Adolescent mothers' relationship with their children's biological fathers: social support, social strain, and relationship continuity

Parenting experiences and outcomes among former adolescent mothers: A mixed methods study

The purpose of this explanatory sequential mixed methods study was to examine parenting outcomes and experiences over time among marginalized adolescent mothers enrolled in randomized clinical trials (RCT) between 2002 and 2016 testing Minding the Baby® (MTB), an early home visiting program. The quantitative phase examined associations between measures of maternal experiences and parenting outcomes from 71 participants 2-8 years since RCT completion. MTB mothers reported less hostile parenting and fewer child behavior problems. The sequential qualitative phase involved interviews with a subsample (n = 31) and revealed six themes about their personal and parenting maturation. Through integration of quantitative and qualitative data, we generated metainferences, revealing a nuanced understanding of participants' experiences. Integrated findings revealed the complex personal and parenting experiences among former adolescent mothers during their developmental phases of emerging and early adulthood. Findings inform clinical and research approaches to promote personal growth and positive parenting outcomes over time among women who began childbearing in adolescence.

Lost support, lost skills: Children's cognitive outcomes following grandparental death

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the implications of grandparental death for cognitive skills in middle childhood.

METHOD

This study uses data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 2479) to estimate ordinary least squares regression models of the associations between grandparental death and subsequent cognitive skills among children in middle childhood.

RESULTS

Experiencing a grandparental death between ages 5 and 9 is associated with boys' lower reading, verbal, and math scores at age 9, with associations most notable for Black and Hispanic boys; grandparental death before age 5 has minimal influence on boys' cognitive skills at age 9. There is little indication that grandparental death adversely affects girls' cognitive skills.

CONCLUSION

The numerous and persistent implications of grandparental death for boys' cognitive skills merit greater recognition of grandparental death as a source of family instability, stress, and ultimately inequality in child development.

Partner Emotional Support and Child Problem Behaviors: The Indirect Role of Harsh Parenting for Young Mothers and Their Children

Emotionally supportive partners promote the well-being of teenage mothers and their children as they navigate sensitive developmental periods. Yet, having focused on young parents' relationship dissolution, we know very little about benefits of partner supportiveness for the development of children's psychological adjustment or processes that may explain this association. Using five waves of Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study data (N = 771) and parallel process latent growth curve modeling, this study tested whether trajectories of partner supportiveness (measured by maternal reports of fathers' emotional support) directly mitigated trajectories of children's externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors (measured by maternal reports of problem behaviors) and/or whether such effects were indirectly linked through lower levels of maternal harsh parenting (measured by observational ratings of mother-child interactions). Results suggest that higher levels of partner supportiveness at birth were associated with child externalizing and internalizing trajectories that started at lower levels and demonstrated slower improvements across time. Lower starting levels of maternal harsh parenting when children were three years old partially explained associations between partner supportiveness at birth and lower levels of child externalizing symptoms at age three. Lessons gleaned from this study are discussed in context of young families' strengths and applied to practice-based settings.

Adapting a Coparenting-Focused Prevention Program for Latinx Adolescent Parents in a School Context

The current study utilized a three-step cultural adaptation process to adapt a universal-coparenting program for Latinx adolescent parents in a school-based setting. First, focus groups were conducted with adolescent parents (n = 13; 100% Latinx; 69% female), their parents (n = 17; 94% Latinx; 82% female), and school staff (n = 7; 71% White; 100% female) to identify unique needs faced by this population. Second, the program was adapted to include new lesson modules (e.g., coparenting with grandparents, coparenting after breakups) and structural reformatting to fit a school schedule. Third, selected lessons from the adapted program were piloted in four schools with 32 Latinx adolescent parents (97% Latinx; 78% female). Lesson evaluation surveys and focus group data assessed the feasibility and acceptability of the service delivery method and content to show the program was well received. However, implementation challenges emerged when attempting to provide services to adolescent fathers and Spanish-speaking adolescents. This manuscript provides an example of how to use this cultural adaptation process to tailor prevention programs, highlights a new prevention program that can serve as a resource for adolescent parents, and provides several recommendations for working with Latinx adolescent parents.

Feinberg M. “A Little Bit Closer”: A Mixed Method Analysis of the Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Lives of Adolescent Parents

Using a Family Stress Model framework, we used quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate the impact of the pandemic on Latinx pregnant and parenting adolescents and their families. Participants were 406 adolescents (ages 14–19) in the southwestern U.S. who participated in a school-based relationship education program for pregnant and parenting adolescents. In the quantitative analysis, we compared self-reported mental health (depressive symptoms, worry, parental stress), coparental relationships (conflict and communication), and parenting of adolescents who participated prior to the pandemic ( N = 357; 83.6% female; 84.7% Latinx) with those who participated during the pandemic ( N = 49; 74.6% female; 87.8% Latinx). Unexpectedly, the pandemic-period cohort reported fewer depressive symptoms, less parental stress, more frequent coparental communication, and more positive coparental communication and conflict management than the pre-pandemic cohort. For the qualitative analysis, we conducted focus groups and individual interviews with 21 adolescent parents (95.2% female; 90.5% Latinx) from the pandemic-period cohort and analyzed the data using thematic analysis. Participants reported many negative effects of the pandemic including increased economic and health stress, yet also discussed reduced pressure with school and more time with family members. These findings have important implications for enhancing the well-being of adolescent parents and their children after the pandemic.

Stress and coping among unmarried pregnant university students in South Africa

Background

The improvement of maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes is an important part of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). MCH remains an important issue globally as the SDGs have not yet been achieved in most countries. Young women in universities are likely to experience unintended pregnancy due to risky sexual behaviors in tertiary institutions which is characterized by lack of condom and/or contraceptive use and coercion. Pregnant young women in an academic environment are susceptible to stressors associated with unintended pregnancy and academic demands of universities. However, very little is known about the stress and coping among young people in tertiary institutions who get pregnant during the course of their studies and choose to keep the pregnancy.

Methods

Participants were purposively selected among pregnant students and those in the puerperal period at the time of the study. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were undertaken to explore the experiences of pregnancy and early motherhood, with particular focus on the various stressors experienced and possible coping strategies employed by students. The data were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim, then analysed using thematic analysis.

Results

The findings show that pregnancy and early motherhood was an experience that came with a lot of stress emanating from fear of parents’ reactions, academic pressure, financial constraints, relationship problems with male partners and experiences of social stigma. Participants used emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies to deal with the stressors confronting them during and after their pregnancy.

Conclusion

The experiences of pregnant students are multifaceted and generally characterised by financial crisis, academic challenges, shame, strenuous relationships and transitioning into a new identity. A multipronged approach to healthcare for pregnant students that focus on comprehensive antenatal services, health education, health promotion, psychosocial interventions including academic counselling will have positive outcomes for young mothers and their children.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04288-1.

The Fear of Childbirth and Social Support in Adolescent Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

Social support may be effective in alleviating fear associated with childbirth in pregnant adolescent women. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between social support and fear of childbirth in adolescent pregnancy.

DESIGN

The study was designed to assess any relationships between the social support perceived by pregnant adolescent women and the fear of childbirth that they experienced. through a cross-sectional analysis.

SETTING

The study was carried out in the obstetrics outpatient clinics of a public hospital.

PATIENTS

The study was conducted with 100 pregnant adolescents.

MEASUREMENTS

A personal information form, the Multidimensional Scale for Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), and the Wijma Birth Expectancy/Experience Scale Version A (WDEQ-A) were applied for data collection. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine relationships between 2 continuous variables.

RESULTS

There was a significant negative correlation between the mean scores on the MSPSS and the WDEQ-A (r = -0.345, P < .01). The MSPSS score was found to be associated with gestational age, residence area, and type of marriage. The WDEQ-A score was associated with educational status.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that social support is highly important for pregnant adolescents, especially considering the fact that the social support received from the spouse was relatively lower among adolescent women with lower gestational age. Nurses should evaluate the family of the pregnant adolescent, especially their partner, in terms of the social support that they provide to the pregnant woman and should support these women with necessary counseling.

Childcare practices among teenage mothers in Ghana: a qualitative study using the ecological systems theory

BACKGROUND

While appropriate care for children is essential for optimal growth and protection against child morbidity and mortality, teenage mothers have been shown to deviate from the recommended childcare practices. This study explored the childcare practices among teenage mothers in Ghana using Ecological Systems Theory by Bronfenbrenner as a theoretical framework.

METHODS

Employing qualitative approach to inquiry, evidence was drawn from 30 teenage mothers using in-depth interviews. The data were analysed and presented following systematic qualitative-oriented text analysis strategy with verbatim quotes from study participants to support the emergent themes.

RESULTS

It was evident that teenage mothers have limited skills in childcare practices and often resorted to practices with potentially adverse health outcomes for their children. They, for instance, applied hot towels they had heated with hot stones to the children's umbilical stump. We found that teenage mothers were not in sync with their macro- and exo-systems, thereby depriving themselves and their babies of the much-needed guidance and support in caring for their babies. Teenage mothers were often confused and sometimes clueless about best childcare practices at a given point in time.

CONCLUSIONS

Childcare practices by teenage mothers are far from the ideal. To improve on child health (especially children born to teenage mothers), efforts at both the macro- and exo-systems should be directed at exposing teenage mothers to best child care practices that inure to the benefits of their children. Ante- and postnatal visits should be used to provide specific education for mothers, especially first-time teenage mothers on the care needs of babies and how to provide these needs.

Conceptualising the social networks of vulnerable children and young people: a systematic review and narrative synthesis

PURPOSE

The relationship between social networks and health and wellbeing is increasingly demonstrated in vulnerable adult populations. This relationship for vulnerable children and young people has not hitherto been systematically reviewed. This narrative synthesis aims to consolidate research to provide a foundational basis for future health-related social network research and interventions for children and young people.

METHODS

This mixed methods systematic review synthesises research investigating whole, egocentric social networks of 32 vulnerable child groups with a mean age below 18. There were no setting, language or date restrictions. The quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Of 6360 search results, 49 were included for narrative synthesis.

RESULTS

The majority of pertinent research originates from the USA; the most frequently investigated vulnerabilities were minority ethnic status, homelessness and the presence of special educational needs. Research aims and methodologies varied significantly between studies. Key findings included (i) vulnerable (excluding minority ethnic) children and young people have impoverished networks (ii) access to networks is a protective factor against negative outcomes (iii) social ties, primarily immediate family, provide access to personal resources and (iv) network ties are to a degree substitutable.

CONCLUSIONS

Networks are associated with wellbeing and vulnerable children and young people commonly have impoverished networks, excluding cases where vulnerability classification relates to minority ethnic status. Network embeddedness is associated with positive outcomes, particularly for homeless children. Family are typically primary providers of support, but ties are substitutable when networks are restricted. Egocentric social network research is currently limited for vulnerable child populations. Further research could inform interventions that harness networks to improve health, wellbeing and functional outcomes for these child groups.

"I have to provide for another life emotionally, physically and financially": understanding pregnancy, motherhood and the future aspirations of adolescent mothers in KwaZulu-Natal South, Africa

BACKGROUND

Adolescent pregnancy and motherhood has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of public health. Early childbearing is not only characterized as a physical body experience but also embodies the experiences and perceptions of the social norms, discourses, conflict and moral judgement. There is an increasing concern that the psychosocial challenges facing adolescent mothers remains in the background since research in this field has mainly focused on the medical and physical complications of early childbearing. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore adolescent pregnancy and motherhood in order to understand this phenomenon from the perspective of adolescent mothers and to gain insight into their future aspirations.

METHODS

This descriptive qualitative study was based on data from four focus group discussions with adolescent mothers utilising healthcare services at a district hospital in Ugu district, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. The data were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim, then analysed using thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Some adolescent mothers' partners were in denial and rejected them and the child while others' partners were happy and supported them during their pregnancy. Families' reactions to the pregnancies ranged between anger and disappointment to abandonment, the silent treatment, and acceptance and forgiveness. The psychological issues experienced by some of the adolescent mothers included suicidal ideation, guilt, loneliness, anxiety, and stress. They also experienced financial constraints, difficulty in returning to school, and stigmatisation in society. The participants envisioned completing their education, focusing on their dream careers, and contributing positively to society.

CONCLUSION

Experiences of adolescent pregnancy and parenting are multifaceted and the healthcare needs of pregnant and parenting adolescents extend beyond information and knowledge. A multidisciplinary approach is required in the care of adolescent mothers. A key policy priority should encompass the collaboration of different professionals from various healthcare sectors to assist adolescent mothers in achieving better health and psychosocial and socio-economic outcomes as steps to securing a better future for them.

Can social support during pregnancy affect maternal DNA methylation? Findings from a cohort of African-Americans

BACKGROUND

While stress and the absence of social support during pregnancy have been linked to poor health outcomes, the underlying biological mechanisms are unclear.

METHODS

We examined whether adverse experiences during pregnancy alter DNA methylation (DNAm) in maternal epigenomes. Analyses included 250 African-American mothers from the Boston Birth Cohort. Genome-wide DNAm profiling was performed in maternal blood collected after delivery, using the Infinium HumanMethylation450 Beadchip. Linear regression models, with adjustment of pertinent covariates, were applied.

RESULTS

While self-reported maternal psychosocial lifetime stress and stress during pregnancy was not associated with DNAm alterations, we found that absence of support from the baby's father was significantly associated with maternal DNAm changes in TOR3A, IQCB1, C7orf36, and MYH7B and that lack of support from family and friends was associated with maternal DNA hypermethylation on multiple genes, including PRDM16 and BANKL.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides intriguing results suggesting biological embedding of social support during pregnancy on maternal DNAm, warranting additional investigation, and replication.

No straight lines - young women's perceptions of their mental health and wellbeing during and after pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-ethnography

Background

Young mothers face mental health challenges during and after pregnancy including increased rates of depression compared to older mothers. While the prevention of teenage pregnancy in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom has been a focus for policy and research in recent decades, the need to understand young women’s own experiences has been highlighted. The aim of this meta-ethnography was to examine young women’s perceptions of their mental health and wellbeing during and after pregnancy to provide new understandings of those experiences.

Methods

A systematic review and meta-ethnographic synthesis of qualitative research was conducted. Seven databases were systematically searched and forward and backward searching conducted. Papers were included if they were from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries and explored mental health and wellbeing experiences of young mothers (age under 20 in pregnancy; under 25 at time of research) as a primary research question – or where evidence about mental health and wellbeing from participants was foregrounded. Nineteen papers were identified and the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist for qualitative research used to appraise the evidence. Following the seven-step process of meta-ethnography, key constructs were examined within each study and then translated into one another.

Results

Seven translated themes were identified forming a new line of argument wherein mental health and wellbeing was analysed as relating to individual bodily experiences; tied into past and present relationships; underpinned by economic insecurity and entangled with feelings of societal surveillance. There were ‘no straight lines’ in young women’s experiences, which were more complex than dominant narratives around overcoming adversity suggest.

Conclusions

The synthesis concludes that health and social care professionals need to reflect on the operation of power and stigma in young women’s lives and its impact on wellbeing. It adds to understanding of young women’s mental health and wellbeing during and after pregnancy as located in physical and structural factors rather than individual capacities alone.

Paternal involvement and support and risk of preterm birth: findings from the Boston birth cohort

OBJECTIVE

To investigate to what extent paternal involvement and support during pregnancy were associated with preterm (PTB) and small-for-gestational age (SGA) births.

METHODS

Using data from the Boston Birth Cohort (n = 7047), multiple logistic regression models were performed to estimate the log odds of either PTB or SGA birth, with paternal involvement, paternal social support, and family and friend social support variables as the primary independent variables.

RESULTS

About 10% of participating mothers reported their husbands not being involved or supportive during their pregnancies. Lack of paternal involvement was associated with 21% higher risk of PTB (OR = 1.21, 95% CI: 1.01-1.45). Similarly, lack of paternal support was borderline associated with PTB (OR = 1.13, 95% CI: 0.94-1.35). Also marginally significant, lack of paternal involvement (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 0.95-1.47) and father's support (OR = 1.19, 95% CI: 0.96-1.48) were associated with higher odds of SGA birth. No associations were found between familial and friend support during pregnancy and PTB or SGA.

CONCLUSIONS

Among predominantly low-income African Americans, lack of paternal involvement and lack of paternal support during pregnancy were associated with an increased risk of PTB, and suggestive of SGA birth. These findings, if confirmed in future research, underscore the important role a father can play in reducing PTB and/or SGA.

Initial Findings from a Feasibility Trial Examining the SafeCare Dad to Kids Program with Marginalized Fathers

Few studies have explored the direct impact of behavioral parent training programs on child maltreatment behaviors among marginalized, at-risk fathers. This feasibility study examined SafeCare® Dad to Kids (Dad2K), an augmented version of the evidence-based child maltreatment prevention program SafeCare, to determine the acceptability and initial efficacy of the program for improving father parenting skills and reducing maltreatment risk. Ninety-nine fathers were enrolled in the study and randomized to the SafeCare Dad2K Intervention (n=51) or comparison (n=48). Intervention fathers participated in 6 home visiting sessions and comparison fathers received parenting materials via mail. All fathers participating in the study completed a baseline and 8-week assessment (post-intervention) of maltreatment behaviors. In addition, intervention fathers completed feasibility and parenting skill measures. A significant main effect emerged indicating decreases for both groups in psychologically aggressive behaviors. No significant group by time findings emerged for child maltreatment behaviors. Father intervention completers endorsed high satisfaction ratings for the program and demonstrated significant improvements in targeted father-child interaction skills. Based on the high rates of acceptability and initial improvement in positive parenting skills, findings demonstrate the feasibility for involving at-risk fathers in behavioral parent training programs targeting child maltreatment prevention.

Psychological Adjustment among Young Puerto Rican Mothers: Perceived Partner Support and the Moderating Role of Latino Cultural Orientation

Adolescent mothers face multiple stressors and are at risk for experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms and parenting stress. This study examined the interplay of Latino cultural orientation and perceived support from romantic partners in protecting the adjustment of young, low-income, Puerto Rican mothers (N = 103; M age = 18.0 yrs; SD = 1.2) during the second year postpartum. In multivariate analyses, perceived partner support was uniquely and negatively associated with both maternal depressive symptoms and parenting stress. However, in the case of parenting stress, this association was moderated by mothers' Latino cultural orientation. Perceived partner support was related to less parenting stress when mothers endorsed a relatively strong Latino cultural orientation; perceived partner support was no longer protective at low levels of Latino orientation. The implications for intervention and for the understanding of the role of culture in social support processes within close relationships are discussed.

Low-Income, African American, Adolescent Mothers' Depressive Symptoms, Perceived Stress, and Social Support

The purpose of this descriptive repeated-measures study was to describe depressive symptom patterns and report changes over time in levels of perceived stress and social support depending on patterns of depressive symptoms in single, low-income, African American, adolescent mothers during the initial, 6-month postpartum period. Thirty-five adolescent subjects between the ages of 16 and 22 years old were recruited at health care clinics in two Midwestern cities. Data collections by advanced practice nurses were completed at 1 week, 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months postpartum at mothers' homes. Established instruments were used to measure depressive symptoms, perceived stress and social support. Results indicated 63% of adolescent mothers' experienced depressive symptoms sometime during this transition period and 11.4% of these subjects had depressive symptoms at all 4 time points. Depressive symptoms were associated with perceived stress at each time point. Emotional support was inversely associated with depressive symptoms at 2 of the 4 time points. Depressive symptoms and problematic support were significantly related at 3 months and 6 months. Although single, low-income, African American, adolescent mothers are considered a high risk group, some are at even greater risk. This extremely high risk group have depressive symptoms throughout the first 6 months postpartum with the highest level of perceived stress and the most variability in social support relative to groups that were never depressed or were in and out of depression. More studies are needed to understand how to best help these high risk adolescents successfully transition to motherhood.

The maternal brain and its plasticity in humans

This article is part of a Special Issue "Parental Care". Early mother-infant relationships play important roles in infants' optimal development. New mothers undergo neurobiological changes that support developing mother-infant relationships regardless of great individual differences in those relationships. In this article, we review the neural plasticity in human mothers' brains based on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. First, we review the neural circuits that are involved in establishing and maintaining mother-infant relationships. Second, we discuss early postpartum factors (e.g., birth and feeding methods, hormones, and parental sensitivity) that are associated with individual differences in maternal brain neuroplasticity. Third, we discuss abnormal changes in the maternal brain related to psychopathology (i.e., postpartum depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse) and potential brain remodeling associated with interventions. Last, we highlight potentially important future research directions to better understand normative changes in the maternal brain and risks for abnormal changes that may disrupt early mother-infant relationships.

Has Adolescent Childbearing Been Eclipsed by Nonmarital Childbearing?

Adolescent childbearing has received decreasing attention from academics and policymakers in recent years, which may in part reflect the decline in its incidence. Another reason may be its uncoupling from nonmarital childbearing. Adolescent childbearing became problematized only when it began occurring predominantly outside marriage. In recent decades, there have been historic rises in the rate of nonmarital childbearing, and importantly, the rise has been steeper among older mothers than among adolescent mothers. Today, two out of five births are to unmarried women, and the majority of these are to adults, not adolescents. Nonmarital childbearing is in and of itself associated with lower income and poorer maternal and child outcomes. However, unmarried adolescent mothers might face more difficulties than unmarried adult mothers due to their developmental status, education, living arrangements, and long-term prospects for work. If this is true, then the focus on adolescent mothers ought to continue. We suggest several facets of adolescent motherhood deserving of further study, and recommend that future research use unmarried mothers in their early 20s as a realistic comparison group.

Family Economic Stress, Quality of Paternal Relationship, and Depressive Symptoms among African American Adolescent Fathers

This study examined the association between perceived family economic stress, quality of father-son relationships, and depressive symptoms among African American adolescent fathers. Data were collected during pregnancy from 65 African American adolescents who were first-time fathers, ages 14-19. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that higher paternal relationship satisfaction was associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adolescent fathers. Additionally, depressive symptoms were higher among adolescent fathers who reported experiencing higher levels of conflict with their fathers. Further, paternal conflict moderated the effect of perceived family economic stress on depressive symptoms. That is, among adolescent fathers experiencing low levels of conflict with their fathers, high perceived family economic stress was associated with more depressive symptoms. Study findings suggest that the risk for depressive symptoms is highest among adolescent fathers experiencing low family economic stress and highly conflictual relations with their fathers. These results highlight the complexities of paternal relationships and perceived economic stressors on depressive symptoms during pregnancy for African American adolescent fathers. The importance of expanding research on influential familial relationships and economic stressors on adolescent African American fathers is discussed.

Co-Parenting Relationship Experiences of Black Adolescent Mothers in Active Romantic Partnerships With the Fathers of Their Children

We conducted an interpretive description of co-parenting relationship experiences of romantically involved Black adolescent mothers and fathers with shared biological children. The study was conducted in Brooklyn, New York, using data from individual in-depth interviews with adolescent mothers and fathers (n = 10). Four themes were identified: (a) putting our heads together; (b) balancing childhood and parenthood; (c) less money, more problems; and (d) if we use condoms, it is for contraception. The co-parenting couples managed very complex relationships, but their mutual interest in the welfare of their children was a relational asset. Co-parents had sparse financial resources but used a moral economy strategy to provide mutual support. Future research is needed that focuses on identifying other co-parent relationship assets and integrating and evaluating their utility for enhancing interventions for adolescent families.

Experiencing and the realization of motherhood by teenage mothers

<b>Background</b><br /> Early motherhood constitutes a difficult challenge for girls, and the level of their performance in that role is varied. In this article, teenage motherhood as a process is considered. The objective of the research was to determine the paths by which teenage girls enter the mother role. Particular attention was paid to the nature of individual differences in the ways of experiencing and the realization of the successive steps of teenage motherhood: how the girls reacted to the fact of being a mother, what they experienced and how they behaved during pregnancy and performed child care.<br /> <br /> <b>Participants and procedure</b><br /> In the research, 166 mothers who had given birth to their children between the 15th and 19th year of life were included (at the moment of giving birth to the child, the age of the mother was M = 17.22). A follower interview was used. It was directed towards recreating the course of their lives from the period preceding becoming pregnant to the period of pregnancy and looking after the child, taking into consideration the complex situations connected with life and development of the female teenagers.<br /> <br /> <b>Results</b><br /> In the research, we applied the Reconstruction Strategy of the Process Transformation, setting the direction of qualitative analyses: (1) the level of single cases (case study), and (2) the level of the collection of cases (extracting groups of girls with common characteristics using the artificial intelligence algorithm C4.5). The analysis revealed the diversity and the internal structure of paths of the experience and realization of early motherhood: from negating oneself as a responsible mother to accepting the role of mother.<br /> <br /> <b>Conclusions</b><br /> The final result is constituted by the model revealing the transformation of teenage motherhood and mechanisms underlying it.

Family Ties and Young Fathers' Engagement in Cape Town, South Africa

Young South African fathers are often engaged in their children's lives even if they do not live together. Using longitudinal data on children (n = 1,209) from the Cape Town area, the authors show that although only 26% of young fathers live with their children, 66% of nonresidential fathers maintain regular contact, and 61% provide financial support. The father-child relationship, however, is embedded in broader family ties. The type of father-mother relationship is strongly associated with whether fathers coreside with their children, but not with fathers' contact with nonresidential children. Close mother and maternal grandmother bonds reduce the likelihood that fathers live with their children, whereas close ties between fathers and paternal grandmothers increase the chance that fathers visit nonresidential children. Family ties do not affect fathers' financial contributions, which are driven by men's current economic situation. These findings illustrate that father-child relationships are best understood in the context of interacting family systems.

“I'll Be There for You”: Teen Parents' Coparenting Relationships

Marriage promotion policy agendas have focused research attention on coparenting relationships, but little is known about coparenting among teen parents. Qualitative interviews with 76 teen mothers and fathers, supplemented with site observations at a school and clinic, investigated coparenting relationships and those relationships' embeddedness in extended families and social institutions. We identified prevalent coparenting trajectories and analyzed individual-, interaction-, and institutional-level influences on coparenting. Coparenting trajectories diverged depending on whether the couple stayed together and assumed traditionally gendered parenting roles. Participants perceived that coparenting relationships strongly shaped their current and future socioeconomic, emotional, and practical circumstances and their success at "being there" for their child. Extended families, institutions, and social programs often pushed teen parents apart, although many participants felt they needed a functional relationship with the other parent. Coparenting relationships, considered jointly with extended families and social institutions, are fundamental for understanding teen parenthood and shaping effective social policies.

Nonresident fatherhood and adolescent sexual behavior: a comparison of siblings approach

Although voluminous research has linked nonresident fatherhood to riskier sexual behavior in adolescence, including earlier sexual debut, neither the causality of that link nor the mechanism accounting for it has been well-established. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979-the Young Adult Survey (CNLSY-YA), the present study addresses both questions by comparing the sexual development of siblings discordant for age at father departure from the home and examining results across behavioral (age at first intercourse), biological (pubertal timing), and cognitive (attitudes about childbearing and marriage) sexual outcomes (N = 5,542). Findings indicate that nonresident fatherhood, beginning either at birth or during middle childhood, leads to an earlier sexual debut for girls, but not for boys, an effect likely explained by weak parental monitoring rather than an accelerated reproductive strategy.

Person-environment fit: everyday conflict and coparenting conflict in Mexican-origin teen mother families

The current study examined whether a match or mismatch between teen mothers' cultural orientation and the cultural context of the family (i.e., familial ethnic socialization) predicted mother-daughter everyday and coparenting conflict, and in turn, teen mothers' adjustment. Participants were 204 Mexican-origin teen mothers (M age = 16.81 years; SD = 1.00). Consistent with a person-environment fit perspective, findings indicated that a mismatch between teen mothers' cultural orientation (i.e., high mainstream cultural involvement) and the cultural context of the family (i.e., higher levels of familial ethnic socialization) predicted greater mother-daughter everyday conflict and coparenting conflict 1 year later. However, when there was a match (i.e., high levels of familial ethnic socialization for teen mothers with high Mexican orientation), familial ethnic socialization was not associated with mother-daughter conflict. In addition, mother-daughter conflict was positively associated with depressive symptoms and engagement in risky behaviors 1 year later among all teen mothers.

Prevalence and determinants of adolescent pregnancy in urban disadvantaged settings across five cities

PURPOSE

The impact of pregnancy on the health and livelihood of adolescents aged 15-19 years is substantial. This study explored sociodemographic, behavioral, and environmental-level factors associated with adolescent pregnancy across five urban disadvantaged settings.

METHODS

The Well-Being of Adolescents in Vulnerable Environments study used respondent-driven sampling (RDS) to recruit males and females from Baltimore (456), Johannesburg (496), Ibadan (449), New Delhi (500), and Shanghai (438). RDS-II and poststratification age weights were used to explore the odds associated with "ever had sex" and "ever pregnant"; adjusted odds of pregnancy and 95% confidence interval were developed by site and gender.

RESULTS

Among the sexually experienced, pregnancy was most common in Baltimore (females, 53% and males, 25%) and Johannesburg (females, 29% and males 22%). Heterosexual experience and therefore pregnancy were rare in Ibadan, New Delhi, and Shanghai. Current schooling and condom use at the first sex decreased the odds of pregnancy among females in Baltimore and Johannesburg participants. Factors associated with higher odds of pregnancy were early sexual debut (Johannesburg participants and Baltimore females) being raised by someone other than the two parents (Johannesburg females); alcohol use and binge drinking in the past month (Baltimore participants); greater community violence and poor physical environment (Baltimore males and Johannesburg participants).

CONCLUSIONS

The reported prevalence of adolescent pregnancy varies substantially across similarly economically disadvantaged urban settings. These differences are related to large differences in sexual experience, which may be underreported, and differences in environmental contexts. Pregnancy risk needs to be understood within the specific context that adolescents reside with particular attention to neighborhood-level factors.

Maternal adjustment and maternal attitudes in adolescent and adult pregnant women

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This study analyzes differences between adolescent and adult pregnant women and the contribution of maternal age to maternal adjustment and maternal attitudes during pregnancy.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A sample of 398 Portuguese pregnant women (111 younger than 19 years) was recruited in a Portuguese Maternity Hospital and completed the Maternal Adjustment and Maternal Attitudes Questionnaire between the 24(th) and 36(th) weeks of gestation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Maternal Adjustment and Maternal Attitudes Questionnaire(1) RESULTS: Adolescent pregnant women show lower maternal adjustment (poorer body image and worse marital relationship) and poorer maternal attitudes (more negative attitudes to sex) than adult pregnant women. When controlling for socio-demographics, age at pregnancy predicts poorer body image and more negative attitudes to sex, but not a worse marital relationship, more somatic symptoms or negative attitudes to pregnancy and the baby. A worse marital relationship was better predicted by living without the partner, and more somatic symptoms and negative attitudes to pregnancy and the baby was predicted by higher education.

CONCLUSION

Adolescent pregnant women show lower maternal adjustment and poorer maternal attitudes than adult pregnant women according to socio-demographics and unfavorable developmental circumstances.

The Socioemotional Outcomes of Young Children of Teenage Mothers by Paternal Coresidence

To date, no study has examined the implications of biological fathers' coresidence for the socioemotional development of children of teenage mothers. Previous research suggests competing hypotheses. Men who father children with teenage women have low education and earnings and are disproportionately likely to be antisocial. However, teenage mothers are less distressed when fathers are more involved caregivers. The current study follows a multi-city sample of children born to teenage women (n = 509) for their first three years of life in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Children whose biological father coresided continuously (20%) were more likely to be securely attached to their mother and had fewer externalizing problems than other children at age 3. Paternal coresidence did not increase household income, and it only marginally lowered maternal parenting stress.

How adolescent mothers feel about becoming a parent

First-time adolescent mothers deal with challenges that place extra demands not only on their stage of adolescent development but also on their ability to adapt to their new role as a parent. The purpose of this study was to explore and better understand first-time adolescent mothers' meaning and experience of parenting during the 4-to-6-week postpartum period. A secondary content analysis was performed, using narrative data collected from a previously conducted study on factors that influence adolescent mothers' self-perceptions of parenting. Three themes emerged from the content analysis: "Being Caught Between Two Worlds," "Feeling Alone and Desperate," and "If I Knew Then What I Know Now." Findings revealed many adolescent mothers are unprepared for the demands of parenthood and, so, need extra guidance, instruction, and support from health-care providers and educators.

'Be our guest': challenges and benefits of using 'family conversations' to collect qualitative data about infant feeding and parenting

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To describe the use of family conversations as a data collection strategy in a study that aimed to explore how 'social context' impacts on the infant feeding and early parenting choices of first-time mothers. Specifically, the authors aim to describe the challenges and benefits of facilitating 'family conversations' and the importance of considering the needs of the researcher and the research participants in the data collection process.

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding is endorsed by the World Health Organisation as a key health promotion strategy, and yet many women in Australia cease breastfeeding (either fully or partially) before the recommended time frame of six months. Engaging with and interviewing families is a well-established research strategy, but interviewing the family as a whole has rarely been used as a part of breastfeeding research.

DESIGN

A component of a study, conducted in Sydney, Australia, was to use 'family conversations' to ascertain the views and beliefs that are held by those in the first-time mother's social network and how these impact on her experience of mothering and associated decision-making.

CONCLUSIONS

Being able to balance the needs of the researcher and the research participants is an important challenge that is a core component of conducting ethical research.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

This paper highlights the viability of 'family conversations' as a data collection method for midwifery and nursing research and the need for midwives and child and family health nurses to more actively engage with a woman's support network with education and other strategies to assist in creating an environment for new mothers that is conducive to the continuation of breastfeeding and thriving as a mother.

The role of coparents in African American single-mother families: the indirect effect of coparent identity on youth psychosocial adjustment

The majority (67%) of African American youth live in single-parent households, a shift in the family structure that has been linked to increased risk for both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. Although the majority of single mothers endorse the assistance of another adult or family member in child rearing, relatively little is known about who is engaged in this nonmarital coparenting role (i.e., grandmother, father/social father, aunt, and female family friend) and how it relates to coparenting quality, maternal parenting, and youth psychosocial outcomes (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems). This question, which is critical to the advancement of family focused programming for youth in these families, is addressed in this study. The participants examined in the current study were 159 African American single-mother child dyads. Adolescents' maternal grandmothers constituted the largest proportion of coparents in the sample (37.2%), followed by the mothers' female family friends (22.5%), adolescents' maternal aunts (12.7%), and adolescents' fathers/social fathers (11%). Differences emerged among groups of coparents in support and conflict with the mother. Specifically, grandmothers, aunts, and female family friends provided significantly more instrumental support than fathers. Furthermore, grandmothers and fathers had more conflict with the mother, both generally and specifically in front of the child, than aunts or female family friends. In turn, these differences were associated directly and indirectly through maternal parenting with internalizing and externalizing problems. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

A community perspective on the role of fathers during pregnancy: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Defining male involvement during pregnancy is essential for the development of future research and appropriate interventions to optimize services aiming to improve birth outcomes.

STUDY AIM

To define male involvement during pregnancy and obtain community-based recommendations for interventions to improve male involvement during pregnancy.

METHODS

We conducted focus groups with mothers and fathers from the National Healthy Start Association program in order to obtain detailed descriptions of male involvement activities, benefits, barriers, and proposed solutions for increasing male involvement during pregnancy. The majority of participants were African American parents.

RESULTS

The involved "male" was identified as either the biological father, or, the current male partner of the pregnant woman. Both men and women described the ideal, involved father or male partner as present, accessible, available, understanding, willing to learn about the pregnancy process and eager to provide emotional, physical and financial support to the woman carrying the child. Women emphasized a sense of "togetherness" during the pregnancy. Suggestions included creating male-targeted prenatal programs, enhancing current interventions targeting females, and increasing healthcare providers' awareness of the importance of men's involvement during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual, family, community, societal and policy factors play a role in barring or diminishing the involvement of fathers during pregnancy. Future research and interventions should target these factors and their interaction in order to increase fathers' involvement and thereby improve pregnancy outcomes.

Pregnancy desire among a sample of young couples who are expecting a baby

CONTEXT

Adolescents' desire for a pregnancy has been explored more among females than among males. A more comprehensive understanding of teenagers' pregnancy desires is needed to inform pregnancy prevention efforts and to support couples as they undergo the transition to parenthood.

METHODS

In an observational cohort study conducted in 2007-2011 at clinics in Connecticut, data were collected from 296 couples (females aged 14-21 and their partners) who were expecting a baby. The degree to which each partner had wanted the pregnancy and partners' perceptions of each other's pregnancy desires were assessed. Multilevel regression models examined associations between pregnancy desire and individual, partner, family and community characteristics, and between desire and life and relationship satisfaction.

RESULTS

Forty-nine percent of females and 53% of males reported having wanted the pregnancy. Pregnancy desire scores were positively associated with being male, expecting a first baby, perceived partner desire and parental response to the pregnancy; scores were negatively associated with being in school, being employed and parental support. Females' perceptions of their partners' pregnancy desires were slightly more accurate than males' (kappas, 0.36 and 0.28, respectively). Pregnancy desire was positively associated with both life and relationship satisfaction, particularly among males.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents' pregnancy desires require further attention as a possible focus of pregnancy prevention efforts, and health care providers may want to ensure that young couples with unwanted pregnancies are offered additional psychological and social services as they transition to parenthood.

Coparenting in teen mothers and their children's fathers: evidence from the early childhood longitudinal study-birth cohort

OBJECTIVE

(1) To describe coparenting among adolescent mothers and the biological fathers of their children. (2) To examine the effects of coparenting on young children's social-emotional development and whether these effects vary by father's residence status, parental education, and child characteristics.

METHODS

Secondary analysis was conducted with the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, which is a nationally representative sample of U.S. children born in 2001. The subsample used in this study includes 400 children whose biological mothers, aged 15-19, participated when their children were 2 years and 4 years old and whose biological fathers (residential and nonresidential) participated at 4 years. Cooperative coparenting and coparenting conflict were measured at child age 2 years. Children's social skills and problem behavior were measured at child age 4 years.

RESULTS

Mother- and father-reported coparenting conflict were associated with child behavior problems, more strongly among boys (b = 1.31, P < .01) than girls (b = -0.13, P > .05). Mother-reported coparenting conflict also predicted lower child social skills (b = -1.28, P < .05); the association of father-reported coparenting conflict with social skills was moderated by child race and father education.

CONCLUSIONS

Coparenting conflict between adolescent parents influences child adjustment. Practitioners working with teen mothers should encourage father participation at medical visits and other clinical contacts and should address the relationship between the parents, whether or not they are living together, as part of routine care.

Dual vulnerability of being both a teen and an immigrant parent: illustrations from an Italian context

Italy has experienced a recent surge in immigration, which has led to an increase in the country's birth rate. Many immigrant mothers are adolescent parents. 30 adolescent mothers (17 recent immigrants and 13 adolescents of Italian descent) completed measures of adolescent self-development and motherhood, perceived availability and satisfaction with social support, and emotional and behavioral characteristic of their children. Findings suggest that immigrant teen mothers show more difficulties related to parenting than do Italian born teen mothers. In particular, immigrant teen mothers report lower levels of social support satisfaction and availability, higher levels of parent-child dysfunction, and experience motherhood and child behavior as more problematic. The findings highlight and confirm the need for well-designed, specific supportive services for adolescent immigrant mothers.

Demographic and relationship predictors of paternity establishment for infants born to adolescent mothers

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To identify demographic and relationship characteristics associated with paternity establishment for children born to adolescent mothers. PARTICIPANTS, SETTING, AND DESIGN: This prospective cohort study included 300 pregnant adolescents 12-19 years old, presenting for prenatal care between March 2002 and February 2005. Demographic and relationship characteristics were compared based on paternity establishment (father's name on the infant's birth certificate).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Paternity establishment (father's name on the infant's birth certificate).

RESULTS

Of the 273 participants with outcome data, 54% established paternity. Paternity establishment differed by maternal race/ethnicity (69% Hispanic vs 36% non-Hispanic Black vs 52% non-Hispanic White, P = .01), maternal age (37% for 12-15 years vs 64% for 18-19 years, P = .01), maternal country of birth (48% U.S. born vs 76% non-U.S. born, P = .01), relationship with father of the infant, and father involvement at the time of delivery.

CONCLUSION

Paternity establishment rates for children born to teens were low overall. To increase rates of paternity establishment, policies and programs need to consider the unique characteristics and circumstances of teen parents.

Self-perceptions of parenting among adolescent mothers

Using a descriptive correlational design, this study examined factors that contribute to self-perceptions of parenting among adolescent mothers 4 to 6 weeks postpartum. Healthy, first-time, 13- to 19-year-old adolescent mothers (n = 126) identified their own mothers as their primary source for social support. Additionally, the more tangible the support from the adolescent's mother, the lower the evaluation of self-perceptions of parenting. Older, more educated adolescent mothers were more positive in self-perceptions of parenting, suggesting that older adolescents have different needs in terms of parenting than younger adolescent mothers. These findings are important for designing and implementing nursing care and educating adolescents about the importance of social support, education, and parenting.

Ready or Not: Predicting High and Low School Readiness Among Teen Parents' Children

Past research has documented compromised development for teenage mothers' children compared to others, but less is known about predictors of school readiness among these children or among teenage fathers' children. Our multidimensional measures of high and low school readiness incorporated math, reading, and behavior scores and parent-reported health. Using parent interviews and direct assessments from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, we predicted high and low school readiness shortly before kindergarten among children born to a teenage mother and/or father (N≈800). Factors from five structural and interpersonal domains based on the School Transition Model were measured at two time points, including change between those time points, to capture the dynamic nature of early childhood. Four domains (socioeconomic resources, maternal characteristics, parenting, and exposure to adults) predicted high or low school readiness, but often not both. Promising factors associated with both high and low readiness among teen parents' children came from four domains: maternal education and gains in education (socioeconomic), maternal age of at least 18 and fewer depressive symptoms (maternal characteristics), socioemotional parenting quality and home environment improvements (parenting), and living with fewer children and receiving nonparental child care in infancy (exposure to adults). The findings preliminarily suggest policies that might improve school readiness: encouraging maternal education while supplying child care, focusing teen pregnancy prevention efforts on school-age girls, basic socioeconomic supports, and investments in mental health and high-quality home environments and parenting.

Do late adolescent fathers have more depressive symptoms than older fathers?

Although fathers are increasingly a focus of attention in research, there is a dearth of research on depressive symptoms among fathers, especially young fathers with toddlers. This study used longitudinal data to examine what risk factors, including the age status of fathers (e.g., late adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood), may be associated with depressive symptoms of fathers when their children were 3 and 5 years of age. A subsample of families for which complete data were available on all variables was used in the analyses (n = 1,403). About 46% of study sample was African American, 27% White, 23% Hispanic, and 4% other race/ethnicity. Paternal depressive symptoms were measured using Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form (CIDI-SF). Late adolescent fatherhood was significantly associated with third-year paternal depressive symptoms but not with fifth-year depressive symptoms. Those who reported low social support were more likely to be depressed at both times. Fathers who did not work for regular pay were more likely to be depressed at the third-year follow-up, but not at the fifth-year follow-up. Parenting stress and being booked/charged with a crime were not associated with third-year paternal depressive symptoms, but were with fifth-year paternal depressive symptoms. This study emphasizes the importance of screening for depressive symptoms of fathers even before the birth of their child and monitoring and treating postpartum depressive symptoms, as first-year depressive symptoms was a significant predictor for third- and fifth-year depressive symptoms. Service providers should focus on the mental health of fathers as well as mothers to promote healthy environments for their children.

Exploring the Role of Touch in the First Year of Life: Mothers' Perspectives of Tactile Interactions with Their Infants

Introduction:

Touch is a basic instinctual interaction between a parent and his or her infant and has a vital role in the infant's early development. Parents provide a variety of tactile stimulation while addressing their infant's daily care routines. This paper reports on research findings, exploring the nature of this tactile interaction and how it is influenced by personal and contextual factors.

Method:

A qualitative study, employing a phenomenological approach, was conducted to explore the experiential nature of tactile interaction. Data were collected from six mothers of typically developing infants through single semi-structured interviews, and analysed thematically. Credibility and trustworthiness were addressed throughout the research process through peer checking, an audit trail and the completion of a reflexive diary.

Findings:

The mothers described the importance of tactile interaction as a medium through which to bond with their infant and also discussed the influence that the infant's development has on this dyadic relationship. Personal and contextual factors were identified as affecting engagement in tactile interaction.

Conclusion:

Based on these findings, recommendations are made for occupational therapists who work with infants. The consideration of personal and contextual factors that influence mother-infant tactile interaction will contribute to a family-centred approach to therapy and support the achievement of best practice in this area.

How Teenage Fathers Matter for Children: Evidence From the ECLS-B

Much is known about how having a teenage mother influences children's outcomes, but the relationship between teenage fatherhood and children's health and development is less well documented. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, the authors investigated how teenage fathers matter for children. They expected teenage fathers' influence on children to differ from adult fathers' in three domains: the household context, the father-mother relationship, and the father-child relationship. Teenage fathers were less often married and more often cohabiting or nonresident, and their children experienced a variety of social disadvantages in their household contexts. The quality of the father-child relationship did not often differ between adolescent and adult fathers. Fathers' marital status and children's household contexts each fully explained the negative relationship between having a teen father and children's cognitive and behavior scores at age 2. These findings suggest that policy interventions could possibly reduce these children's developmental gaps in the critical preschool years.

"All the men here have the Peter Pan syndrome--they don't want to grow up": Navajo adolescent mothers' intimate partner relationships--a 15-year perspective

In 1992 and 1995, data were collected from 29 Navajo Native American adolescent mothers. In 2007 and 2008, data were collected from 21 of the original 29 (72%). Guided by feminist family theory, this investigation sought to (a) examine Navajo adolescent mothers' intimate partner relationships during the transition to parenthood, (b) identify themes in the young mothers' intimate partnerships across time, and (c) assess participants' psychosocial well-being in adulthood. Four themes emerged in the women's long-term intimate relationships: limited support, substance abuse, infidelity, and intimate partner violence. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Effect of teenage parenthood on mental health trajectories: does sex matter?

Rates of teenage pregnancy and parenthood in the United States remain high. Although many consequences of teenage parenthood have been well studied, little prospective research has examined its effect on mental health. This study aims to better understand the impact of teenage parenthood on mental health and to determine whether sex modifies this relation. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 (1997-2006), and a matched cohort design, the authors compared changes in the mental health of parenting teenagers and nonparenting teenagers over 6 years of follow-up with mixed-effects regression. The results indicate that mental health improved for all teenagers over 6 years of follow-up. Furthermore, overall, teenage parenthood was not associated with changes in mental health; however, sex modified this relation. Although the mental health of teenage fathers improved at a faster rate compared with nonparenting teenage males, teenage mothers improved at a slower rate compared with nonparenting teenage females. Psychological health has important implications for both the teenage parent and the child. Future studies should aim to better understand the mechanisms through which teenage parenthood impacts mental health among both males and females, and interventions should be developed to ensure mental health among young parents.

Let's stay together: relationship dissolution and sexually transmitted diseases among parenting and non-parenting adolescents

Relationships influence sexual risk and maternal-child health. Few studies have assessed relationship dissolution and its association with sexually transmitted diseases (STD) among adolescent parents. Our study aimed to describe relationship dissolution among 295 parenting and non-parenting adolescents over an 18-month period and how it related to STD incidence. Results showed that nonparenting adolescents in a relationship with someone other than their baby's father were more likely to have a relationship dissolution over an 18-month period compared to those in a relationship with the baby's father (OR = 1.69, P < .05). Parenting adolescents who ended their relationship with their baby's father were 3 times more likely to get an STD over the course of the study compared to parenting adolescents who remained with their baby's father (39% vs. 13%). Comparatively, nonparenting adolescents who ended their relationship were only 1.4 times more likely to get an STD compared to non-parenting adolescents who remained with their partner (44% vs. 32%). Our results suggest that prevention programs that incorporate male partners and components that strengthen relationship skills may reduce HIV/STD risk and help adolescents adapt during times of transition such as parenthood.

Associations between father absence and age of first sexual intercourse

Children raised without a biological father in the household have earlier average ages of first sexual intercourse than children raised in father-present households. Competing theoretical perspectives have attributed this either to effects of father absence on socialization and physical maturation or to nonrandom selection of children predisposed for early sexual intercourse into father-absent households. Genetically informative analyses of the children of sister dyads (N = 1,382, aged 14-21 years) support the selection hypothesis: This association seems attributable to confounded risks, most likely genetic in origin, which correlated both with likelihood of father absence and early sexual behavior. This holds implications for environmental theories of maturation and suggests that previous research may have inadvertently overestimated the role of family structure in reproductive maturation.