Behavioral inhibition and activation systems: differences in substance use expectancy organization and activation in memory

Nicotine Vaping Expectancies: Organization and Activation in Memory Based on Vaping Use Patterns

OBJECTIVE

The prevalence of smoking combustible cigarettes has decreased, but rates of nicotine vaping among adolescents and young adults have increased dramatically. Vaping is associated with acute health problems and exposes users to toxic metals with unknown long-term consequences. Research on factors influencing vaping is needed to inform the development of effective prevention and intervention methods. Nicotine vaping expectancies, or expected effects related to vaping, may be an important target as they can predict vaping behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine nicotine expectancy activation patterns with corresponding nicotine vaping behaviors.

METHOD

Using methods from alcohol expectancy research, we applied a memory model approach to identifying nicotine vaping expectancies and modeling organization and activation patterns concerning the frequency of nicotine vaping. We created a memory model-based nicotine expectancy measure based on information from 200 adolescents in 8th and 12th grades, and college students. Our expectancy measure was completed by a second sample of 862 college students.

RESULTS

We mapped expectancies into network format using Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL) and we modeled likely paths of expectancy activation using Preference Mapping (PREFMAP). Nonusers primarily emphasized a positive-negative expectancy dimension and were more likely to activate expectancies of negative internal experiences about vaping. Students who vaped nicotine daily or almost daily primarily emphasized an external appearance-internal experience expectancy dimension and were more likely to activate expectancies of negative affect reduction and withdrawal relief.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results identify specific targets for expectancy-based prevention and intervention methods that have the potential to be as effective as similar approaches to preventing and reducing alcohol use.

Problematic social media use is associated with depression and similar to behavioral addictions: Physiological and behavioral evidence

While many studies have examined the relationship between problematic social media use (PSMU) and mental health disorders, little is known about reward responsiveness mechanisms that might be driving this relationship and the neurophysiological characteristics of PSMU. We surveyed 96 undergraduate students at a private liberal arts college in upstate NY. PSMU was assessed using the Social Media Disorder Scale. Fourteen Individuals endorsing in five or more and three or less categories on the Social Media Disorder Scale were offered and underwent resting state QEEG. Mental health was assessed with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale Short Form, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, Penn State Worry Questionnaire, the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale, and a locally developed measure of Substance Use Disorder. Reward and motivational systems were studied using the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale, Behavioral Inhibition/Behavioral Activation Scale, and Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale. SMDS scores were associated with poorer mental health on all measures except substance use. SMDS scores were positively associated with the behavioral inhibition scale, and the anticipatory pleasure scale. QEEG results revealed a negative association of high PSMU and right central and frontal lobeta, right central beta, and a positive association with frontal alpha asymmetry. The study replicates findings that PSMU is associated with mental health issues. Further the pattern of reward response is different compared with other addictive behaviors. QEEG results are consistent with previous work in substance use and depression.

Vaping motivations: Association of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation systems with nicotine and cannabis vaping among adolescents

BACKGROUND

Despite copious information on the hazards of nicotine and cannabis, many adolescents report vaping nicotine and cannabis. To advance knowledge on the precursors of vaping behaviors, this study examined the association of behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) sensitivities with nicotine and cannabis vaping among adolescents.

METHODS

Data were part of a longitudinal survey on substance use and mental health among adolescents and included 2,467 11th grade students from 10 public high schools in California. Participants completed a 20-item scale assessing BIS (one aspect) and BAS (three aspects: drive, fun-seeking, reward responsiveness) sensitivities at baseline and reported their past 30-day nicotine and cannabis vaping at baseline and again at 6-month follow-up. Unadjusted and adjusted (controlled for demographic characteristics and product-specific baseline vaping) regression models estimated vaping risk at follow-up by BIS/BAS scores at baseline.

RESULTS

Bivariate analyses showed participants who vaped nicotine had significantly higher drive and fun-seeking scores (p < 0.05); and cannabis vapers had lower BIS and reward responsiveness scores (p < 0.05) compared to non-users. Higher fun seeking scores was associated with increased odds (OR = 1.15, 95 %CI = 1.03-1.29) of nicotine vaping and higher reward responsiveness scores reduced odds (OR = 0.89, 95 %CI = 0.79-0.99) of nicotine vaping. Higher scores on BIS was associated with decreased the odds (OR = 0.91, 95 %CI = 0.84-0.99) of cannabis vaping.

CONCLUSION

Different behavioral motivations should be targeted when developing interventions designed to reduce nicotine and cannabis vaping among diverse adolescents.

The interplay between parental care and OPRM1 in reward responsiveness

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) explains a variety of reward-motivated behaviors as the result of the activation of biologically-based systems. Inspired by the influences of parental bonding and opioid peptide on reward system, we investigated the contributions of parental bonding and mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) towards motivation systems (i.e., the BAS, BIS-anxiety, and FFFS-fear). Results indicated that (1) parental care was negatively related to FFFS-fear, but parental overprotection was positively related to both FFFS-fear and BIS-anxiety; (2) parental care significantly interacted with OPRM1 rs1799971 in reward responsiveness with diathesis-stress model. Poor parental care reduced reward responsiveness among individuals with the G allele, but not those with the AA genotype. These findings from this study demonstrate a new gene-environment interactive mechanism of the RST.

Contextualizing Cannabis Implicit Associations: Consideration of Peers and Personality

OBJECTIVE

Implicit cannabis associations (ICAs) inconsistently predict cannabis use (CU), and little is known about their formation. Personality, behavioral approach and inhibition, were tested as predictors of ICAs, which in turn, was expected to predict CU (mediation). Peer context was tested as a moderator.

METHOD

Data were taken from three annual assessments of a larger longitudinal study. The community sample (314 emerging adults, mean age = 19.13, 54% female, 76% White/non-Hispanic at the first assessment) completed an ICA task and questionnaire assessments of CU, personality, and peer norms.

RESULTS

ICAs were positively associated with CU at high but not low levels of perceived peer approval/use. Behavioral inhibition was negatively associated ICAs, which in turn, predicted infrequent CU at high levels of peer approval/use (moderated mediation). Behavioral approach was marginally associated with ICAs.

CONCLUSIONS

Peer context and personality are important for understanding the formation of ICAs and their association with CU.

The Acquired Preparedness Model of Cannabis Use in Emerging Adulthood: Comparing Within-Person and Between-Person Effects

OBJECTIVE

The acquired preparedness model (APM) posits that high sensitivity to reward biases individuals to learn and maintain positive outcome expectancies, which in turn increase substance use, and that high sensitivity to punishment biases individuals to learn and maintain negative outcome expectancies, decreasing use. Little work has applied the APM to cannabis use, particularly with longitudinal data and methods that separate within- and between-person associations. The current study addressed these gaps.

METHOD

The sample comprised 314 emerging adults (age range: 19.13-21.39 years; 52% female; predominantly non-Hispanic White [76%] or African American [15%]) recruited using random-digit dialing. Data were taken from three annual assessments. Latent curve models with structure residuals were used to distinguish between- and within-person associations. We controlled for bidirectional associations and demographic covariates.

RESULTS

At the between-person level, high sensitivity to reward was related to high positive expectancies and high cannabis use. High positive expectancies were associated with high cannabis use. High sensitivity to punishment was related to high negative expectancies and low cannabis use. No within-person associations were supported.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a risk profile for emerging adult cannabis use involving high sensitivity to reward and positive expectancies and a protective profile involving high sensitivity to punishment and negative expectancies. However, our findings did not support the notion that the proposed learning processes unfold within individuals across annual assessments. Most notably, the findings emphasize the importance of disaggregating within- and between-person associations using a longitudinal design to better understand pathways to cannabis use in the developmental period of emerging adulthood.

Shapes of subcortical structures in adolescents with and without familial history of substance use disorder

It has been suggested that intergenerational transmission of risk for substance use disorder (SUD) manifests in the brain anatomy of substance naïve adolescents. While volume and shapes of subcortical structures (SSS) have been shown to be heritable, these structures, especially the pallidum, putamen, nucleus accumbens, and hippocampus, have also been associated with substance use disorders. However, it is not clear if those anatomical differences precede substance use or are the result of that use. Therefore, we examined if volume and SSS of adolescents with a family history (FH+) of SUD differed from adolescents without such a history (FH−). Because risk for SUD is associated with anxiety and impulsivity, we also examined correlations between these psychological characteristics and volume/SSS. Using structural MRI and FSL software, we segmented subcortical structures and obtained indices of SSS and volumes of 64 FH+ and 58 FH− adolescents. We examined group differences in volume and SSS, and the correlations between volume/SSS and trait anxiety and impulsivity. FH+ adolescents had a significant inward deformation in the shape of the right anterior hippocampus compared to FH− adolescents, while the volume of this structure did not differ between groups. Neither shape nor volume of the other subcortical structures differed between groups. In the FH+ adolescents, the left hippocampus shape was positively correlated with both trait anxiety and impulsivity, while in FH− adolescents a negative correlation pattern of SSS was seen in the hippocampus. SSS appears to capture local anatomical features that traditional volumetric analysis does not. The inward shape deformation in the right anterior hippocampus in FH+ adolescents may be related to the known increased risk for behavioral dysregulation leading to SUD in FH+ offspring. Hippocampus shape also exhibits opposite patterns of correlation with anxiety and impulsivity scores across the FH+ and FH− adolescents. These novel findings may reveal neural correlates, not captured by traditional volumetric analysis, of familial transmission of increased vulnerability to SUD.

The Relationship Between Behavioral Inhibition and Approach Motivation Systems (BIS/BAS) and Intrinsic Brain Network Connectivity in Adult Cannabis Users

Dampened behavioral inhibition and overactive behavioral approach motivation systems (i.e. BIS/BAS) are associated with cannabis use disorder (CUD), although the underlying neural mechanisms of these alterations have not yet been examined. The brain’s executive control network (ECN) plays a role in decision-making and is associated with BIS/BAS. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that altered ECN resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) underlies dysfunctional behavioral inhibition and approach motivation in cannabis users. To that end, we collected resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging scans in 86 cannabis using adults and 59 non-using adults to examine group differences in the relationship between ECN rsFC and BIS/BAS. Our results showed that BIS was positively correlated with left ECN rsFC in cannabis users, while it was positively correlated with right ECN rsFC in non-users. There was a trend-level moderation effect of group on the association between BIS/BAS and ECN rsFC, showing a weaker association in BIS/BAS and ECN rsFC in cannabis users compared to non-users. An exploratory mediation analysis found that the severity of CUD mediated the relationship between users’ BIS scores and left ECN rsFC. These findings suggest that cannabis use may lead to dysregulation in typical ECN functional organization related to BIS/BAS.

Altered core networks of brain connectivity and personality traits in internet gaming disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Although the Internet has provided convenience and efficiency in many areas of everyday life, problems stemming from Internet use have also been identified, such as Internet gaming disorder (IGD). Internet addiction, which includes IGD, can be viewed as a behavioral addiction or impulse control disorder. This study investigated the altered functional and effective connectivity of the core brain networks in individuals with IGD compared to healthy controls (HCs).

METHODS

Forty-five adults with IGD and 45 HCs were included in this study. To examine the brain networks related to personality traits that influence problematic online gaming, the left and right central executive network (CEN) and the salience network (SN) were included in the analysis. Also, to examine changes in major brain network topographies, we analyzed the default mode network (DMN).

RESULTS

IGD participants showed lower functional connectivity between the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and other regions in the CEN than HC participants during resting state. Also, IGD participants revealed reduced functional connectivity between the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and other regions in the SN and lower functional connectivity in the medial prefrontal cortex of the anterior DMN. Notably, in IGD individuals but not HC individuals, there was a positive correlation between IGD severity and effective connectivity and a positive correlation between reward sensitivity and effective connectivity within the ventral striatum of the SN.

CONCLUSIONS

Problematic online gaming was associated with neurofunctional alterations, impairing the capacity of core brain networks.

Sensitivity to reward and punishment and alcohol outcomes: Metacognition as a moderator

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to examine associations between inhibitory (sensitivity to punishment [SP], adaptive metacognition) and facilitatory (sensitivity to reward [SR], maladaptive metacognition) factors of alcohol consumption and problems among young adults.

Methods

Three hundred fifty-five young adults (ages 18–25, 61% female) recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk and a large public midwestern university in the United States self-administered a Web survey. Two multiple regression models were tested.

Results

SR significantly moderated the effects of SP and the maladaptive metacognition (MC) subscale Uncontrollability/Danger on alcohol consumption. Alcohol problems were also significantly predicted by SR and Uncontrollability/Danger. The interaction between SR and SP on alcohol problems was conditional upon levels of the maladaptive MC subscale Lack of Cognitive Confidence, with a significant moderating effect only at high levels of Lack of Cognitive Confidence.

Conclusions

Consistent with the literature, individuals with high levels of SR coupled with low SP are at risk for increased alcohol consumption. This effect on drinking behaviors is further influenced by maladaptive MC, such that individuals characterized by high SR and low SP are significantly more likely to report more alcohol-related problems if they believe that worrying is dangerous and uncontrollable or lack cognitive confidence; however as SP increases, this effect significantly diminishes.

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The association between SP and alcohol consumption is moderated by SR.

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Beliefs of uncontrollability and SR increase alcohol consumption and problems.

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The interaction of SR, SP, and alcohol problems is moderated by cognitive confidence.

Effects of Sexual Arousal and Alcohol Cues on Acute Motivation for Alcohol

Reward-related stimuli can induce motivation to obtain rewards both within and across domains. We tested within- and cross-domain effects of environmental context (mock bar vs. laboratory) and sexually arousing stimuli (pornography vs. nature film) on acute motivation for alcohol as measured by a state-based alcohol purchase task in 109 male and female college students. Our results showed significant effects of both sexual arousal and environmental context on acute motivation for alcohol. A limited subsample analysis (N = 84) revealed significant effects of both sexual arousal and environmental context conditions on elasticity. Consistent with hypotheses, the presence of either sex- or alcohol-related cues increased acute motivation for alcohol and decreased sensitivity to costs of drinking. Furthermore, there was a significant video × laboratory condition interaction in the elasticity analysis. Our findings suggest that both sexually arousing stimuli and incidental environmental alcohol cues may significantly increase the effort one will expend to consume alcohol and thus the potential for risky drinking behavior. We believe this is the first experiment to use demand curves to present evidence of cross-domain effects of sexually arousing stimuli on acute motivation for alcohol.

What Did You Expect? Substance Use Expectancies Mediate the Relationships Between Dark Triad Traits, Substance Use, and Substance Preference

This study explores the role of substance use expectancies as mediators between the Dark Triad of personality, substance use, and substance use preferences. A sample of college students ( M = 19.38, SD = 2.63, N = 207) completed an online questionnaire that assessed the Dark Triad traits, substance use history, substance preferences, and substance use expectancies. Three specific substance use expectancies-increased confidence, tension reduction, and cognitive enhancement-were shown to either partially or fully mediate the relationships between the Dark Triad and substance use behaviors and preference for certain substances of abuse. These findings may hold clinical implications for the treatment of substance use disorders and further the understanding of factors contributing to the etiology and progression of substance abuse and substance use disorders.

Food addiction and substance addiction in women: Common clinical characteristics

Food addiction is characterized by poorly controlled intake of highly-palatable, calorically-dense, foods. While previous studies indicate that risk factors for food addiction are similar to substance use disorders (SUD), these studies have looked at food addiction and SUD in independent samples, limiting the ability to directly compare food addiction to SUD. The present study was conducted to assess rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, childhood and adult trauma exposure, as well as presence and severity of emotion dysregulation, in a sample of women (N = 229) who either meet criteria for no addiction, food addiction only or SUD only. The prevalence of food addiction was 18.3% and the prevalence of SUD was 30.6% in this sample. Women with food addiction and women with SUD endorsed more depression and PTSD symptoms when compared with individuals with no addiction. Individuals with food addiction and SUD had higher total emotion dysregulation scores, specifically with difficulties in goal directed behaviors, non-acceptance of emotional responses, impulse control, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity, when compared to individuals with no addiction (all p's < 0.05). There were no differences in PTSD and depression symptoms and emotion dysregulation scores between food addiction and SUD groups (all p > 0.05). However, women with SUD endorsed higher levels of total childhood (p < 0.01) and adulthood trauma (p < 0.01) as compared with women with no addiction or food addiction. These results suggest that women with food addiction and those with SUD share similar psychological characteristics and risk factors, with the exception of trauma histories. These findings have implications for the detection of risk for and treatment of these disorders.

Altered brain activity and the effect of personality traits in excessive smartphone use during facial emotion processing

Excessive smartphone use is a phenomenon related to maladaptive smartphone use, leading to negative consequences. This study set out with the aim of assessing the effects of excessive smartphone use on behavioral and neural responses during facial emotional processing. We examined 25 excessive smartphone users and 27 normal control users using functional MRI during facial emotion processing and investigated Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS). The excessive smartphone use group (SP) showed neural deactivation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) during the presentation of an angry face and emotional transition compared to that of the normal control group (NC). Additionally, the SP revealed neural deactivation of the superior temporal sulcus and temporo-parietal junction related to social interaction during emotional transition compared to the NC. We found that BAS-Reward Responsiveness level was correlated with behavioral responses during repeated happy faces related to emotional reward in SP compared to NC. It can thus be suggested that excessive smartphone use is likely to fail on cognitive control during emotional processing, and this impairment might be influenced on emotional processing related to social interaction.

Expectancy of impairment attenuates marijuana-induced risk taking

BACKGROUND

Marijuana use has been associated with increased risk-taking and impulsive behavior. While pharmacologic effects of marijuana can lead to inhibitory impairment, expectancy of potential impairment may result in compensatory behavioral response by decreasing impulsive decisions and risky behaviors. With the increases in marijuana use and related problems, a better understanding of the individual characteristics associated with marijuana intoxication and risky behavior is needed. This study examined the role of impairment expectancies in marijuana's acute effects on behavioral measures of impulsivity and risk-taking.

METHODS

Participants (N=136) were regular marijuana users. A balanced placebo design (BPD) was used crossing marijuana administration (i.e., 0% Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) vs. 2.8% THC) with stimulus expectancy (i.e., Told Placebo vs. Told THC). Marijuana outcome expectancies were measured by self-report and dependent measures included a number of behavioral impulsivity tasks and the balloon analogue risk task (BART).

RESULTS

Among participants who received THC, higher expectancies for cognitive-behavioral impairment (CBI) were related to lower risk-taking on the BART. Among those who received placebo, there was no association between CBI expectancies and BART performance. CBI expectancies did not moderate the stimulus expectancy effect on the BART nor drug or stimulus expectancy effects on impulsivity measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Results provide initial evidence that expectancies of greater impairment are associated with compensatory behavior on a risk-taking task under acute marijuana intoxication. Future studies should examine the role of impairment expectancies on risk behaviors of substantial public health concern, such as driving while under the influence of marijuana.

A reinforcement sensitivity model of affective and behavioral dysregulation in marijuana use and associated problems

This study tested a model linking sensitivity to punishment (SP) and reward (SR) to marijuana use and problems via affect lability and poor control. A 6-month prospective design was used in a sample of 2,270 young-adults (64% female). The hypothesized SP × SR interaction did not predict affect lability or poor control, but did predict use likelihood at baseline. At low levels of SR, SP was associated with an increased likelihood of abstaining, which was attenuated as SR increased. SP and SR displayed positive main effects on both affect lability and poor control. Affect lability and poor control, in turn, mediated effects on the marijuana outcomes. Poor control predicted both increased marijuana use and, controlling for use level, greater intensity of problems. Affect lability predicted greater intensity of problems, but was not associated with use level. There were few prospective effects. SR consistently predicted greater marijuana use and problems. SP however, exhibited both risk and protective pathways. Results indicate that SP is associated with a decreased likelihood of marijuana use. However, once use is initiated SP is associated with increased risk of problems, in part, due to its effects on both affect and behavioral dysregulation. (PsycINFO Database Record

Are self-rated and behavioural measures of impulsivity in bipolar disorder mainly related to comorbid substance use problems?

INTRODUCTION

Impulsivity is a multidimensional feature observed in bipolar disorder (BD) and substance use disorder (SUD). We previously found a relationship between SUD and risk taking in BD. It is still unclear whether self-rated and behavioral impulsivity measures differ between BD with and without comorbid SUD, or are specific to BD.

METHODS

93 adults with BD with comorbid SUD, 91 BD without SUD, and 93 healthy controls (HC) were administered the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS), the Behavioral Inhibition/Behavioral Activation System Scale (BIS/BAS), and the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Analyses compared impulsivity measures across groups controlling for age. Discriminant function analyses (DFA) assessed the combination of variables effectively predicting group membership.

RESULTS

BD displayed increased BIS, BIS/BAS scores, reduced performance on the Cambridge Gambling and Rapid Visual Processing, and Affective Go/No-Go tasks compared to HC. Comparisons between BD with and without SUD showed increased BIS Motor impulsiveness. The overall predictive power of DFA was weak.

CONCLUSIONS

Some facets of impulsivity are a core trait of BD and are partially independent from the presence of SUD. Motor impulsiveness may be distinctive of BD+SUD. More research is needed to understand the role of impulsive behaviors as risk factors for relapse in SUD.

Cognitive appraisals of alcohol use in early adolescence: Psychosocial predictors and reciprocal associations with alcohol use

Early adolescence is a dynamic period for the development of alcohol appraisals (expected outcomes of drinking and subjective evaluations of expected outcomes), yet the literature provides a limited understanding of psychosocial factors that shape these appraisals during this period. This study took a comprehensive view of alcohol appraisals and considered positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies, as well as subjective evaluations of expected outcomes. Developmental-ecological theory guided examination of individual, peer, family, and neighborhood predictors of cognitive appraisals of alcohol and use. A community sample of 378 adolescents (mean age 11.5 years at Wave 1, 52% female) was assessed annually for 4 years. Longitudinal path analysis suggested that the most robust predictors of alcohol appraisals were peer norms. Furthermore, perceived likelihood of positive and negative alcohol outcomes prospectively predicted increases in drinking. There was limited support for appraisals operating as mediators of psychosocial risk and protective factors.

Acute Effects of Intoxication and Arousal on Approach/Avoidance Biases Toward Sexual Risk Stimuli in Heterosexual Men

This study tested the effects of alcohol intoxication and physiological arousal on cognitive biases toward erotic stimuli and condoms. Ninety-seven heterosexual men were randomized to 1 of 6 independent conditions in a 2 (high arousal or control) × 3 (alcohol target BAC = 0.08, placebo, or juice control) design and then completed a variant of the Approach-Avoidance Task (AAT). The AAT assessed reaction times toward approaching and avoiding erotic stimuli and condoms with a joystick. Consistent with hypotheses, the alcohol condition exhibited an approach bias toward erotic stimuli, whereas the control and placebo groups exhibited an approach bias toward condom stimuli. Similarly, the participants in the high arousal condition exhibited an approach bias toward erotic stimuli and the low arousal control condition exhibited an approach bias toward condoms. The results suggest that acute changes in intoxication and physiological arousal independently foster biased responding toward sexual stimuli and these biases are associated with sexual risk intentions.

Keep calm and carry on: Maintaining self-control when intoxicated, upset, or depleted

This study tested within-person associations between intoxication, negative affect, and self-control demands and two forms of self-control failure, interpersonal conflict, and neglecting responsibilities. Effortful control was hypothesised to act as a buffer, reducing individual susceptibility to these within-person effects. In contrast, reactivity was hypothesised to potentiate the within-person associations. 274 young adults aged 18-27 (56% women, 93% white) completed experience sampling assessments for up to 49 days over the course of 1.3 years. Results indicated independent within-person effects of intoxication, negative affect, and self-control demands on the outcomes. Hypothesised moderating effects of reactivity were not supported. Effortful control did not moderate the effects of self-control demands as expected. However, effortful control exhibited a protective effect when individuals were intoxicated or upset to reduce the likelihood of maladaptive behavioural outcomes.

Associations between sensitivity to punishment, sensitivity to reward, and gambling

The majority of individuals gamble during their lifetime; however only a subset of these individuals develops problematic gambling. Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory may be relevant to understanding gambling problems. Differences in sensitivity to punishments and rewards can influence an individual's behavior and may be pertinent to the development of gambling problems. This study examined the functional associations between sensitivity to punishment (SP), sensitivity to reward (SR), and gambling problems in a sample of 2254 college students. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression was used to predict gambling problems as well as the absence of gambling problems. Gambling problems were hypothesized to be positively associated with SR and inversely associated with SP. In addition, SP was hypothesized to moderate the association between SR and gambling problems, attenuating the strength of the association. As hypothesized, SR was positively associated with gambling problems. However, SP did not moderate the relationship between SR and gambling problems. SP did, however, moderate the relationship between SR and the likelihood of never experiencing gambling problems. The results demonstrate that individual differences in SP and SR are functionally associated with gambling problems.

Reward and punishment sensitivity and alcohol use: the moderating role of executive control

Reward sensitivity and to a lesser extent punishment sensitivity have been found to explain individual differences in alcohol use. Furthermore, many studies showed that addictive behaviors are characterized by impaired self-regulatory processes, and that individual differences related to alcohol use are moderated by executive control. This is the first study that explores the potential moderating role of executive control in the relation between reward and punishment sensitivity and alcohol use. Participants were 76 university students, selected on earlier given information about their alcohol use. Half of the participants indicated to drink little alcohol and half indicated to drink substantial amounts of alcohol. As expected, correlational analyses showed a positive relationship between reward sensitivity and alcohol use and a negative relation between punishment sensitivity and alcohol use. Regression analysis confirmed that reward sensitivity was a significant independent predictor of alcohol use. Executive control moderated the relation between punishment sensitivity and alcohol use, but not the relation between reward sensitivity and alcohol use. Only in individuals with weak executive control punishment sensitivity and alcohol use were negatively related. The results suggest that for individuals with weak executive control, punishment sensitivity might be a protective factor working against substantial alcohol use.

Marijuana and self-regulation: examining likelihood and intensity of use and problems

It is important to understand the individual differences that contribute to greater frequency or intensity of marijuana use, or greater frequency of experiencing marijuana-related problems. The current study examined several elements of behavioral and emotional self-regulation as predictors of the likelihood and intensity of both marijuana use and marijuana-related problems. As predicted, indices of behavioral self-regulation (self-control, sensation seeking) were better predictors of marijuana use, while indices of emotional self-regulation (affect, distress tolerance, and emotional instability) better predicted marijuana-related problems. Surprisingly, urgency was not related to use but was predictive of problems, and there were no significant interactions between behavioral and emotional self-regulation in predicting either use or problems. From these findings we conclude that while behavioral dysregulation may put individuals at risk for using marijuana, or using it more frequently, it is those individuals with difficulty in emotional self-regulation that are at risk for experiencing negative consequences as a result of their marijuana use. Clinically, these data are relevant; clinicians might focus more on addressing emotional regulation in order to lessen or eliminate the consequences of marijuana use.

Resting-state activity in the left executive control network is associated with behavioral approach and is increased in substance dependence

BACKGROUND

Individuals with drug addictions report increased willingness to approach rewards. Approach behaviors are thought to involve executive control processes and are more strongly represented in the left compared to right prefrontal cortex. A direct link between approach tendencies and left hemisphere activity has not been shown in the resting brain. We hypothesized that compared to controls, substance dependent individuals (SDI) would have greater left hemisphere activity in the left executive control network (ECN) at rest.

METHODS

Twenty-five SDI and 25 controls completed a Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) questionnaire and underwent a resting-state fMRI scan. Group independent component analysis was performed. We used template matching to identify the left and right ECN separately and compared the corresponding components across groups. Across group, BAS scores were correlated with signal fluctuations in the left ECN and BIS scores with right ECN.

RESULTS

BAS scores were higher in SDI compared to controls (p<.003) and correlated with signal fluctuation in the left ECN. SDI showed significantly more activity than controls in the left prefrontal cortex of the left ECN. Conversely, SDI showed less activity than controls in the right prefrontal cortex of the right ECN.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this study suggest that approach tendencies are related to the left ECN, even during rest. Higher resting-state signal in the left ECN may play a role in heightened approach tendencies that contribute to drug-seeking behavior.

Positive alcohol expectancies mediate the influence of the behavioral activation system on alcohol use: a prospective path analysis

Gray's (1975, 1987) behavioral activation (BAS) and behavioral inhibition systems (BIS) are thought to underlie sensitivity to reinforcement and punishment, respectively. Consistent with Gray's theory and the Acquired Preparedness model, BAS may facilitate the learning of positive alcohol expectancies (PAEs) over time, leading to increases in drinking. Yet, no prospective tests of this pathway have been reported. The present study investigated whether BAS prospectively predicted PAEs and whether PAEs mediated the association between BAS and subsequent alcohol use. We hypothesized that BAS would influence drinking specifically via enhancement-related PAEs. We also explored the role of BIS in PAEs and drinking. College students (N=557) completed online BAS, PAE, and alcohol use measures in September of their first (T1), second (T2), and third (T3) years of college. We conducted autoregressive path analyses with three BAS subscales and BIS (T1) as predictors, four PAE types (T2) as mediators, and quantity and frequency of drinking (T3) as outcomes. The BAS Fun-Seeking scale was prospectively associated with PAEs, and there was a significant indirect path from Fun-Seeking to alcohol use mediated specifically through activity enhancement PAEs. BIS was positively associated with some PAE types, but did not have indirect effects on drinking. Findings are consistent with both the theory of the BAS and the Acquired Preparedness model, as individuals high on BAS Fun-Seeking may find the rewarding properties of alcohol more reinforcing, leading to stronger enhancement PAEs and increased drinking over time. The prospective design helps establish the temporal association between BAS and alcohol-related learning, and points to the need for prevention efforts that target these at-risk students.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory and alcohol outcome expectancies in early adolescence

BACKGROUND

Little research has examined the development of alcohol expectancies in childhood, a notable omission as expectancies are viable targets for prevention programs. Moreover, limited alcohol expectancies research has been conducted from the perspective of psychobiological models of motivation despite the strong conceptual links between such models and cognitive models of alcohol use.

OBJECTIVE

To examine if the associations between individual differences from the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (Gray JA, McNaughton N. The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-hippocampal System (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000) and alcohol use is mediated by alcohol expectancies in a large community sample of early adolescents using a prospective design.

METHODS

378 families (1 caregiver; 1 child) were recruited via random digit phone call using a prospective design.

RESULTS

Our findings suggest that both a strong behavioral approach system and fight-flight or freeze system were associated with high levels of positive outcome expectancies, which subsequently predicted an increase in likelihood of alcohol use. There was also some evidence that drive (an aspect of behavioral approach system) was also positively associated with negative expectancies, which subsequently predicted a low probability of alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE

Individual differences in reinforcement sensitivity may influence the acquisition of positive and negative outcome expectancies, thereby potentially influencing the likelihood of alcohol use in early adolescence. Thus, reinforcement sensitivity theory is a promising theory to account for the link between neural models of addiction and early acquisition of alcohol use in humans.

Personality and Parenting Processes Associated with Problem Behaviors: A Study of Adolescents in Santiago, Chile

Considerable research in the U.S. has established that adolescent antisocial, aggressive, and attention problems have a negative influence on adolescents' ability to become productive members of society. However, although these behaviors appear in other cultures, little is known about the development of these problems among adolescents in countries other than the U.S.. This study contributes to our understanding of personality and parenting factors associated with adolescent problem behaviors using an international sample. Data are from a NIDA-funded study of 884 community-dwelling adolescents in Santiago, Chile (Mean age=14, SD=1.4, 48% females) of mid-to-low socioeconomic status. Results revealed that rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors were both associated with greater levels of adolescent drive but lower levels of parental monitoring and positive parenting by both parents. Adolescents who reported more attention problems were more likely to exhibit driven behavior, more behavioral inhibition, to report lower levels of parental monitoring, and positive parenting by mother and father. Results of interactions revealed that the influences of positive parenting and parental monitoring on adolescent aggressive behaviors varied as a function of the gender of the adolescent. Helping parents build on their parenting skills may result in important reductions in adolescent problem behaviors among U.S. and international adolescents.

Alcohol-related infractions among college students: associations with subsequent drinking as a function of sensitivity to punishment

Problematic alcohol use on college campuses is a significant concern. Violations of campus alcohol policies can lead to disciplinary action from the university. These and other alcohol-related legal infractions may be a sign of significant alcohol-related problems. However, few studies have focused on determining predictors of alcohol-related infractions among college students. Likewise, the role of infractions in reducing future use is unclear. In the present study, we tested whether alcohol-related infractions were associated with decreased alcohol use, and whether the effect of the infraction varied as a function of initial drinking levels, sensitivity to punishment (SP), and sensitivity to reward (SR) in a 6-month prospective design. Alcohol use, grade point average, and SR were significantly associated with receiving an alcohol-related infraction. For heavier drinkers, receiving an infraction was associated with decreased drinking at follow-up, and this decrease was most pronounced among those with higher sensitivity to punishment. SP appeared to increase responsiveness to the infraction, resulting in greater attenuation of drinking at follow-up.

A framework for the specificity of addictions

Research over the last two decades suggests that a wide range of substance and behavioral addictions may serve similar functions. Yet, co-occurrence of addictions has only been reported among a minority of addicts. "Addiction specificity" pertains to a phenomenon in which one pattern of addictive behaviors may be acquired whereas another is not. This paper presents the PACE model as a framework which might help explain addiction specificity. Pragmatics, attraction, communication, and expectation (PACE) variables are described, which may help give some direction to future research needs in this arena.

Associations of marijuana use and sex-related marijuana expectancies with HIV/STD risk behavior in high-risk adolescents

Multiple studies suggest an association of marijuana use with increased rates of sexual risk behavior and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Most studies have focused on global associations of marijuana use with sexual risk outcomes and few have examined relevant cognitive variables. Adolescents in the juvenile justice system are at elevated risk for HIV/STDs and preliminary evidence suggests that marijuana is a potentially important cofactor for sexual risk behavior in this population. This study evaluated global, situational and event-level associations of marijuana use and sex-related marijuana expectancies with sexual risk outcomes in a large, racially diverse sample of adjudicated youth (n = 656, 66% male, mean age = 16.7 years). Cross-sectional and prospective analyses identified associations of marijuana use and dependence symptoms with sexual risk outcomes, including lower frequency of condom use and higher STD incidence. Stronger sex-related marijuana expectancies predicted greater intentions for and frequency of marijuana use in sexual situations. In event-level analyses that controlled for alcohol, marijuana use predicted a significantly decreased likelihood of condom use; this association was moderated by sex-related marijuana expectancies. Mediation analyses suggested that behavioral intentions partly accounted for the prospective association of expectancies with marijuana use before sex. These results provide further evidence that marijuana use is a potentially important cofactor for HIV/STD transmission in high-risk adolescents and suggest that cognitive factors could be important for characterizing this association.