Children's hedonic judgments of cigarette smoke odor: effects of parental smoking and maternal mood

Effect of parental smoking behavior and motives on preadolescents' neural attention to smoking-related cues

OBJECTIVE

The goal of the present study was to investigate neural responses to smoking cues in preadolescent children of smokers and nonsmokers.

METHOD

To accomplish this, we recruited 111 8-12-year-old children (Mage = 122.13 months; SD = 17.41; 50 female) and their parents. Participants were presented with 60 pictures of smoking-related and control cues that were matched in color, intensity, and size in random order on a computer screen. Pictures depicted people interacting with the relevant objects or the relevant objects were presented alone. Neural activity in the form of electroencephalogram was recorded during the presentation of the pictures, and event-related potentials elicited by these stimuli were examined. Parents answered questions about how often they smoked cigarettes and about their motives for smoking.

RESULTS

Results demonstrated that P3 amplitude was larger to smoking-related cues compared to non-smoking-related cues for children of smokers in the central, parietal, and occipital regions. This effect was only seen for pictures depicting people interacting with the stimuli (e.g., a person holding a cigarette). In contrast, responses did not differ across conditions in children of nonsmokers. Moreover, P3 amplitudes were larger for children of parents who reported that smoking provided greater positive and negative reinforcement.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide important insights about the mechanisms involved in the relationship between parental and child smoking. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Infant factors that impact the ecology of human milk secretion and composition-a report from "Breastmilk Ecology: Genesis of Infant Nutrition (BEGIN)" Working Group 3

Infants drive many lactation processes and contribute to the changing composition of human milk through multiple mechanisms. This review addresses the major topics of milk removal; chemosensory ecology for the parent-infant dyad; the infant's inputs into the composition of the human milk microbiome; and the impact of disruptions in gestation on the ecology of fetal and infant phenotypes, milk composition, and lactation. Milk removal, which is essential for adequate infant intake and continued milk synthesis through multiple hormonal and autocrine/paracrine mechanisms, should be effective, efficient, and comfortable for both the lactating parent and the infant. All 3 components should be included in the evaluation of milk removal. Breastmilk "bridges" flavor experiences in utero with postweaning foods, and the flavors become familiar and preferred. Infants can detect flavor changes in human milk resulting from parental lifestyle choices, including recreational drug use, and early experiences with the sensory properties of these recreational drugs impact subsequent behavioral responses. Interactions between the infant's own developing microbiome, that of the milk, and the multiple environmental factors that are drivers-both modifiable and nonmodifiable-in the microbial ecology of human milk are explored. Disruptions in gestation, especially preterm birth and fetal growth restriction or excess, impact the milk composition and lactation processes such as the timing of secretory activation, adequacy of milk volume and milk removal, and duration of lactation. Research gaps are identified in each of these areas. To assure a sustained and robust breastfeeding ecology, these myriad infant inputs must be systematically considered.

Olfaction scaffolds the developing human from neonate to adolescent and beyond

The impact of the olfactory sense is regularly apparent across development. The fetus is bathed in amniotic fluid (AF) that conveys the mother's chemical ecology. Transnatal olfactory continuity between the odours of AF and milk assists in the transition to nursing. At the same time, odours emanating from the mammary areas provoke appetitive responses in newborns. Odours experienced from the mother's diet during breastfeeding, and from practices such as pre-mastication, may assist in the dietary transition at weaning. In parallel, infants are attracted to and recognize their mother's odours; later, children are able to recognize other kin and peers based on their odours. Familiar odours, such as those of the mother, regulate the child's emotions, and scaffold perception and learning through non-olfactory senses. During juvenility and adolescence, individuals become more sensitive to some bodily odours, while the timing of adolescence itself has been speculated to draw from the chemical ecology of the family unit. Odours learnt early in life and within the family niche continue to influence preferences as mate choice becomes relevant. Olfaction thus appears significant in turning on, sustaining and, in cases when mother odour is altered, disturbing adaptive reciprocity between offspring and carer during the multiple transitions of development between birth and adolescence. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Olfactory communication in humans'.

The effect of parental smoking on preadolescents' implicit and explicit perceptions of smoking-related cues

Children of smokers are significantly more likely to experiment with cigarettes and become habitual smokers than children of nonsmokers. The current study examined the effect of parental smoking on children's implicit and explicit responses toward smoking behavior and smoking-related cues with the goal of identifying potential mechanisms for this relationship. A sample of 8-12-year-old children of smokers (n = 57) and children of nonsmokers (n = 86) completed a dot probe task to assess implicit attentional bias toward smoking cues and the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP) to assess implicit affective responses to smoking cues. In addition, children indicated their explicit perceptions of smokers and smoking behavior. Results demonstrated that children of smokers showed more sustained implicit attentional bias toward pictures of smoking stimuli presented alone than children of nonsmokers. Overall, participants showed negative implicit affective responses to smoking stimuli regardless of parental smoking. Children of smokers indicated that smokers would experience fewer negative consequences than children of nonsmokers; these relationships were moderated by age. Together, our findings suggest that parental smoking affects the ways that preadolescent children implicitly process smoking cues and their perceptions about smoking and its consequences. These findings help us understand the environmental mechanisms associated with smoking behavior in this vulnerable population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Olfactory perception in children

The ability to smell is important for protection from danger and quality of life, even in children. Although smell loss is rare in children, it can be indicative of some childhood disorders and may be useful for understanding some disorders. This paper reviews the methods and results of behavioral testing olfaction in children, with an emphasis on odor identification, the most common method of assessing the sense of smell in both children and adults. The Pediatric Smell Wheel® is described as a relatively new and powerful tool for testing olfaction in children as young as 4 years of age. An example of its use in testing children with a childhood disorders (autism spectrum disorder, ASD) is provided in addition to a review of the literature on smell function in ASD. It is possible to reliably test sense of smell in children as young as 4 years old and many studies have shown that performance improves with age and can be impacted by childhood disorders. Sex differences in children are briefly discussed. Finally, the paper suggests other methods of testing olfaction in children, such as odor discrimination, that depend less on cognitive factors, which may enhance our understanding of the olfactory capabilities of young children.

Flavour preferences in youth versus adults: a review

OBJECTIVE

To understand the available evidence of how children and adults differ in their preferences for flavours that may be used in tobacco products.

DATA SOURCES

A total of 474 articles published between 1931 and August 2015 were retrieved through searches conducted in PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and PsycINFO.

STUDY SELECTION AND EXTRACTION

A 2-phase relevancy review process resulted in the identification of 59 articles and information was extracted by 2 independent reviewers.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Findings were grouped by taste and smell preferences, which are important components of overall flavour. For taste, evidence is summarised in the following categories: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami and fat; within each of them, findings are organised by age categories. For smell, evidence is summarised as follows: fruit/herbal/spices, tobacco and coffee and other odours. Major findings from this search indicated that sweet preference in children and adolescents was higher than in adults. Examples of preferred food-related tastes and odours for young people included cherry, candy, strawberry, orange, apple and cinnamon. Currently, all these are used to flavour cigars, cartridges for electronic cigarettes, hookah (waterpipe) and smokeless tobacco products.

CONCLUSIONS

Infants and children exhibited elevated sweet and salty preference relative to adults. Age-related changes in bitter, sour, umami and fat taste were not clear and more research would be useful. 'Sweet' food odours were highly preferred by children. Tobacco products in flavours preferred by young people may impact tobacco use and initiation, while flavours preferred by adults may impact product switching or dual use.

Disruption in the Relationship between Blood Pressure and Salty Taste Thresholds among Overweight and Obese Children

BACKGROUND

Prevalence of high blood pressure among American children has increased over the past 2 decades, due in part to increasing rates of obesity and excessive dietary salt intake.

OBJECTIVE

We tested the hypothesis that the relationships among blood pressure, salty taste sensitivity, and salt intake differ between normal-weight and overweight/obese children.

DESIGN

In an observational study, sodium chloride (NaCl) and monosodium glutamate (MSG) taste detection thresholds were measured using the Monell two-alternative, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method. Weight and blood pressure were measured, and salt intake was determined by 24-hour dietary recall.

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

Children aged 8 to 14 years (N=97; 52% overweight or obese) from the Philadelphia, PA, area completed anthropometric and blood pressure measurements; 97% completed one or both thresholds. Seventy-six percent provided valid dietary recall data. Testing was completed between December 2011 and August 2012.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

NaCl and MSG detection thresholds, blood pressure, and dietary salt intake.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Outcome measures were compared between normal-weight and overweight/obese children with t tests. Relationships among outcome measures within groups were examined with Pearson correlations, and multiple regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between blood pressure and thresholds, controlling for age, body mass index z score, and dietary salt intake.

RESULTS

NaCl and MSG thresholds were positively correlated (r[71]=0.30; P=0.01) and did not differ between body weight groups (P>0.20). Controlling for age, body mass index z score, and salt intake, systolic blood pressure was associated with NaCl thresholds among normal-weight children (P=0.01), but not among overweight/obese children. All children consumed excess salt (>8 g/day). Grain and meat products were the primary source of dietary sodium.

CONCLUSIONS

The apparent disruption in the relationship between salty taste response and blood pressure among overweight/obese children suggests the relationship may be influenced by body weight. Further research is warranted to explore this relationship as a potential measure to prevent development of hypertension.

Repeated exposure to odors induces affective habituation of perception and sniffing

Olfactory perception, and especially hedonic evaluation of odors, is highly flexible, but some mechanisms involved in this flexibility remain to be elucidated. In the present study we aimed at better understanding how repeated exposure to odors can affect their pleasantness. We tested the hypothesis of an affective habituation to the stimuli, namely a decrease of emotional intensity over repetitions. More specifically, we tested whether this effect is subject to inter-individual variability and whether it can also be observed at the olfactomotor level. Twenty-six participants took part in the experiment during which they had to smell two odorants, anise and chocolate, presented 20 times each. On each trial, sniff duration and volume were recorded and paired with ratings of odor pleasantness and intensity. For each smell, we distinguished between “likers” and “dislikers,” namely individuals giving positive and negative initial hedonic evaluations. Results showed a significant decrease in pleasantness with time when the odor was initially pleasant (“likers”), while unpleasantness remained stable or slightly decreased when the odor was initially unpleasant (“dislikers”). This deviation toward neutrality was interpreted as affective habituation. This effect was all the more robust as it was observed for both odors and corroborated by sniffing, an objective measurement of odor pleasantness. Affective habituation to odors can be interpreted as an adaptive response to stimuli that prove over time to be devoid of positive or negative outcome on the organism. This study contributes to a better understanding of how olfactory preferences are shaped through exposure, depending on the individual's own initial perception of the odor.

Olfactory function in healthy children: normative data for odor identification

BACKGROUND

Olfactory disorders in children may be encountered frequently in the common ear, nose, and throat (ENT) practice. The need for objective measurements in the diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of olfaction is present. However, for young children most olfactory tests need further normative data to be useful in clinical practice. Therefore, this study aimed to provide normative data in children and to determine possible parameters that influence odor identification test outcome.

METHODS

In 201 healthy children reflecting the Dutch population, the Sniffin' Sticks screening test was performed and possible outcome determinants (age, height, gender, weight, peak nasal inspiratory flow, previous ENT surgery, and parental smoking habits) were assessed.

RESULTS

Age, gender, and previous ENT surgery seem to influence significantly the outcome of the olfactory test.

CONCLUSION

In a general population-based sample of children, normative data of the Sniffin' Sticks screenings test are supplied as well as possible determinants of outcome.

The effect of general and drug-specific family environments on comorbid and drug-specific problem behavior: a longitudinal examination

Previous research has shown that the development of alcohol and tobacco dependence is linked and that both are influenced by environmental and intrapersonal factors, many of which likely interact over the life course. The present study examines the effects of general and alcohol- and tobacco-specific environmental influences in the family of origin (ages 10-18) and family of cohabitation (ages 27-30) on problem behavior and alcohol- and tobacco-specific outcomes at age 33. General environmental factors include family management, conflict, bonding, and involvement. Alcohol environment includes parental alcohol use, parents' attitudes toward alcohol, and children's involvement in family drinking. Tobacco-specific environment is assessed analogously. Additionally, analyses include the effects of childhood behavioral disinhibition, initial behavior problems, and age 18 substance use. Analyses were based on 469 participants drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) sample. Results indicated that (a) environmental factors within the family of origin and the family of cohabitation are both important predictors of problem behavior at age 33; (b) family of cohabitation influences partially mediate the effects of family of origin environments; (c) considerable continuity exists between adolescent and adult general and tobacco (but not alcohol) environments; age 18 alcohol and tobacco use partially mediates these relationships; and (d) childhood behavioral disinhibition contributed to age 33 outcomes, over and above the effects of family of cohabitation mediators. Implications for preventive interventions are discussed.

Impaired cough sensitivity in children of smokers

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke puts children at greater risk for respiratory tract infection and other illnesses and increases the risk that children later become habitual smokers. Because cough sensitivity may relate to both illness and smoking initiation, we determined whether this vital reflex is impaired in children living with smokers. METHODS A single-inhalation capsaicin challenge was administered to 2 groups of healthy children (16 females, 22 males; 10-17 years old) and parents (25 mothers, 1 father): exposed children (n = 17) and parents (n = 13) who smoked ~10 cigarettes/day; and age-matched children (n = 21) never exposed to smoke at home and parents who never smoked in their lifetimes (n = 13). The lowest capsaicin concentrations that triggered (a) sensations of tingle, sting, or burn (irritation threshold) and (b) at least two coughs (cough threshold) were determined. RESULTS Cough thresholds were 2 times as high in exposed children (15.00 µM; 95% confidence interval (CI): 9.98-22.55 µM) as in non-ETS-exposed children (7.31 µM; CI: 5.25-10.19 µM, p = .003). Smoking parents also had higher cough thresholds than never-smoker parents (p = .009). Throat irritation was reported at concentrations below cough threshold for both children and parents. Irritation thresholds did not differ significantly between the two groups of children but were higher for smoking parents than for never-smokers (p = .027). CONCLUSIONS We provide the first evidence that the cough reflex is impaired in seemingly healthy children who live with smokers. The 2-fold difference in cough threshold is comparable in magnitude to the change that occurs with acute respiratory tract infection.

A comparison of daily and occasional smokers' implicit affective responses to smoking cues

Previous research has not compared implicit affective responses to smoking-related stimuli in occasional (i.e., those who smoke less than one cigarette per day) and daily smokers (i.e., those who smoke at least once per day). In addition to assessing their motivations for smoking, implicit affective responses were measured using the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP) in occasional (n=19) and daily smokers (n=34) to smoking-related and neutral cues. Half of the cues depicted a human interacting with an object (i.e., active), whereas the remaining cues depicted objects alone (i.e., inactive). Results indicated that for the active cues, daily smokers responded more positively to smoking-related than to neutral cues, whereas occasional smokers showed no difference in their implicit responses. In addition to smoking frequency, relative differences in implicit responses to active cues were related to cognitive enhancement motivation. For inactive cues, implicit responses were related to cognitive enhancement as well as reinforcement. Because daily smokers have more positive implicit responses to active smoking-related cues than occasional smokers, these cues may play an important role in maintaining smoking behavior in daily smokers.

Effect of alcohol consumption in prenatal life, childhood, and adolescence on child development

The effects of alcohol consumption in adults are well described in the literature, while knowledge about the effects of alcohol consumption in children is more limited and less systematic. The present review shows how alcohol consumption may negatively influence the neurobiological and neurobehavioral development of humans. Three different periods of life have been considered: the prenatal term, childhood, and adolescence. For each period, evidence of the short-term and long-term effects of alcohol consumption, including neurodevelopmental effects and associations with subsequent alcohol abuse or dependence, is presented.

Peering through the smoke: the effect of parental smoking behavior and addiction on daily smokers' attentional bias to smoking cues

Although previous research has demonstrated that individuals with parents who smoke are more likely to become smokers and are less successful in smoking cessation efforts compared with those without a smoking parent, the reasons for this link have not been established. In the current study, implicit attentional bias to smoking-related cues was investigated in college-age smokers, based on models of addiction that suggest that attention to drug-related cues plays an important role in drug addiction. Sixty-one participants completed a dot-probe task to measure attentional bias to smoking-related and matched non-smoking-related control pictures. Results indicated that while those who reported smoking occasionally did not demonstrate an attentional bias, daily smokers who had a smoking parent showed more of an attentional bias to the smoking cues than those without a smoking parent, but only to cues that did not contain human content. In addition to parental influence, nicotine dependence explained a significant portion of the variance in the attentional bias for daily smokers. Implications for models of nicotine addiction and the development of smoking cessation programs are discussed.

The gustatory and olfactory systems during infancy: implications for development of feeding behaviors in the high-risk neonate

This article reviews the development of the senses of taste and smell, which provide information on the flavor of foods, and discusses how innate predispositions interact with early-life feeding experiences to form children's dietary preferences and habits. A basic understanding of the development and functioning of the chemical senses during early childhood may assist in forming evidence-based strategies to improve children's diets, especially for those who experience a discontinuity or disruption in early flavor experiences.

Semantic knowledge influences prewired hedonic responses to odors

BACKGROUND

Odor hedonic perception relies on decoding the physicochemical properties of odorant molecules and can be influenced in humans by semantic knowledge. The effect of semantic knowledge on such prewired hedonic processing over the life span has remained unclear.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The present study measured hedonic response to odors in different age groups (children, teenagers, young adults, and seniors) and found that children and seniors, two age groups characterized by either low level of (children) or weak access to (seniors) odor semantic knowledge, processed odor hedonics more on the basis of their physicochemical properties. In contrast, in teenagers and young adults, who show better levels of semantic odor representation, the role of physicochemical properties was less marked.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These findings demonstrate for the first time that the biological determinants that make an odor pleasant or unpleasant are more powerful at either end of the life span.

The effect of early experience on odor perception in humans: psychological and physiological correlates

The olfactory function in humans is characterized by wide variability between individuals. One of the prominent factors that contribute to this plasticity is early exposure. The present study examined how brain activity is modulated by such olfactory experience. To this end, two groups of people living in France but originating from different cultures ("European-French" (EF, 18 subjects) vs. "Algerian-French" (AF, 19 subjects)) were tested, and their perceptual and physiological responses to the smells of mint (presumed to be experienced earlier in life by "Algerian-French" subjects) and of rose (control odorant) were compared. Neurophysiological responses were obtained in the form of chemosensory event-related potentials (CSERP). The results confirmed that the AF group was exposed to Mint tea earlier than the EF group. On the perceptual level, when asked to associate the smell of mint with objects or events retrieved from memory, the discourse of AF subjects included more "experience-oriented" associations than that of EF subjects. This was associated with longer P2 latency in CSERPs in response to the smell of mint in the AF group. These findings highlight the plasticity of behavioral and neural olfactory processes as a result of differential lifetime exposure.

Optimizing oral medications for children

BACKGROUND

Active pharmaceutical ingredients that taste bitter and/or irritate the mouth and throat are aversive to children as well as many adults. Effective methods of avoiding unpleasant tastes for adults (eg, encapsulating the medicine in pill, capsule, or tablet form) are problematic because many children cannot or will not swallow these. The unpalatable flavor of the medicine can thwart the benefits of even the most powerful of drugs. Failure to consume medication may do the child harm and can even be life-threatening.

OBJECTIVES

This article provides an overview of the current knowledge of the sensory capabilities and preferences of children as it relates to flavor, defined here as the combined input of taste, smell, and chemical irritation. The methods used to evaluate flavor perception in children are reviewed. Recent scientific advances are summarized that shed light on why the bitter taste of oral pharmaceuticals is an ongoing formulation problem and how discoveries of novel flavor molecules and modulators of bitter tastes hold considerable promise for the future. Alternative methods for evaluation of the palatability of medicines are described.

METHODS

The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development sponsored a Pediatric Formulation Initiative workshop on December 6 and 7, 2005, in Bethesda, Maryland. Information for this article was gathered from literature reviews that were then discussed during this workshop as well as during several conference calls with the Taste and Flavor Working Group members. Terms for the MEDLINE search (1970-2007) included infant, children, taste, olfaction/smell, flavor, chemical senses, palatability, sensory testing, pharmaceutical, and medicines.

RESULTS

Children have well-developed sensory systems for detecting tastes, smells, and chemical irritants, and their rejection of unpalatable medications is a reflection of their basic biology. Sugars, salt, and other substances reportedly reduce the bitterness of several pharmaceuticals. Adding pleasant flavor volatiles such as bubble gum may help induce children to consume a medicine, but such volatile compounds are not effective in suppressing the strong bitter tastes associated with some medications. Also, because individual experiences and culture mainly determine which odors are attractive, a universally appealing volatile flavoring agent may be difficult to identify. Sensory panelists who are sensitive to the pediatric palate, which is different from adults, and new techniques involving animal models, isolated parts of the receptor cells, and even electronic devices that detect taste and flavor are among the tools that may be used to evaluate the palatability of medications and predict compliance among pediatric populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there are no easy solutions to this dilemma, children's acceptance of many medicines can be improved by applying the knowledge gleaned from basic research in the chemical senses. Further development and validation of sensory methods will provide a better understanding of the sensory world of the child. This understanding, combined with new technologies and results of animal model studies, will enhance drug acceptance and compliance in pediatric populations. A better understanding of the scientific basis for distaste and how to ameliorate it is a public health priority.

Children's hedonic responses to the odors of alcoholic beverages: a window to emotions

The present study of 145 children and their mothers aimed to determine whether children's responses to the odors of alcoholic beverages were related to their mothers' reasons for drinking. Mothers completed a series of questionnaires to describe the emotional context in which they drink and whether they use alcohol to "escape" by changing their state of mind and reducing feelings of dysphoria. Children participated in two age-appropriate tasks that focused on the most salient psychological attribute of an odor, its perceived hedonic valence. To this aim, we determined children's liking, reaction times, and identification of individual odors including beer and whiskey in Task 1, and their preference for beer relative to odors that differed in hedonic valence in Task 2. The type of task and behavioral measure revealed different aspects of children's responses, to alcohol odors. In Task 1, verbally identifying an odor was a more difficult task than deciding whether they liked the odor. Although there were few group differences in liking for individual odors, children of Escape drinkers took significantly longer to determine whether they liked the odors. In Task 2, children of Escape drinkers preferred beer less often, particularly when it was compared with less pleasant odors. They preferred coffee to beer odors and, if their mothers did not smoke cigarettes, preferred the odors of cigarette smoke and pyridine to beer. These children experienced the odor of alcohol more frequently and in the context of mood disturbed mothers who felt guilty and worried about their drinking. Whether children who associate the odor of alcohol with such emotional contexts display a trajectory toward or against using alcohol to escape remains unknown.

Breastfeeding and smoking: short-term effects on infant feeding and sleep

OBJECTIVE

The present experimental study was designed to determine how breastfeeding from a mother who smokes affects infants in the short-term.

METHODS

Fifteen mother-infant dyads were tested on 2 days separated by 1 week. Mothers smoked (not in the presence of their infants) on one test day and refrained from smoking on the other. For the next 3.5 hours, infants breastfed on demand. Sleep and activity patterns were monitored by placing an actigraph on the infants' leg, and milk intake was determined by weighing the infants before and after each feeding. The nicotine content of the milk was measured to determine the dose of nicotine delivered to the infants.

RESULTS

Although there was no significant difference in breast milk intake, despite the taste changes in the milk, infants spent significantly less time sleeping during the hours immediately after their mothers smoked (53.4 minutes), compared with the session when their mothers abstained from smoking (84.5 minutes). This reduction was attributable to shortening of the longest sleep bout and reductions in the amounts of time spent in both active sleep and quiet sleep. With greater doses of nicotine delivered to the infant, less time was spent in active sleep.

CONCLUSIONS

An acute episode of smoking by lactating mothers altered infants' sleep/wake patterning. Perhaps concerns that their milk would taste like cigarettes and their infants' sleep patterning would be disrupted would motivate lactating mothers to abstain from smoking and to breastfeed longer.

The International society for developmental psychobiology 39th annual meeting symposium: Alcohol and development: beyond fetal alcohol syndrome

As has been repeatedly demonstrated, alcohol can exert deleterious morphological and physiological effects during early stages in development. The present review examines nonteratological links existing between alcohol and ontogeny. Human and animal studies are taken into consideration for the analysis of fetal, neonatal, infantile, adolescent, and adult responsiveness to the drug. Sensitivity to alcohol's chemosensory and postabsorptive properties, as well as learning and memory processes mediated by such properties, are examined from this developmental perspective. The studies under discussion indicate that, within each stage in development, we can trace alcohol-related experiences capable of determining or modulating alcohol seeking and intake patterns.