Differential interference effects of negative emotional states on subsequent semantic and perceptual processing

Love and hate do not modulate the attentional blink but improve overall performance

How may feelings of love and hate impact people's attention? We used a modified Attentional Blink (AB) task in which 300 participants were asked to categorise a name representing a person towards whom they felt either hate, love, or neutral (first target) plus identify a number word (second target), both embedded in a rapidly presented stream of other words. The lag to the second target was systematically varied. Contrary to our hypothesis, results revealed that both hated and loved names resulted in higher accuracy for the second target than neutral names, which was largely independent of lag. Also, there we observed no sustained transfer effects of love and hate onto neutral name trials. The findings differ from prior research on attentional blink and transient, non-personal, stimulus-driven emotions, suggesting that interpersonal feelings activate different attention-relevant mechanisms. Relevant to future research, we speculate that love and hate are motivators of goal-directed behaviour that facilitate subsequent information processing.

The effect of auditory valence on subsequent visual semantic processing

Emotion influences many cognitive processes and plays an important role in our daily life. Previous studies focused on the effects of arousal on subsequent cognitive processing, but the effect of valence on subsequent semantic processing is still not clear. The present study examined the effect of auditory valence on subsequent visual semantic processing when controlling for arousal. We used instrumental music clips varying in valence while matching in arousal to induce valence states and asked participants to make natural or man-made judgements on subsequent neutral objects. We found that positive and negative valences similarly impaired subsequent semantic processing compared with neutral valence. The linear ballistic accumulator model analyses showed that the valence effects can be attributed to drift rate differences, suggesting that the effects are likely related to attentional selection. Our findings are consistent with a motivated attention model, indicating comparable attentional capture by both positive and negative valences in modulating subsequent cognitive processes.

The neural correlates of context driven changes in the emotional response: An fMRI study

Emotional flexibility reflects the ability to adjust the emotional response to the changing environmental context. To understand how context can trigger a change in emotional response, i.e., how it can upregulate the initial emotional response or trigger a shift in the valence of emotional response, we used a task consisting of picture pairs during functional magnetic resonance imaging sessions. In each pair, the first picture was a smaller detail (a decontextualized photograph depicting emotions using primarily facial and postural expressions) from the second (contextualized) picture, and the neural response to a decontextualized picture was compared with the same picture in a context. Thirty-one healthy participants (18 females; mean age: 24.44 ± 3.4) were involved in the study. In general, context (vs. pictures without context) increased activation in areas involved in facial emotional processing (e.g., middle temporal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, and temporal pole) and affective mentalizing (e.g., precuneus, temporoparietal junction). After excluding the general effect of context by using an exclusive mask with activation to context vs. no-context, the automatic shift from positive to negative valence induced by the context was associated with increased activation in the thalamus, caudate, medial frontal gyrus and lateral orbitofrontal cortex. When the meaning changed from negative to positive, it resulted in a less widespread activation pattern, mainly in the precuneus, middle temporal gyrus, and occipital lobe. Providing context cues to facial information recruited brain areas that induced changes in the emotional responses and interpretation of the emotional situations automatically to support emotional flexibility.

Mood effects on semantic processes: Behavioural and electrophysiological evidence

Mood (i.e., our current background affective state) often unobtrusively yet pervasively affects how we think and behave. Typically, theoretical frameworks position it as an embodied source of information (i.e., a biomarker), activating thinking patterns that tune our attention, perception, motivation, and exploration tendencies in a context-dependent manner. Growing behavioural and electrophysiological research has been exploring the mood–language interactions, employing numerous semantics-oriented experimental paradigms (e.g., manipulating semantic associations, congruity, relatedness, etc.) along with mood elicitation techniques (e.g., affectively evocative film clips, music, pictures, etc.). Available behavioural and electrophysiological evidence has suggested that positive and negative moods differently regulate the dynamics of language comprehension, mostly due to the activation of mood-dependent cognitive strategies. Namely, a positive mood has been argued to activate global and heuristics-based processing and a negative mood – local and detail-oriented processing during language comprehension. Future research on mood–language interactions could benefit greatly from (i) a theoretical framework for mood effects on semantic memory, (ii) measuring mood changes multi-dimensionally, (iii) addressing discrepancies in empirical findings, (iv) a replication-oriented approach, and (v) research practices counteracting publication biases.

Effect of the congruity of emotional contexts at encoding on source memory: Evidence from ERPs

Emotion's influence on source memory has proven more elusive and the lack of studies investigates the effect of the congruent emotional contexts on source memory. Here, we investigated these issues using event-related potentials (ERPs) to assess emotional-induced neural correlates. During encoding, congruent word-picture (a word 'shoes' - a picture described shoes) and incongruent word-picture (a word 'pepper' - a picture described shoes) with a prompt (Common? or Natural?) were presented. At retrieval, participants indicated which prompts were concomitantly presented with the word during encoding. Behavioral results revealed that source memory accuracy was enhanced in the neutral contexts compared to the negative contexts, and enhanced in the incongruent condition relative to the congruent condition, suggesting that emotional contexts impaired source memory performance, and incongruent information enhanced source memory. ERPs results showed that early P2 old/new effect (150-250 ms) and FN400 old/new effect (300-450 ms) were observed for words with correct source that had been encoded in the congruent emotional contexts, and that a larger parietal old/new effect, between 500 and 700 ms, was observed for words with correct source that had been encoded in the incongruent condition than in the congruent condition, irrespective the nature of context. The ERPs results indicate that retrieval of source details for the associated emotionally congruent information supports the idea that emotional events could attract more attentional resources, and reflects the contribution of familiarity-based process. Meanwhile, retrieval of source details for the associated incongruent information reflects a stronger contribution of recollection-based process.

Is internal source memory recognition modulated by emotional encoding contexts?

The influence of emotion on memory has been mainly examined by manipulating the emotional valence and/or arousal of critical items. Few studies probed how emotional information presented during the encoding of critical neutral items modulates memory recognition, particularly when considering source memory features. In this study, we specified the role of emotional encoding contexts in internal source memory performance (discrimination between encoding tasks) using a mixed (Experiment 1) and a blocked design (Experiment 2). During the study phase, participants were required to evaluate a set of neutral words, using either a self-referential or a semantic (common judgment) encoding strategy. Prior and concomitantly with each word, negative, neutral or positive pictures were presented in the background. The beneficial effect of self-referential encoding was observed for both item and internal source memory in both experiments. Remarkably, item and internal source memory recognition was not modulated by emotion, even though a secondary analysis indicated that the consistent exposure to negative (vs. positive) information led to worse source memory performance. These findings suggest that internal source memory of neutral items is not always affected by changing or repetitive emotional encoding contexts.

The effect of induced mood on word imagery processing: An ERP study

The effect of induced mood on language processing has been examined in behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) studies. A previous study examined the effects of induced mood on word imagery processing by the N400 and N700 components of the ERP and behavioral performance in an imageability judgment task in which participants decided whether a word easily evoked visual imagery or not (Ogawa and Nittono, 2019). The N400 amplitude was larger (more negative-going) under positive mood than under negative mood, while reaction time and the N700 amplitude were not affected by induced moods. These results were interpreted as evidence that, compared to negative mood, positive mood facilitates semantic memory activation during word imagery processing. However, it remains unclear whether positive mood facilitates the phenomenological experience of imagery. To replicate and extend the previous findings, this study examined the effects of mood on subjective ratings of word imageability and ERP components. Single words with moderate imageability were used to avoid floor or ceiling effects. If a positive mood facilitates word imageability processing, subjective imageability ratings would be higher under positive mood than under negative mood. The N400 amplitude, but not the N700 amplitude, would be larger under positive mood than under negative mood. Contrary to predictions, an experiment with a sufficient sample size (N = 41) did not replicate the previous findings regarding N400 amplitude. Induced moods also did not affect the subjective imageability ratings and the N700 amplitude. These results suggest that the effects of induced mood on language processing may not occur at the level of single-word processing. Rather, moods may change the strength of association between word concepts in semantic memory.

Effect of Emotion States on the Updating Function of Working Memory

In recent years, the interaction between emotion and working memory has been investigated with mixed results. Yet, few neurophysiological studies systematically investigated the effect of emotion states on the updating function of working memory that is a core part of executive functioning. Executive functioning has also been identified as cognitive function, which plays an important role in everyday life and even be a predictor of higher-level cognitive function. Here, we studied the effect of emotions on the updating function of working memory. 16 subjects were recruited to participate in verbal working memory task, and 14 in spatial working memory task. Pictures from International Affective Picture System(IAPS) were employed to evoke positive, negative and neutral states, and 4 digits or 4 spatial positions instructions created verbal or spatial working memory tasks. Combining event-related potentials(ERPs) and repeated measures ANOVA methods, the results showed that the updating time significantly increased in the positive state, and P3 amplitude was significantly lower than that of the neutral state in verbal working memory task; while in spatial working memory task, the updating time significantly increased in the negative state, but there was no significant difference in ERP components. These findings suggest that the updating function of verbal working memory may be affected by the positive state, while that of the spatial working memory may be affected by the negative state.

The influence of emotional cues on prospective memory: a systematic review with meta-analyses

Remembering to perform a behaviour in the future, prospective memory, is essential to ensuring that people fulfil their intentions. Prospective memory involves committing to memory a cue to action (encoding), and later recognising and acting upon the cue in the environment (retrieval). Prospective memory performance is believed to be influenced by the emotionality of the cues, however the literature is fragmented and inconsistent. We conducted a systematic search to synthesise research on the influence of emotion on prospective memory. Sixty-seven effect sizes were extracted from 17 articles and hypothesised effects tested using three meta-analyses. Overall, prospective memory was enhanced when positively-valenced rather than neutral cues were presented (d = 0.32). In contrast, negatively-valenced cues did not enhance prospective memory overall (d = 0.07), but this effect was moderated by the timing of the emotional manipulation. Prospective memory performance was improved when negatively-valenced cues were presented during both encoding and retrieval (d = 0.40), but undermined when presented only during encoding (d = -0.25). Moderating effects were also found for cue-focality and whether studies controlled for the arousal level of the cues. The principal finding is that positively-valenced cues improve prospective memory performance and that timing of the manipulation can moderate emotional effects on prospective memory. We offer a new agenda for future empirical work and theorising in this area.

Effect of emotional valence on retrieval-related recapitulation of encoding activity in the ventral visual stream

While prior work has shown greater retrieval-related reactivation in the ventral visual stream for emotional stimuli compared to neutral stimuli, the effects of valence on retrieval-related recapitulation of successful encoding processes (Dm effects) have yet to be investigated. Here, seventeen participants (aged 19-35) studied line drawings of negative, positive, or neutral images followed immediately by the complete photo. After a 20-min delay, participants performed a challenging recognition memory test, distinguishing the studied line drawing outlines from novel ones. First, results replicated earlier work by demonstrating that negative and positive hits elicited greater ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VOTC) activity than neutral hits during both encoding and retrieval. Moreover, the amount of activation in portions of the VOTC correlated with the magnitude of participants' emotional memory enhancement. Second, results revealed significant retrieval-related recapitulation of Dm effects (Hits>Misses) in VOTC (anterior inferior temporal gyri) only for negative stimuli. Third, connectivity between the amygdala and fusiform gyrus during the encoding of negative stimuli increased the likelihood of fusiform activation during successful retrieval. Together, these results suggest that recapitulation in posterior VOTC reflects memory for the affective dimension of the stimuli (Emotional Hits>Neutral Hits) and the magnitude of activation in some of these regions is related to superior emotional memory. Moreover, for negative stimuli, recapitulation in more anterior portions of the VOTC is greater for remembered than forgotten items. The current study offers new evidence for effects of emotion on recapitulation of activity and functional connectivity in support of memory.

Prior perceptual processing enhances the effect of emotional arousal on the neural correlates of memory retrieval

A fundamental idea in memory research is that items are more likely to be remembered if encoded with a semantic, rather than perceptual, processing strategy. Interestingly, this effect has been shown to reverse for emotionally arousing materials, such that perceptual processing enhances memory for emotional information or events. The current fMRI study investigated the neural mechanisms of this effect by testing how neural activations during emotional memory retrieval are influenced by the prior encoding strategy. Participants incidentally encoded emotional and neutral pictures under instructions to attend to either semantic or perceptual properties of each picture. Recognition memory was tested 2 days later. fMRI analyses yielded three main findings. First, right amygdalar activity associated with emotional memory strength was enhanced by prior perceptual processing. Second, prior perceptual processing of emotional pictures produced a stronger effect on recollection- than familiarity-related activations in the right amygdala and left hippocampus. Finally, prior perceptual processing enhanced amygdalar connectivity with regions strongly associated with retrieval success, including hippocampal/parahippocampal regions, visual cortex, and ventral parietal cortex. Taken together, the results specify how encoding orientations yield alterations in brain systems that retrieve emotional memories.

Association learning for emotional harbinger cues: when do previous emotional associations impair and when do they facilitate subsequent learning of new associations?

Neutral cues that predict emotional events (emotional harbingers) acquire emotional properties and attract attention. Given the importance of emotional harbingers for future survival, it is desirable to flexibly learn new facts about emotional harbingers when needed. However, recent research revealed that it is harder to learn new associations for emotional harbingers than cues that predict non-emotional events (neutral harbingers). In the current study, we addressed whether this impaired association learning for emotional harbingers is altered by one's awareness of the contingencies between cues and emotional outcomes. Across 3 studies, we found that one's awareness of the contingencies determines subsequent association learning of emotional harbingers. Emotional harbingers produced worse association learning than neutral harbingers when people were not aware of the contingencies between cues and emotional outcomes, but produced better association learning when people were aware of the contingencies. These results suggest that emotional harbingers do not always suffer from impaired association learning and can show facilitated learning depending on one's contingency awareness.

Priming for performance: valence of emotional primes interact with dissociable prototype learning systems

Arousal Biased Competition theory suggests that arousal enhances competitive attentional processes, but makes no strong claims about valence effects. Research suggests that the scope of enhanced attention depends on valence with negative arousal narrowing and positive arousal broadening attention. Attentional scope likely affects declarative-memory-mediated and perceptual-representation-mediated learning systems differently, with declarative-memory-mediated learning depending on narrow attention to develop targeted verbalizable rules, and perceptual-representation-mediated learning depending on broad attention to develop a perceptual representation. We hypothesize that negative arousal accentuates declarative-memory-mediated learning and attenuates perceptual-representation-mediated learning, while positive arousal reverses this pattern. Prototype learning provides an ideal test bed as dissociable declarative-memory and perceptual-representation systems mediate two-prototype (AB) and one-prototype (AN) prototype learning, respectively, and computational models are available that provide powerful insights on cognitive processing. As predicted, we found that negative arousal narrows attentional focus facilitating AB learning and impairing AN learning, while positive arousal broadens attentional focus facilitating AN learning and impairing AB learning.

The effects of aging on emotion-induced modulations of source retrieval ERPs: evidence for valence biases

Many behavioral studies have shown that memory is enhanced for emotionally salient events across the lifespan. It has been suggested that this mnemonic boost may be observed for both age groups, particularly the old, in part because emotional information is retrieved with less effort than neutral information. Neuroimaging evidence suggests that inefficient retrieval processing (temporally delayed and attenuated) may contribute to age-related impairments in episodic memory for neutral events. It is not entirely clear whether emotional salience may reduce these age-related changes in neural activity associated with episodic retrieval for neutral events. Here, we investigated these ideas using event-related potentials (ERPs) to assess the neural correlates of successful source memory retrieval ("old-new effects") for neutral and emotional (negative and positive) images. Behavioral results showed that older adults demonstrated source memory impairments compared to the young but that both groups showed reduced source memory accuracy for negative compared to positive and neutral images; most likely due to an arousal-induced memory tradeoff for the negative images, which were subjectively more arousing than both positive and neutral images. ERP results showed that early onsetting old-new effects, between 100 and 300 ms, were observed for emotional but not neutral images in both age groups. Interestingly, these early effects were observed for negative items in the young and for positive items in the old. These ERP findings offer support for the idea that emotional events may be retrieved more automatically than neutral events across the lifespan. Furthermore, we suggest that very early retrieval mechanisms, possibly perceptual priming or familiarity, may underlie the negativity and positivity effects sometimes observed in the young and old, respectively, for various behavioral measures of attention and memory.

Grief and mourning gone awry: pathway and course of complicated grief

Complicated grief is a recently recognized condition that occurs in about 7% of bereaved people. People with this condition are caught up in rumination about the circumstances of the death, worry about its consequences, or excessive avoidance of reminders of the loss. Unable to comprehend the finality and consequences of the loss, they resort to excessive avoidance of reminders of the loss as they are tossed helplessly on waves of intense emotion. People with complicated grief need help, and clinicians need to know how to recognize the symptoms and how to provide help. This paper provides a framework to help clinicans understand bereavement, grief, and mourning. Evidence-based diagnostic criteria are provided to help clinicians recognize complicated grief, and differentiate it from depression as well as anxiety disorder. We provide an overview of risk factors and basic assumptions and principles that can guide treatment.