons that inhibition of PI3K decreases DAT cell surface expression and, as a consequence, AMPH-induced DA efflux.

Behavioral effects of amphetamine in streptozotocin-treated rats

Experimentally-induced diabetes can modify the behavioral and neurochemical effects of drugs acting on dopamine systems, possibly through insulin-related regulation of dopamine transporter activity. In this study, several behavioral procedures were used to examine possible changes in sensitivity to amphetamine and other drugs in rats rendered diabetic by a single injection of streptozotocin. Conditioned place preference developed to food (Froot Loops) in both control and diabetic rats, demonstrating that conditioned place preference with tactile stimuli can occur in streptozotocin-treated rats. Baseline locomotion was lower in streptozotocin-treated as compared to control rats, although amphetamine significantly increased locomotion in all rats. Conditioned place preference developed to amphetamine regardless of whether rats had received streptozotocin or saline. A second study compared the potency of drugs to decrease lever pressing maintained by food, before and after streptozotocin treatment. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate and amphetamine were less potent after streptozotocin while the potency of raclopride, quinpirole, ketamine, haloperidol and cocaine was not significantly changed by streptozotocin. While markedly affecting locomotion, body weight and blood glucose, streptozotocin only modestly affected sensitivity to the behavioral effects of amphetamine and other drugs; these results fail to confirm previous reports of decreased behavioral actions of stimulants in diabetic rats.

Evidence for D2 receptor mediation of amphetamine-induced normalization of locomotion and dopamine transporter function in hypoinsulinemic rats

Dopamine (DA) D2 receptors regulate DA transporter (DAT) activity, and mediate some behavioral effects of amphetamine. DA clearance and amphetamine-stimulated locomotion are reduced in hypoinsulinemic [streptozotocin (STZ)-treated] rats, and these deficits are normalized by repeated treatment with amphetamine. Here, a role for D2 receptors in mediating amphetamine-induced normalization of these parameters was investigated. One week after a saline or STZ injection (50 mg/kg), rats were treated with amphetamine (1.78 mg/kg), raclopride (0.056 mg/kg), saline, or combinations thereof, every-other-day for 8 days with locomotor activity measured following each treatment. Conditioned place preference (CPP) for amphetamine and in vivo chronoamperometry to measure DA clearance were carried out on days 17 and 18, respectively, after STZ or saline. Baseline locomotion and DA clearance were significantly reduced in STZ-treated rats compared with control rats. In STZ-treated rats, amphetamine treatment normalized DA clearance, and restored the locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine. Raclopride prevented normalization of these parameters. Amphetamine produced CPP in both STZ-treated and control rats; raclopride significantly attenuated amphetamine-induced CPP in control and not in STZ-treated rats. These results support a role for D2 receptors in regulating DA transporter activity, and further demonstrate that D2 receptors contribute to changes in sensitivity to amphetamine in hypoinsulinemic rats.

Insulin replacement restores the behavioral effects of quinpirole and raclopride in streptozotocin-treated rats

Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes can modulate dopamine (DA) neurotransmission and thereby modify the behavioral effects of drugs acting on DA systems. Insulin replacement, and in some conditions repeated treatment with amphetamine, can partially restore sensitivity of STZ-treated rats to dopaminergic drugs. The present study sought to characterize the role of insulin and amphetamine in modulating the behavioral effects of drugs that selectively act on D2/D3 receptors. In control rats, quinpirole and quinelorane produced yawning, whereas raclopride and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) produced catalepsy. Raclopride antagonized quinpirole- and quinelorane-induced yawning with similar potency. STZ treatment increased blood glucose concentration, decreased body weight, and markedly reduced sensitivity to quinpirole-induced yawning, quinelorane-induced yawning as well as to raclopride-induced catalepsy, while enhancing sensitivity to GHB-induced catalepsy. Repeated treatment with amphetamine partially restored sensitivity of STZ-treated rats to amphetamine-stimulated locomotion and also produced conditioned place preference, without affecting blood glucose and body weight changes. However, amphetamine treatment did not restore sensitivity to the behavioral effects of quinpirole, raclopride, or GHB, suggesting differential regulation of dopamine transporter activity and sensitivity of D2 receptors in hypoinsulinemic rats. Insulin replacement in STZ-treated rats normalized blood glucose and body weight changes and fully restored sensitivity to quinpirole-induced yawning, as well as to raclopride-induced catalepsy, while reducing sensitivity to GHB-induced catalepsy. Overall, these data indicate that changes in insulin status markedly affect sensitivity to the behavioral effects of dopaminergic drugs. The results underscore the importance of insulin in modulating DA neurotransmission; these effects might be especially relevant to understanding the co-morbidity of eating disorders and substance abuse.

Streptozotocin-induced diabetes differentially modifies haloperidol- and γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)-induced catalepsy

To examine whether dopamine-mediated behavioral effects are altered in diabetes, this study compared the cataleptic effects of the dopamine receptor antagonist haloperidol (0.032-0.56 mg/kg) and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB; 56-1000 mg/kg) in control and streptozotocin (STZ)-treated rats. Haloperidol and GHB produced catalepsy in control and diabetic rats; haloperidol was less potent in diabetic rats (D(50)=0.44 mg/kg) than in controls (D(50)=0.19 mg/kg), while GHB was more potent in diabetic rats (D(50)=392 mg/kg) than in controls (D(50)=550 mg/kg). In diabetic rats, the non-competitive N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist dizocilpine (0.32 mg/kg) further attenuated haloperidol-induced catalepsy (D(50)=1.2 mg/kg) and further enhanced GHB-induced catalepsy (D(50)=248 mg/kg). That haloperidol is less potent to produce catalepsy in diabetic rats is consistent with reports of altered dopamine receptor binding in diabetes.

Enhancement of amphetamine-induced locomotor response in rats on different regimens of diet restriction and 2-deoxy-d-glucose treatment

Diet restriction (DR) in rodents increases lifespan, reduces age-related disease and pathology, increases stress responses, and maintains better function later into life compared with conventional ad libitum (AL) feeding. We have been investigating different DR regimens and also DR mimetics that stimulate stress response pathways that are activated by DR. By inhibiting glycolysis, feeding or injection of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) has been proposed as a DR mimetic and has been shown to provide neuroprotection. In the current study, we examined whether 2DG treatment produces behavioral changes similar to those observed in DR rats following stimulation of the dopaminergic (DA) system by D-amphetamine (AMPH). Male Fischer 344 rats were maintained on different dietary regimens: 40% daily DR (40% DR); every-other-day feeding (EOD); or AL with some groups provided food containing 0.4% 2DG or injected i.p. with 2DG. In addition, we examined the persistence of effects of DR or 2DG feeding after switching rats to AL. When locomotor activity was assessed at different time points following initiation of dietary treatments, we noted that the enhancement of AMPH-induced locomotor responses emerged earlier in DR rats than observed in 2DG fed rats, but 40% DR and EOD rats responded in a similar manner. Enhanced locomotor responses persisted in 2DG fed rats even when returned to normal diet for 1 month and in the case of DR rats even after 2 months of AL feeding. Three weeks of 2DG injections also enhanced AMPH response, but this effect was transient. The most important finding was that 2DG did not affect body weight or diet intake yet had effects similar to DR. Thus, 2DG appears to activate DA pathways in the same direction as DR does but without the necessity of reducing caloric intake.

PI 3-kinase regulation of dopamine uptake

The magnitude and duration of dopamine (DA) signaling is defined by the amount of vesicular release, DA receptor sensitivity, and the efficiency of DA clearance, which is largely determined by the DA transporter (DAT). DAT uptake capacity is determined by the number of functional transporters on the cell surface as well as by their turnover rate. Here we show that inhibition of phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase with LY294002 induces internalization of the human DAT (hDAT), thereby reducing transport capacity. Acute treatment with LY294002 reduced the maximal rate of [(3) H]DA uptake in rat striatal synaptosomes and in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells stably expressing the hDAT (hDAT cells). In addition, LY294002 caused a significant redistribution of the hDAT from the plasma membrane to the cytosol. Conversely, insulin, which activates PI 3-kinase, increased [(3)H]DA uptake and blocked the amphetamine-induced hDAT intracellular accumulation, as did transient expression of constitutively active PI 3-kinase. The LY294002-induced reduction in [(3)H]DA uptake and hDAT cell surface expression was inhibited by expression of a dominant negative mutant of dynamin I, indicating that dynamin-dependent trafficking can modulate transport capacity. These data implicate DAT trafficking in the hormonal regulation of dopaminergic signaling, and suggest that a state of chronic hypoinsulinemia, such as in diabetes, may alter synaptic DA signaling by reducing the available cell surface DATs.

Altered thermoregulatory responses to clonidine in streptozotocin-diabetic rats

1. The effects of streptozotocin (STZ) treatment on alpha 2-adrenoceptor regulation of body temperature were studied by monitoring the response of colonic temperature to administration of clonidine. 2. A dose-dependent fall in colonic temperature occurred in control rats given clonidine challenge (0.05-2.0 mg kg-1, s.c.); this response was inhibited by prior administration of either yohimbine or idazoxan (2 mg kg-1, s.c.) but not by the peripherally-acting alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist L-659,066 (10 mg kg-1, s.c.). 3. In rats treated with STZ (65 mg kg-1, i.v.) administration of clonidine elicited a dose-independent hyperthermia (circa 1 degree C.); this effect was unaltered by prior administration of yohimbine or idazoxan. 4. Naloxone (5 mg kg-1, s.c.) elicited a small fall in temperature (< 1 degree C.) in both control and STZ-treated rats; naloxone pretreatment did not alter the temperature response to clonidine in either group. 5. Nicotinic acid (10 mg kg-1, s.c.) caused a similar small elevation in temperature in both groups. 6. Administration of replacement insulin to STZ-treated rats maintained weight gain and low blood glucose while the thermoregulatory response to clonidine slowly reverted to normal. 7. These results show that altered central temperature control is an element of the generalised abnormality of alpha 2-receptor function induced by STZ.

Intraventricular insulin increases dopamine transporter mRNA in rat VTA/substantia nigra

The hormone insulin can down-regulate the function and synthesis of the re-uptake transporter for norepinephrine (NET) in vivo and in vitro. In the present study we tested whether this action of insulin is generalized to another member of the catecholamine transporter family. We determined the level of dopamine transporter (DAT) mRNA expression in the ventral tegmental area (VTA)/substantia nigra compacta (SNc) of rats which were chronically treated with vehicle or insulin via the third cerebral ventricle (i.c.v.). DAT mRNA was significantly elevated in the VTA/SNc of rats treated with insulin, as compared with levels in vehicle-treated rats. This is in contrast to our previous observation that i.c.v. insulin decreases NET mRNA in the rat locus coeruleus, and suggests that insulin may have differential and specific modulatory effects on CNS catecholaminergic pathways.

Changes in adenosine sensitivity in the hippocampus of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes

1. Hippocampal slices have been used to assess the sensitivity of the CNS to adenosine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in diabetes. The effects of adenosine, 2-chloroadenosine, GABA, muscimol and baclofen were studied on orthodromic synaptic potentials recorded in the CA1 region of slices taken from normal rats or animals made diabetic by the injection of streptozotocin. 2. In diabetic animals the sensitivity to adenosine was increased 4 fold compared with normal rats. The potency of 2-chloroadenosine was unchanged. 3. The nucleoside transport inhibitor, hydroxynitrobenzylthioinosine (HNBTI), increased the potency of adenosine in slices from normal rats but not in slices from diabetic rats. 4. No change was observed in the potency of GABA or muscimol, although a small but significant decrease was detected in the EC50 value for baclofen. 5. Treatment of diabetic animals with insulin restored the potency of adenosine to control levels. 6. It is concluded that the diabetic state is accompanied by substantial changes of adenosine sensitivity due to the loss of nucleoside uptake processes. Secondary neurochemical changes following from this in human diabetic patients may contribute to the reported behavioural changes.

The functional significance of biochemical alterations in streptozotocin-induced diabetes

These experiments examined the effects of restraint stress on dopamine (DA) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and their principal metabolites dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), respectively, in 4 brain regions, as well as on plasma corticosterone concentration (CORT) and behavior in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and nondiabetic controls. Diabetic rats had widespread reductions in DA and 5-HT turnover (DOPAC/DA and 5-HIAA/5-HT ratios). Restraint led to equivalent increases in DA turnover in diabetics and nondiabetics, but attenuated increases in 5-HT turnover in diabetic rats. CORT concentration of diabetics and nondiabetics measured in complete quiet did not differ. Relative to these measures, only diabetics had elevated CORT when either restrained or kept in the same room with restrained rats with food and water removed. Open-field exploration was suppressed by restraint in diabetics only. All diabetic rats showed decreased locomotion in a novel environment which was normalized during a second exposure to the apparatus. Together, these results suggest that diabetes-induced disruptions in open-field activity are related to anxiety rather than to motor or energy deficits, and may be related to impaired 5-HT and CORT systems.

Genetic and environmental influences on reactive and spontaneous locomotor activities in rats

Paired groups of rats (derived from divergent, selective breeding or living in divergent environmental conditions) were compared with regard to locomotor activities. Intrapair differences were found to vary non-systematically, depending upon whether the rats were initially exposed to a test-environment with or without a slight environmental modification (reactive activities), or were allowed to habituate extensively to the environment (spontaneous activity). Since the behavioral patterns were found to represent distinct entities, this pointed to the necessity of differentiating clearly between spontaneous and reactive activities and indicated, once again, that both genetic and environmental influences are important in these behaviors and must be taken into account. Accepting and controlling for these variables makes it possible to use the factor of individual differences in laboratory animal behavior to advantage.

Ambulatory activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

This study was undertaken to investigate changes in ambulatory and drinking behavior, using the Gunma University-type special apparatus for continuous and direct measurement of ambulation and drinking in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (STZ, 60 mg/kg). Ambulatory activity of diabetic rats was significantly less than that of control rats during the dark phase but not during the light phase. Ambulatory activity of diabetic rats was also significantly less from 0900 to 1000 hr, but significantly more from 1400 to 1500 hr and 1700 to 1800 hr than that of control rats. On the other hand, there was significant increase in drinking behavior from DM-1W to DM-4W rats throughout the experimental time. Since diabetic animals are very sick, a wide variety of metabolic systems, including dopamine turnover, would be expected to be altered in these animals, and such alterations could also contribute to the results observed. Further studies are in progress to determine whether these abnormalities will be normalized by insulin administration.

Diabetes mellitus: stress, neurochemistry and behavior

Neurochemical alterations in several rodent models of insulin-dependent diabetes are compared and their relevance to behavioral and physiological pathology in the clinical disorder is discussed. In the majority of rodent models, reductions in metabolism of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5HT) in the central nervous system (CNS) have been reported. While there are two reports of increased 5HT turnover in CSF or post-mortem brains of diabetic humans experiencing severe ketoacidosis, these patients were receiving insulin therapy. Insulin appears to have effects on monoamines opposite to that of chronic hyperglycemia. Both in rodent models and in clinical populations, there is widespread evidence of enhanced hormonal and behavioral responsiveness to stress. There are findings in rodent models indicating that hormonal responses to stress are related to CNS monoamine activity. The mechanisms responsible for both hormonal and CNS alterations in diabetes, as well as their involvement in behavioral pathology, can best be investigated further using animal models.

Behavioral and neurochemical effects of amfonelic acid on the spontaneously diabetic Wistar-BB rat: implications of impaired dopamine function

1. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the Spontaneously Diabetic Wistar-BB Rat (SDR) would manifest an altered behavioral and neurochemical response to the indirect dopamine (DA) agonist amfonelic acid (AFA). 2. The insulin treated male SDR (3-4 months diabetic) and matched controls were monitored for locomotor, floor (horizontal and lateral displacement) and rearing activity. Catecholamines and metabolites were analyzed using HPLC-EC. 3. Results obtained indicated that the SDR: i) is less sensitive to the behavioral effects of AFA than the controls; ii) following AFA treatment (1.0 mg/kg) a significantly greater depletion of dopamine in the striatum, hypothalamus, midbrain and olfactory bulbs as well as striatal norepinephrine was observed in the SDR as compared to controls. These results implicate a dysfunctional biosynthetic capacity for DA in the SDR.

Apomorphine: clinical studies on erectile impotence and yawning

1. The erectile response to the short-acting dopamine (DA) receptor agonist, apomorphine (Apo) HCl (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 mg sc), and placebo was evaluated in 28 impotent patients and penile circumference monitored using a mercury strain gauge and strip chart recording. 2. A full erection (increment in penile circumference greater than 2 cm and lasting at least one minute) occurred in 17 patients with Apo; no erection developed after placebo. An erection occurred in 6/8 patients with impaired glucose tolerance, 2/6 patients with diabetes mellitus and in both patients on lithium. 3. Nine patients who responded to Apo were treated in an open trial with bromocriptine; 6 reported improvement in potency. 4. Impairment in DA function may play a role in idiopathic impotence and in impotence associated with impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes mellitus. 5. An erectile response to Apo may predict therapeutic response to bromocriptine or other long acting dopaminergic agents. 6. Lithium, which inhibits DA-sensitive adenylate cyclase, does not prevent Apo-induced erections. This provides further support indicating that Apo induces erections by an effect on D2 receptors. 7. The yawning response to placebo and four doses of Apo HC1 (3.5, 5.0, 7.0, and 10.5 ug/kg sc) was evaluated in five normal men using a polygraphic technique. The yawning response was also assessed in normal young (less than 30 yrs; N = 16) and elderly (greater than 60 yrs; N = 12) volunteers. 8. Under experimental conditions of study, placebo induced spontaneous yawning. This was antagonized by 3.5 and 5.0 ug/kg Apo HC1 but increased by 7.0 ug/kg Apo HC1. These observations are compatible with the view that Apo HC1 in doses of 3.5-5.0 ug/kg stimulates presynaptic DA receptors whereas 7.0 ug/kg stimulates postsynaptic DA receptors. 9. Spontaneous and Apo-induced yawning were significantly decreased in the elderly which suggests that D2 receptor function declines with normal aging.

The psychoneuroendocrinology of diabetes mellitus in rodents

The metabolic-endocrine state of diabetes mellitus affects the brain and behavior of diabetic animals. Feeding, paradoxical sleep, analgesia, submissive behavior, and avoidance behavior, are generally increased in diabetic compared with nondiabetic rodents. In contrast, sexual behavior, aggressive behavior and sensitivity to the behavioral effects of amphetamine are decreased in diabetic rodents. This review examines behavioral changes in diabetes mellitus within the context of known disease-linked alterations in hypothalamo-pituitary relationships and brain monoamine metabolism.

Behavioral and neurochemical profile of the spontaneously diabetic Wistar BB rat

The overall objective of the present investigation was to examine the behavioral and neurochemical profile of long-term diabetes (2-4 months), in the spontaneously diabetic Wistar BB rat (SDR). This animal model mimics the salient symptomatology of Type-I diabetes in man and circumvents confounds attributed to non-specific effects encountered in the chemically-induced models of diabetes. The first set of experiments were designed to investigate the effects of dopamine (DA) agonists and circadian cycle on the following spontaneous behaviors: locomotion, floor activity, rearing frequency and rearing duration. The results demonstrated that the SDR manifests (1) a blunted response to D-amphetamine (0.5-3.0 mg/kg; i.p.), and (2) lower levels of spontaneous locomotor and rearing activity in the latter part of the dark cycle, particularly at the transition of the cycle from dark to light. The next set of experiments assessed the status of brain catecholamine and metabolite levels in the insulin maintained and deprived SDR. The regional catecholamine and metabolite levels of the insulin-maintained SDR were not significantly different from those of the non-diabetic or the genetically distinct controls. However, the cessation of insulin administration to the SDR for 4 days resulted in significant increases in the levels of norepinephrine in the cortex and the hypothalamus, DA in the hippocampus, and homovanillic acid in the striatum.

Central pharmacological activity of a quaternary ammonium compound in streptozotocin diabetic mice

Possible changes in blood-brain barrier (BBB) function as a result of diabetes were investigated by assessing antagonism of morphine analgesia in diabetic mice by methylnaltrexone (MeNTX), an opioid receptor blocker that does not cross the BBB when administered subcutaneously (SC). In streptozotocin (STZ)-treated diabetic mice--but not vehicle-treated, non-diabetic mice--treatment with SC MeNTX significantly reduced morphine analgesia. In vehicle-treated, non-diabetic mice, morphine analgesia was antagonized by MeNTX administered intracerebroventricularly and by SC naltrexone, which crosses the BBB. Reduction of STZ-induced hyperglycemia by insulin reversed the effectiveness of SC MeNTX in antagonizing morphine analgesia. We hypothesize that in STZ diabetic mice, MeNTX was able to cross the BBB and block brain opioid receptors.

Apomorphine in the evaluation of dopaminergic function in man

1. Apomorphine (Apo), a short acting dopamine (DA) receptor agonist, stimulates growth hormone (GH) secretion, decreases prolactin secretion, induces yawning, penile erections and other physiological effects in man. An effect on behavior, movement disorders and alcoholism has also been described. 2. Apo-mediated responses are used to evaluate DA function in psychiatric and neurological disorders. Many of the studies in schizophrenia using the GH response to Apo as an index of central DA function are difficult to interpret because of failure to control for key variables. 3. The GH response to Apo is a useful system to evaluate the effects of various drugs including peptides which may not cross the blood brain barrier on DA function in man. 4. Apo is a potent sedative. Specific antimanic, antischizophrenic, and anticraving effects in alcoholics have not been convincingly demonstrated. Side effects of Apo and failure to use active placebo make double-blind studies difficult. 5. Apo improves parkinsonian symptoms and certain forms of reflex epilepsy but beneficial effects in other involuntary movement disorders requires further documentation. 6. Apo may be a useful agent to evaluate DA function in impotent patients and predict a therapeutic response to long-acting dopaminergic agents. 7. Impairment of DA function may play a role in diabetic impotence. 8. The development of a simple polygraphic method to monitor the yawning response to Apo may facilitate clinical studies on the basic physiology of yawning in man and the use of the yawning response as a measure of central DA function in schizophrenia and other clinical disorders. 9. The use of Apo with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to examine regional DA function in man opens up a promising area of research. 10. Though long-acting orally active aporphine DA agonists and antagonists have been developed the problem of tolerance may limit their therapeutic potential.

The spontaneously diabetic Wistar-BB rat manifests altered grooming and catalepsy responses: implications of impaired dopamine function

1. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the grooming and catalepsy behaviors, believed to be mediated predominantly by the D1 and D2 dopamine receptor based mechanism(s), respectively, are altered in the Spontaneously Diabetic Wistar-BB Rat (SDR). 2. The insulin treated male SDR (5-6 months diabetic) and a genetically matched Non-Diabetic (NDR) control group were monitored for pharmacologically-induced catalepsy as well as stress-induced grooming. 3. Results obtained indicated that the SDR manifested an increased sensitivity to i) the cataleptogenic effects of haloperidol (0.3-1.0 mg/kg; s.c.) and ii) to the grooming response elicited by a mild stressor (novel environment), when compared to the NDR group. However, under more stressful conditions, the NDR groomed as much as the SDR. The altered behavioral sensitivity of the SDR may be a consequence of impaired dopaminergic neurotransmission and the subsequent upregulation of D1 receptors.

Dietary self-selection in diabetic rats: an overview

The literature concerning dietary self-selection patterns of diabetic rats is reviewed and compared with new data. There is agreement among the various investigators as to the dietary choices observed following induction of diabetes, regardless of the diabetogenic treatment used. That is, moderately diabetic rats select a high fat, low carbohydrate diet, whereas more severely diabetic animals consume high protein, low carbohydrate diets with little change in fat consumption relative to nondiabetic controls. Even very midly diabetic rats reduce carbohydrate intake. Evaluation of metabolic status of diabetics suggests that with severe diabetes, the beneficial reduction of plasma glucose seen with consumption of a high fat diet may be offset by extreme elevations in ketone and triglyceride levels. Moreover, the hypothesis that diabetic rats are insensitive to carbohydrate calories seems weakened by evidence of reduced food intake following carbohydrate consumption either in solutions or as a gastric load. These findings are discussed in terms of "dietary wisdom" as first proposed by Richter.