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Mal P, Mukherjee T, Upadhyay AK, Mohanty S, Pattnaik AK. Connecting the dots between inflammatory cascades of obesity and COVID-19 in light of mortal consequences-a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:57040-57053. [PMID: 35731430 PMCID: PMC9213647 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-21461-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is a term that has recently been referred to describe a condition in which a person has become a diseased vessel. Obesity's internal pathology is too mysterious as it has a close resemblance with fatal diseases pathology. Obesity and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are simultaneous epidemics declared by many organizations after observing their rampage in the recent world. Oxidative stress, cytokine storm, interleukin, and their contribution to the internal adipocyte environment implicated in the cascades of inflammatory pathology are portrayed here. Major determinants like angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) axis are highly sensitive molecular factors. Data from various countries suggested a clinical overview of how greater body mass index (BMI) is related to greater COVID-19 risk. It also gives insight into how obese individuals are obligately getting admitted and combating COVID-19 in intensive care unit including children less than 13 years of age under ultimate therapeutic options. There are numerous studies currently taking place for finding a cure for obesity which are mainly focused on natural resources and novel therapies like photobiomodulation (PBM) consisting of laser treatment, infrared treatment, etc. as current pharmacological treatments are reported to have fatal adverse effects. Finally, it is discussed how attenuating obesity will be a solution for future combat strategy. This review gives light on the areas of coagulation, inflammatory parameters, cardiometabolic complications, endothelial dysfunctions, immunological infirmity due to COVID-19 in obese individuals. A conceptual outline about correlation between the inflammatory pathophysiological steps triggering the aggravation of fatal consequences has been drawn in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payel Mal
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Tuhin Mukherjee
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Abhay K Upadhyay
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Satyajit Mohanty
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Ashok K Pattnaik
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, Jharkhand, India.
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Musselman D, Royster EB, Wang M, Long Q, Trimble LM, Mann TK, Graciaa DS, McNutt MD, Auyeung NSF, Oliver L, Lawson DH, Miller AH. The impact of escitalopram on IL-2-induced neuroendocrine, immune, and behavioral changes in patients with malignant melanoma: preliminary findings. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:1921-8. [PMID: 23575741 PMCID: PMC3746697 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Revised: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-2, a T-cell cytokine used to treat malignant melanoma, can induce profound depression. To determine whether pretreatment with the antidepressant escitalopram could reduce IL-2-induced neuroendocrine, immune, and neurobehavioral changes, 20 patients with Stage IV melanoma were randomized to either placebo or the serotonin reuptake inhibitor, escitalopram (ESC) 10-20 mg/day, 2 weeks before, and during IL-2 treatment (720 000 units/kg Q8 h × 5 days (1 cycle) every 3 weeks × 4 cycles). Generalized estimation equations were used to examine HPA axis activity (plasma ACTH and cortisol), immune activation (plasma IL-6), and depressive symptoms (Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) score). Tolerance of IL-2 treatment (concomitant medications required) and adherence (number of IL-2 doses received) were also assessed. Both the groups (ESC (n=9), placebo (n=11)) exhibited significant IL-2-induced increases in plasma cortisol, IL-6, and depressive symptoms (p<0.05), as well as a temporal trend for increases in plasma ACTH (p=0.054); the effects of age and treatment were not significant. Higher plasma ACTH concentrations were associated with higher depressive symptoms during cycles 1-3 of IL-2 therapy (p<0.01). Although ESC had no significant effects on ACTH, cortisol, IL-6, tolerance of, or adherence to IL-2, ESC treatment was associated with lower depressive symptoms, ie, a maximal difference of ∼3 points on the HDRS, which, though not statistically significant (in part, due to small sample size), represents a clinically significant difference according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines. A larger sample size will establish whether antidepressant pretreatment can prevent IL-2-induced neurobehavioral changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Musselman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Leonard H. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33146,, USA.
| | - Erica B Royster
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ming Wang
- Department of Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Qi Long
- Department of Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lisa M Trimble
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Tara K Mann
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Daniel S Graciaa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Marcia D McNutt
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - N S Freda Auyeung
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lindsay Oliver
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - David H Lawson
- Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Andrew H Miller
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA,Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Barker T, Martins TB, Hill HR, Kjeldsberg CR, Dixon BM, Schneider ED, Henriksen VT, Weaver LK. Circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines are elevated and peak power output correlates with 25-hydroxyvitamin D in vitamin D insufficient adults. Eur J Appl Physiol 2013; 113:1523-34. [PMID: 23292315 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-012-2582-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify circulating cytokines, skeletal muscle strength, and peak power output in young adults with contrasting serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations. Serum 25(OH)D, inflammatory cytokines, muscle strength, and peak power output were, therefore, measured in young adults (25-42 years). Data were collected during the winter to avoid the seasonal influence on serum 25(OH)D. After serum 25(OH)D concentration measurements, subjects were separated into one of two groups: (1) vitamin D insufficient [serum 25(OH)D ≤32 ng/mL, n = 14], or (2) vitamin D sufficient [serum 25(OH)D >32 ng/mL, n = 14]. Following group allocation, serum 25(OH)D concentrations were significantly (p < 0.05) lower and pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-2, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ] were significantly (all p < 0.05) greater in vitamin D insufficient adults. An anti-inflammatory cytokine (i.e., IL-10; p > 0.05), peak isometric forces (p > 0.05), and peak power outputs (p > 0.05) were not significantly different between vitamin D groups. However, peak power outputs correlated with serum 25(OH)D concentrations in vitamin D insufficient (r = 0.55, p < 0.05) but not in vitamin D sufficient adults (r = -0.27, p = 0.36). Based on these data, we conclude that vitamin D insufficiency, in part, could result in pro-inflammatory stress without altering muscular strength or function in young adults. Future research investigating the causality of the correlation between low-serum 25(OH)D and peak power output in young adults is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Barker
- The Orthopedic Specialty Hospital, 5848 S. Fashion Blvd, Murray, UT 84107, USA.
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Vitamins E and C Modulate the Association Between Reciprocally Regulated Cytokines After an Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury and Surgery. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2011; 90:638-47. [DOI: 10.1097/phm.0b013e318214e886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Allende
- Clinical and Molecular Retrovirology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Verheyen J, Bonig H, Banning U, Shin DI, Mauz-Körholz C, Körholz D. Co-operation of IL-1 and IL-2 on T-cell activation in mononuclear cell cultures. Immunol Invest 2001; 30:289-302. [PMID: 11777281 DOI: 10.1081/imm-100108164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In search of an optimized anti-cancer immunotherapy, the combination of IL-2 and IL-1 has been tried. In an in-vitro LAK model, this cytokine cocktail seemed to be quite promising. In our in-vitro model of IL-2 induced T-cell activation we have therefore investigated the co-operation of these two potent immunostimulators. Mononuclear cells were stimulated with CD3 activating antibody in the presence of different cytokines and blocking or neutralizing antibodies. Cytokine concentrations were detected in the supernatants with ELISA. Intracellular IFN-gamma and IL-4 in the different T-cell subsets was measured by flow cytometry. IL-1 and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) were up-regulated by IL-2, this was achieved independently of IL-12 or CD40/CD40L interaction. As a negative feedback mechanism, IL-1beta induced its natural antagonist, IL-1Ra. Both endogenous and exogenous IL-10 suppressed IL-1beta and induced IL-1Ra, thus markedly decreased the amount of functional IL-1. The combination of IL-2 and IL-1beta lead to a mildly increased Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) secretion (+20%, p < 0.05), however, this appeared to be the result of an increased IFN-gamma production per secreting cell, rather than of an increased recruitment of non-secreting cells. Similarly, IL-6 was also induced in an additive fashion (+30%, p < 0.05). For both cytokines, this effect could be significantly augmented by neutralizing IL-1Ra. Concentrations of IL-2 induced IL-10 and soluble Fas ligand (sFasL) were not affected by IL-1beta. We were thus able to demonstrate that IL-1 relays its activity through different pathways than IL-2. Furthermore, we could show that the potentially synergistic action of IL-2 and IL-1 was hindered by the simultaneous induction of signficant amounts of IL-1Ra. From the latter findings we conclude that the combination of IL-2 and IL-1 for cytokine-induced anti-tumor activity may not, but a combination of IL-2 and anti-IL-1Ra might prove beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Verheyen
- Heinrich-Heine University, Center of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Bönig H, Laws HJ, Wundes A, Verheyen J, Hannen M, Kim YM, Banning U, Nürnberger W, Körholz D. In vivo cytokine responses to interleukin-2 immunotherapy after autologous stem cell transplantation in children with solid tumors. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000; 26:91-6. [PMID: 10918410 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1702431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The potent immunostimulatory cytokine interleukin-2 (IL-2) has been extensively investigated for its potential to induce anti-tumor immunity in a number of tumor models. Only recently the complex interplay of mutually suppressive or supportive cytokines of the IL-2-induced network of cytokines has been better characterized. The aim of this study was to assess which of these in vitro findings are reproducible in vivo in recipients of stem cell transplants (SCT), since in these patients long- lasting impairments in cytokine inducibility have been described. We have therefore studied the kinetics of putative modulators and mediators of IL-2-induced immune activation, namely IL-1beta, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-12, soluble Fas ligand (sFasL), and GM-CSF during IL-2 therapy. All patients were children or adolescents suffering from solid tumors with poor prognosis who received three 5-day courses of high-dose intravenous IL-2 as an adjuvant to their radio-chemotherapy and autologous SCT. While IL-1beta, IL-4 and IL-12 were not, and sFasL was only mildly affected by the IL-2 therapy, we observed a consistent and early rise of IL-10, IL-5, and GM-CSF. These increases were rapidly reversible after discontinuation of IL-2 therapy. The inducibility of IL-10, IL-5 and GM-CSF was more pronounced with increasing time from the SCT, and in the third cycle reached an order of magnitude as in high-dose IL-2 patients without SCT. Together with the abundant in vitro data, these findings may help devise a combination immunotherapy permitting stronger anti-tumor effects, but lesser adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bönig
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Center of Child Health, Heinrich-Heine University Medical Center, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Abstract
Interleukin-2 has pleiotropic actions on the immune system and plays a vital role in the modulation of immune responses. Our current understanding of IL-2 signaling has resulted from in vitro studies that have identified the signaling pathways activated by IL-2, including the Jak-STAT pathways, and from in vivo studies that have analyzed mice in which IL-2, each chain of the receptor, as well a number of signaling molecules have been individually targeted by homologous recombination. Moreover, mutations in IL-2Ralpha, gamma(c) and Jak3 have been found in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency. In addition, with the discovery that two components of the receptor, IL-2Rbeta and gamma(c), are shared by other cytokine receptors, we have an enhanced appreciation of the contributions of these molecules towards cytokine specificity, pleiotropy and redundancy.
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Epling-Burnette PK, Wei S, Liu JH, Pericle F, Ussery D, Russell SM, Leonard WJ, Djeu JY. Expression of interleukin-2 receptor gamma on human monocytes: characterization of lineage specific post-translational modifications. Eur J Immunol 1995; 25:291-4. [PMID: 7843245 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830250148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Functional interleukin-2 receptors (IL-2R) on lymphocytes contain both IL-2R beta and gamma chains. Whereas constitutive expression of IL-2R beta has been found on monocytes, the expression of IL-2R gamma on these phagocytes has not been examined. We performed reverse-transcription-polymerase chain reaction with Southern blot analysis on RNA derived from purified human monocytes and discovered that they constitutively produce IL-2R gamma mRNA. Western immunoblotting revealed 58- and 64-kDa forms of IL-2R gamma on YT-1 and human monocytes, whereas 58-, 64-, and 69-kDa bands were detected using peripheral blood mononuclear cells and non-adherent lymphocytes. These different forms resulted from variable N-linked glycosylation since culture of the cells in tunicamycin resulted in detection of a single 39-kDa band which corresponds to the molecular weight predicted from the deduced amino acid sequence. By co-immunoprecipitation, the IL-2R beta subunit associates with only the 64-kDa IL-2R gamma protein band in monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P K Epling-Burnette
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Immunology Research Program, Tampa, FL 33612
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Vollenweider I, Moser R, Groscurth P. Development of four donor-specific phenotypes in human long-term lymphokine-activated killer cell cultures. Cancer Immunol Immunother 1994; 39:305-12. [PMID: 7987862 PMCID: PMC11038294 DOI: 10.1007/bf01519983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/1994] [Accepted: 07/29/1994] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A series of 62 lymphokine-activated killer cell (LAK) cultures from 44 different donors was investigated for the distribution of various CD markers during a cultivation period of 3 weeks. Great differences in the phenotypic pattern were found between different donors, but similar changes of the subset pattern of various donors allowed a classification of the LAK cultures into four distinct LAK types. LAK type 1 was characterised by low numbers of CD3+ cells and high values for CD56+ cells. In LAK type 2 cultures gamma/delta TCR+ cells extensively proliferated, whereas in LAK type 3 cultures the CD57 and CD8 values increased considerably. LAK type 4 cultures did not show any of these characteristics. The resulting phenotype of a LAK culture was donor-specific, as LAK cultures established from the same peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), fresh or after cryopreservation, or from PBMC obtained from the same donor at different venous punctures, always developed the same phenotype. A clear correlation between phenotype and killing activity could only be found for LAK type 1 cultures, which always developed high lytic activity. Long-term IL-2 stimulation induced high levels of perforin-positive cells in LAK cultures but the perforin content did not correlate with the cytotoxicity. The transcription pattern for various cytokines only varied slightly between the cultures. Messenger RNA for granulocyte/macrophage- colony-stimulating factor, interferon gamma, tumour necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-5 were found in almost all cultures during the entire cultivation period, whereas mRNA for IL-2 was never detected. Most variations in the transcription pattern were observed for IL-6 and IL-7. However, no correlation could be found between the endogenous cytokine production and the phenotype or lytic activity of the LAK cultures. Further studies are required to determine the factors that cause lymphocyte subsets from a specific donor to proliferate preferentially under long-term IL-2 stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Vollenweider
- Division of Cell Biology, University of Zürich-Irchel, Switzerland
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Deehan DJ, Heys SD, Simpson W, Herriot R, Broom J, Eremin O. Correlation of serum cytokine and acute phase reactant levels with alterations in weight and serum albumin in patients receiving immunotherapy with recombinant IL-2. Clin Exp Immunol 1994; 95:366-72. [PMID: 7511074 PMCID: PMC1535097 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1994.tb07005.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Recombinant IL-2 (rIL-2) has been used alone or in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents to enhance host defences against cancer. Prolonged administration of high doses, required for clinical efficacy, may precipitate serious dose-limiting toxicity. rIL-2-induced 'vascular leak syndrome' leads to hypotension, renal insufficiency, respiratory disturbances and other organ dysfunctions. Serial measurements of serum cytokines and the acute phase protein C-reactive protein (CRP) were performed on nine patients who received high-dose i.v. continuous therapy with rIL-2. The influence of these immunological parameters upon alterations in patients' weight and serum albumin, as indicators of toxicity, was assessed. All patients experienced weight increases during the cycle (3-11% of total body weight). The serum levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) and CRP were highly predictive of alterations in patients' weight (both P < 0.001), while no correlation was found with IL-6 and weight change. Serum albumin fell linearly throughout the infusion cycle, but this showed no correlation with variations in serum levels of IL-6, TNF-alpha, or CRP. The complement components C3 and C4 were significantly reduced at the end of the infusion, suggesting a possible role for this cascade system in mediating these clinical changes. The strong association between serum TNF-alpha and weight change, not previously documented, further supports the hypothesis that TNF-alpha is a key mediator in the pathogenesis of the 'vascular leak syndrome'.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Deehan
- Department of Surgery, University of Aberdeen, UK
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