Dock3 attenuates neural cell death due to NMDA neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in a mouse model of normal tension glaucoma

Glaucoma Animal Models beyond Chronic IOP Increase

Glaucoma is a complex and multifactorial disease defined as the loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons. Besides an elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), other mechanisms play a pivotal role in glaucoma onset and progression. For example, it is known that excitotoxicity, immunological alterations, ischemia, and oxidative stress contribute to the neurodegeneration in glaucoma disease. To study these effects and to discover novel therapeutic approaches, appropriate animal models are needed. In this review, we focus on various glaucoma animal models beyond an elevated IOP. We introduce genetically modified mice, e.g., the optineurin E50K knock-in or the glutamate aspartate transporter (GLAST)-deficient mouse. Excitotoxicity can be mimicked by injecting the glutamate analogue N-methyl-D-aspartate intravitreally, which leads to rapid RGC degeneration. To explore the contribution of the immune system, the experimental autoimmune glaucoma model can serve as a useful tool. Here, immunization with antigens led to glaucoma-like damage. The ischemic mechanism can be mimicked by inducing a high IOP for a certain amount of time in rodents, followed by reperfusion. Thereby, damage to the retina and the optic nerve occurs rapidly after ischemia/reperfusion. Lastly, we discuss the importance of optic nerve crush models as model systems for normal-tension glaucoma. In summary, various glaucoma models beyond IOP increase can be utilized.

Melatonin prevents EAAC1 deletion-induced retinal ganglion cell degeneration by inhibiting apoptosis and senescence

Normal tension glaucoma (NTG) is referred to as a progressive degenerative disorder of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), resulting in nonreversible visual defects, despite intraocular pressure levels within the statistically normal range. Current therapeutic strategies for NTG yield limited benefits. Excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) knockout (EAAC1-/- ) in mice has been shown to induce RGC degeneration without elevating intraocular pressure, mimicking pathological characteristics of NTG. In this study, we explored whether daily oral administration of melatonin could block RGCs loss and prevent retinal morphology and function defects associated with EAAC1 deletion. We also explored the molecular mechanisms underlying EAAC1 deletion-induced RGC degeneration and the neuroprotective effects of melatonin. Our RNA sequencing and in vivo data indicated EAAC1 deletion caused elevated oxidative stress, activation of apoptosis and cellular senescence pathways, and neuroinflammation in RGCs. However, melatonin administration efficiently prevented these detrimental effects. Furthermore, we investigated the potential role of apoptosis- and senescence-related redox-sensitive factors in EAAC1 deletion-induced RGCs degeneration and the neuroprotective effects of melatonin administration. We observed remarkable upregulation of p53, whereas NRF2 and Sirt1 expression were significantly decreased in EAAC1-/- mice, which were prevented by melatonin treatment, suggesting that melatonin exerted its neuroprotective effects possibly through modulating NRF2/p53/Sirt1 redox-sensitive signaling pathways. Overall, our study provided a solid foundation for the application of melatonin in the management of NTG.

Genetic rodent models of glaucoma in representing disease phenotype and insights into the pathogenesis

Genetic rodent models are widely used in glaucoma related research. With vast amount of information revealed by human studies about genetic correlations with glaucoma, use of these models is relevant and required. In this review, we discuss the glaucoma endophenotypes and importance of their representation in an experimental animal model. Mice and rats are the most popular animal species used as genetic models due to ease of genetic manipulations in these animal species as well as the availability of their genomic information. With technological advances, induction of glaucoma related genetic mutations commonly observed in human is possible to achieve in rodents in a desirable manner. This approach helps to study the pathobiology of the disease process with the background of genetic abnormalities, reveals potential therapeutic targets and gives an opportunity to test newer therapeutic options. Various genetic manipulation leading to appearance of human relevant endophenotypes in rodents indicate their relevance in glaucoma pathology and the utility of these rodent models for exploring various aspects of the disease related to targeted mutation. The molecular pathways involved in the pathophysiology of glaucoma leading to elevated intraocular pressure and the disease hallmark, apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells and optic nerve degeneration, have been extensively explored in genetic rodent models. In this review, we discuss the consequences of various genetic manipulations based on the primary site of pathology in the anterior or the posterior segment. We discuss how these genetic manipulations produce features in rodents that can be considered a close representation of disease phenotype in human. We also highlight several molecular mechanisms revealed by using genetic rodent models of glaucoma including those involved in increased aqueous outflow resistance, loss of retinal ganglion cells and optic neuropathy. Lastly, we discuss the limitations of the use of genetic rodent models in glaucoma related research.

Therapeutic strategies for glaucoma and optic neuropathies

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative eye disease that causes permanent vision impairment. The main pathological characteristics of glaucoma are retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and optic nerve degeneration. Glaucoma can be caused by elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), although some cases are congenital or occur in patients with normal IOP. Current glaucoma treatments rely on medicine and surgery to lower IOP, which only delays disease progression. First-line glaucoma medicines are supported by pharmacotherapy advancements such as Rho kinase inhibitors and innovative drug delivery systems. Glaucoma surgery has shifted to safer minimally invasive (or microinvasive) glaucoma surgery, but further trials are needed to validate long-term efficacy. Further, growing evidence shows that adeno-associated virus gene transduction and stem cell-based RGC replacement therapy hold potential to treat optic nerve fiber degeneration and glaucoma. However, better understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of RGC development is needed to provide insight into RGC differentiation from stem cells and help choose target genes for viral therapy. In this review, we overview current progress in RGC development research, optic nerve fiber regeneration, and human stem cell-derived RGC differentiation and transplantation. We also provide an outlook on perspectives and challenges in the field.

L- and T-type Ca2+ channels dichotomously contribute to retinal ganglion cell injury in experimental glaucoma

Retinal ganglion cell apoptotic death is the main pathological characteristic of glaucoma, which is the leading cause of irreversible blindness. Disruption of Ca²⁺ homeostasis plays an important role in glaucoma. Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channel blockers have been shown to improve vision in patients with glaucoma. However, whether and how voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels are involved in retinal ganglion cell apoptotic death are largely unknown. In this study, we found that total Ca²⁺ current densities in retinal ganglion cells were reduced in a rat model of chronic ocular hypertension experimental glaucoma, as determined by whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiological recordings. Further analysis showed that L-type Ca²⁺ currents were downregulated while T-type Ca²⁺ currents were upregulated at the later stage of glaucoma. Western blot assay and immunofluorescence experiments confirmed that expression of the Ca_V1.2 subunit of L-type Ca²⁺ channels was reduced and expression of the Ca_V3.3 subunit of T-type Ca²⁺ channels was increased in retinas of the chronic ocular hypertension model. Soluble tumor necrosis factor-α, an important inflammatory factor, inhibited the L-type Ca²⁺ current of isolated retinal ganglion cells from control rats and enhanced the T-type Ca²⁺ current. These changes were blocked by the tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitor XPro1595, indicating that both types of Ca²⁺ currents may be mediated by soluble tumor necrosis factor-α. The intracellular mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway and nuclear factor kappa-B signaling pathway mediate the effects of tumor necrosis factor-α. TUNEL assays revealed that mibefradil, a T-type calcium channel blocker, reduced the number of apoptotic retinal ganglion cells in the rat model of chronic ocular hypertension. These results suggest that T-type Ca²⁺ channels are involved in disrupted Ca²⁺ homeostasis and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in glaucoma, and application of T-type Ca²⁺ channel blockers, especially a specific Ca_V3.3 blocker, may be a potential strategy for the treatment of glaucoma.

Neuroprotection and axon regeneration by novel low-molecular-weight compounds through the modification of DOCK3 conformation

Dedicator of cytokinesis 3 (DOCK3) is an atypical member of the guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and plays important roles in neurite outgrowth. DOCK3 forms a complex with Engulfment and cell motility protein 1 (Elmo1) and effectively activates Rac1 and actin dynamics. In this study, we screened 462,169 low-molecular-weight compounds and identified the hit compounds that stimulate the interaction between DOCK3 and Elmo1, and neurite outgrowth in vitro. Some of the derivatives from the hit compound stimulated neuroprotection and axon regeneration in a mouse model of optic nerve injury. Our findings suggest that the low-molecular-weight DOCK3 activators could be a potential therapeutic candidate for treating axonal injury and neurodegenerative diseases including glaucoma.

Regulatory mechanisms of retinal ganglion cell death in normal tension glaucoma and potential therapies

Normal tension glaucoma (NTG) is a multifactorial optic neuropathy characterized by normal intraocular pressure, progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death, and glaucomatous visual field loss. Recent studies have described the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of NTG. In addition to controlling intraocular pressure, neuroprotection and reduction of RGC degeneration may be beneficial therapies for NTG. In this review, we summarized the main regulatory mechanisms of RGC death in NTG, including autophagy, glutamate neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, immunity, and vasoconstriction. Autophagy can be induced by retinal hypoxia and axonal damage. In this process, ischemia can cause mutations of optineurin and activate the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway. Glutamate neurotoxicity is induced by the over-stimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate membrane receptors by glutamate, which occurs in RGCs and induces progressive glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Oxidative stress also participates in NTG-related glaucomatous optic neuropathy. It impairs the mitochondrial and DNA function of RGCs through the apoptosis signal-regulating kinase-JUN N-terminal kinase pathway. Moreover, it increases inflammation and the immune response of RGCs. Endothelin 1 causes endothelial dysfunction and impairment of ocular blood flow, promoting vasospasm and glaucomatous optic neuropathy, as a result of NTG. In conclusion, we discussed research progress on potential options for the protection of RGCs, including TANK binding kinase 1 inhibitors regulating autophagy, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists inhibiting glutamate toxicity, ASK1 inhibitors regulating mitochondrial function, and antioxidants inhibiting oxidative stress. In NTG, RGC death is regulated by a network of mechanisms, while various potential targets protect RGCs. Collectively, these findings provide insight into the pathogenesis of NTG and potential therapeutic strategies.

Aldosterone as a Possible Contributor to Eye Diseases

Aldosterone, an effector molecule of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), has been receiving more attention in the field of ophthalmology because of its possible role in the pathogenesis of various eye diseases or abnormalities; it may even become a target for their treatment. Primary aldosteronism, a typical model of a systemic aldosterone excess, may cause vision loss due to various ocular diseases, such as retinal vein occlusion, central serous chorioretinopathy, and, possibly glaucoma. RAAS components are present in various parts and types of cells present in the eye. Investigations of the local RAAS in various animal models of diabetic macular edema, retinal vein occlusion, retinopathy of prematurity, central serous chorioretinopathy, and glaucoma have found evidence that aldosterone or mineralocorticoid receptors may exacerbate the pathology of these disorders. Further studies are needed to elucidate whether the modulation of aldosterone or mineralocorticoid receptors is an effective treatment for preventing vision loss in patients with eye diseases.

The Retinal Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System: Implications for Glaucoma

Aldosterone is one of the main effectors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) along with having roles in hypertension, and cardiovascular and renal diseases. Recent evidence has also shown the presence of an active local RAAS within the human eye. It has been shown that at 12 h after a retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, there is an upregulation of the protein levels of angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1-R) in the retina. Furthermore, at 12 h after reperfusion, there is an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the retina that is mediated via an NADPH oxidase pathway. This ischemia-reperfusion injury-induced increase of retinal ROS levels and NADPH oxidase expression can be prevented by the administration of an AT1-R antagonist. This suggests that one of the main retinal ischemic injury pathways is via the local RAAS. It has also been reported that progressive retinal ganglion cell loss and glaucomatous optic nerve degeneration without elevated intraocular pressure occur after administration of local or systemic aldosterone. Elucidation of glaucoma pathogenesis, especially normal-tension glaucoma (NTG) subtype by our current animal model can be used for identifying potential therapeutic targets. Based on these results, we are further evaluating NTG prevalence among primary aldosteronism patients.

Restoring the oxidative balance in age-related diseases - An approach in glaucoma

As human life expectancy increases, age-related health issues including neurodegenerative diseases continue to rise. Regardless of genetic or environmental factors, many neurodegenerative conditions share common pathological mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, a hallmark of many age-related health burdens. In this review, we describe oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunction in glaucoma, an age-related neurodegenerative eye disease affecting 80 million people worldwide. We consider therapeutic approaches used to counteract oxidative stress in glaucoma, including untapped treatment options such as novel plant-derived antioxidant compounds that can reduce oxidative stress and prevent neuronal loss. We summarize the current pre-clinical models and clinical work exploring the therapeutic potential of a range of candidate plant-derived antioxidant compounds. Finally, we explore advances in drug delivery systems, particular those employing nanotechnology-based carriers which hold significant promise as a carrier for antioxidants to treat age-related disease, thus reviewing the key current state of all of the aspects required towards translation.

From Menopause to Neurodegeneration-Molecular Basis and Potential Therapy

The impacts of menopause on neurodegenerative diseases, especially the changes in steroid hormones, have been well described in cell models, animal models, and humans. However, the therapeutic effects of hormone replacement therapy on postmenopausal women with neurodegenerative diseases remain controversial. The steroid hormones, steroid hormone receptors, and downstream signal pathways in the brain change with aging and contribute to disease progression. Estrogen and progesterone are two steroid hormones which decline in circulation and the brain during menopause. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which plays an import role in neuroprotection, is rapidly decreased in serum after menopause. Here, we summarize the actions of estrogen, progesterone, and IGF-1 and their signaling pathways in the brain. Since the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is higher in women than in men, the associations of steroid hormone changes and AD are emphasized. The signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms for how steroid hormones and IGF-1 provide neuroprotection are also addressed. Finally, the molecular mechanisms of potential estrogen modulation on N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptors (NMDARs) are also addressed. We provide the viewpoint of why hormone therapy has inconclusive results based on signaling pathways considering their complex response to aging and hormone treatments. Nonetheless, while diagnosable AD may not be treatable by hormone therapy, its preceding stage of mild cognitive impairment may very well be treatable by hormone therapy.

MicroRNA-145-5p targeting of TRIM2 mediates the apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in glaucoma

BACKGROUND

There is accumulating evidence to suggest that microRNAs (miRNAs) are associated with the progressive optic neuropathy including glaucoma. Apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a hallmark of glaucoma. The present study focused on the effects of miR-145-5p on RGC apoptosis in glaucoma.

METHODS

We established a glaucoma rat model by intraocular injection of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA). RGCs were isolated from newborn rats and treated with NMDA. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed to detect morphological changes in the retinas of rats. The expression of miR-145-5p and tripartite motif-containing 2 (TRIM2) in RGCs was measured by RT-qPCR. The viability of RGCs was measured by MTT assay. Flow cytometry analysis and TUNEL assays were conducted to assess the apoptosis of RGCs. The interaction between miR-145-5p and TRIM2 was investigated using a luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

Rats injected with NMDA showed a thinner ganglion cell layer (GCL) and inner plexiform layer (IPL) as well as increased expression of miR-145-5p. Silencing of miR-145-5p significantly increased the GCL and IPL in the glaucoma rat model. Moreover, miR-145-5p expression was upregulated in RGCs ex vivo in response to NMDA. Silencing of miR-145-5p promoted cell viability and suppressed apoptosis in NMDA-treated RGCs. Mechanistically, miR-145-5p targeted the TRIM2 3' untranslated region to suppress its expression. TRIM2 was upregulated in NMDA-treated RGCs and protected RGCs against NMDA-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, miR-145-5p suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway by downregulating TRIM2 in NMDA-treated RGCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Suppression of miR-145-5p inhibited the apoptosis of RGCs via TRIM2-mediated activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in NMDA-induced glaucoma.

Comparative Proteomics Unveils LRRFIP1 as a New Player in the DAPK1 Interactome of Neurons Exposed to Oxygen and Glucose Deprivation

Death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1) is a pleiotropic hub of a number of networked distributed intracellular processes. Among them, DAPK1 is known to interact with the excitotoxicity driver NMDA receptor (NMDAR), and in sudden pathophysiological conditions of the brain, e.g., stroke, several lines of evidence link DAPK1 with the transduction of glutamate-induced events that determine neuronal fate. In turn, DAPK1 expression and activity are known to be affected by the redox status of the cell. To delineate specific and differential neuronal DAPK1 interactors in stroke-like conditions in vitro, we exposed primary cultures of rat cortical neurons to oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD), a condition that increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxides. OGD or control samples were co-immunoprecipitated separately, trypsin-digested, and proteins in the interactome identified by high-resolution LC-MS/MS. Data were processed and curated using bioinformatics tools. OGD increased total DAPK1 protein levels, cleavage into shorter isoforms, and dephosphorylation to render the active DAPK1 form. The DAPK1 interactome comprises some 600 proteins, mostly involving binding, catalytic and structural molecular functions. OGD up-regulated 190 and down-regulated 192 candidate DAPK1-interacting proteins. Some differentially up-regulated interactors related to NMDAR were validated by WB. In addition, a novel differential DAPK1 partner, LRRFIP1, was further confirmed by reverse Co-IP. Furthermore, LRRFIP1 levels were increased by pro-oxidant conditions such as ODG or the ferroptosis inducer erastin. The present study identifies novel partners of DAPK1, such as LRRFIP1, which are suitable as targets for neuroprotection.

Cytoprotective Effect of Astaxanthin in a Model of Normal Intraocular Pressure Glaucoma

Glaucoma is characterized by axonal degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and apoptotic death of their cell bodies. Lowering intraocular pressure is currently the only way to treat glaucoma, but it is often insufficient to inhibit the progression of the disease. Glaucoma is a multifactorial disease, and the involvement of oxidative stress has recently received much attention. In the present study, we investigated the cytoprotective effect of astaxanthin (AST) on RGC degeneration using a normal-tension glaucoma (NTG) mouse model, which lacks the glutamate/aspartate transporter (Glast) and demonstrates spontaneous RGC and optic nerve degeneration without elevated intraocular pressure. Three-week-old Glast^± mice were given intraperitoneal injections of AST at 10, 30, or 60 mg/kg/day or vehicle alone, and littermate control mice were given vehicle alone for 14 days, respectively. Five weeks after birth, the number of RGCs was counted in paraffin sections of retinal tissues stained with hematoxylin and eosin. We also used a retrograde labeling technique to quantify the number of RGCs. Additionally, the phosphorylated (p) IκB/total IκB ratio and the 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) were measured in retinal tissues. The number of RGCs in Glast^± mice was significantly decreased compared with that in control mice. RGC loss was suppressed by the administration of AST at 60 mg/kg/day, compared with vehicle alone. Following AST administration, the concentration of 4-HNE in the retina was also suppressed, but the pIκB/IκB ratio did not change. Our study revealed that the antioxidative stress effects of AST inhibit RGC degeneration in the retina and may be useful in the treatment of NTG.

Suppression of Oxidative Stress as Potential Therapeutic Approach for Normal Tension Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease of the eye, which involves degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs): the output neurons of the retina to the brain, which with their axons comprise the optic nerve. Recent studies have shown the possible involvement of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, especially in the subtype of normal tension glaucoma. Basic experiments utilizing rodent and primate models of glaucoma revealed that antioxidants protect RGCs under various pathological conditions including glutamate neurotoxicity and optic nerve injury. These results suggested that existing drugs and food factors may be useful for prevention and hence therapy of glaucoma. In this review, we highlight some therapeutic candidates, particularly those with antioxidant properties, and discuss the therapeutic potential of RGC protection by modulating gene expressions that prevent and ameliorate glaucoma.

Protective effects of carnosic acid on retinal ganglion cells in acute ocular hypertension rats

OBJECTIVE

To observe the protective effects of carnosic acid on rat retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) among acute ocular hypertension rats.

METHODS

Sixty male SPF (specific-pathogen-free) SD rats (10 weeks) were randomly assigned to untreated group, carnosic-acid-treated group and hypertensive group with 20 rats for each. The acute ocular hypertension animal model was induced by the perfusion of normal saline solution into anterior chamber of eyes to elevate the intraocular pressure (IOP) to 110 mmHg for 60 min in the rats of the carnosic-acid-treated group and hypertensive group. Then, the carnosic acid dissolving in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was intraperitoneally injected for consecutive 7 days in the carnosic-acid-treated group, and only DMSO was used in the same way in the hypertensive group. The rats were killed 2 weeks after experiment, and retinal sections were prepared for histopathological and apoptotic retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) examination by hemotoxylin and eosin staining and TUNEL staining. Use immunofluorescence employed to examine the survival of RGCs. This study protocol was approved by the Ethic Committee for Experimental Animal of Three Gorges University.

RESULTS

The retinal morphology and structure were clear in the untreated group. The edema of retinal tissue, loosely arranged RGCs and swollen nucleus were seen in the hypertensive group. In the carnosic-acid-treated group, the retinal morphology and structure were regular. The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness was (32.96 ± 1.63), (58.96 ± 1.57) and (50.11 ± 2.37) μm, and the apoptotic cell number was (6.92 ± 2.96), (29.85 ± 6.40) and (14.69 ± 2.98)/field, and the survived cell number was (2363.17 ± 148.45), (1308.67 ± 106.02) and (1614.17 ± 96.39)/0.235 mm² in the untreated group, hypertensive group and carnosic-acid-treated group, respectively, showing significant differences among groups (F = 339.284, 81.583, 122.68, all at P < 0.01). Compared with the untreated group, the RNFL thickness was thickened, the number of apoptotic RGCs was much more, and the number of survived RGCs was decreased in the hypertensive group. In the carnosic-acid-treated group, the RNFL thickness was thinner, the number of apoptotic RGCs was reduced, and the number of survived RGCs was increased in comparison with the untreated group (all at P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Carnosic acid plays a protective effect on RGCs by inhibiting the cell apoptosis in acute ocular hypertension rats.

Rac1 Modulates Excitatory Synaptic Transmission in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1), a member of the Rho GTPase family which plays important roles in dendritic spine morphology and plasticity, is a key regulator of cytoskeletal reorganization in dendrites and spines. Here, we investigated whether and how Rac1 modulates synaptic transmission in mouse retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) using selective conditional knockout of Rac1 (Rac1-cKO). Rac1-cKO significantly reduced the frequency of AMPA receptor-mediated miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents, while glycine/GABA_A receptor-mediated miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents were not affected. Although the total GluA1 protein level was increased in Rac1-cKO mice, its expression in the membrane component was unchanged. Rac1-cKO did not affect spine-like branch density in single dendrites, but significantly reduced the dendritic complexity, which resulted in a decrease in the total number of dendritic spine-like branches. These results suggest that Rac1 selectively affects excitatory synaptic transmission in RGCs by modulating dendritic complexity.

Mammalian Near-Infrared Image Vision through Injectable and Self-Powered Retinal Nanoantennae

Mammals cannot see light over 700 nm in wavelength. This limitation is due to the physical thermodynamic properties of the photon-detecting opsins. However, the detection of naturally invisible near-infrared (NIR) light is a desirable ability. To break this limitation, we developed ocular injectable photoreceptor-binding upconversion nanoparticles (pbUCNPs). These nanoparticles anchored on retinal photoreceptors as miniature NIR light transducers to create NIR light image vision with negligible side effects. Based on single-photoreceptor recordings, electroretinograms, cortical recordings, and visual behavioral tests, we demonstrated that mice with these nanoantennae could not only perceive NIR light, but also see NIR light patterns. Excitingly, the injected mice were also able to differentiate sophisticated NIR shape patterns. Moreover, the NIR light pattern vision was ambient-daylight compatible and existed in parallel with native daylight vision. This new method will provide unmatched opportunities for a wide variety of emerging bio-integrated nanodevice designs and applications. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Establishment of an adult zebrafish model of retinal neurodegeneration induced by NMDA

AIM

To establish a model of retinal neurodegeneration induced by N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) in adult zebrafish.

METHODS

We compared the effects of three different NMDA delivery methods on retinal neurodegeneration in adult zebrafish: immersion (I.M.), intravitreal injection (I.V.), and intraperitoneal injection (I.P.), and examined retinal pathology and degeneration by hematoxylin and eosin and TUNEL staining in the treated zebrafish. Effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 and the natural product resveratrol on NMDA-induced retinal neurodegeneration were also assessed.

RESULTS

The thickened inner retina was seen in histology with 100 µmol/L NMDA by I.M. administration. Significant apoptosis in the retinal ganglion cell layer and retinal thickness reduction occurred in 0.5 mol/L NMDA I.P. administration group.Seizure-like behavioral changes, but no retinal histological alteration occurred in 16 mg/kg NMDA I.P. administration group. Resveratrol and MK-801 prevented NMDA-induced retinal neurodegeneration in the zebrafish.

CONCLUSION

Among the three drug administration methods, I.V. injection of NMDA is the most suitable for establishment of an acute retinal damage model in zebrafish. I.M. with NMDA is likely the best for use as a chronic retinal damage model. I.P. treatment with NMDA causes brain damage. Resveratrol and MK801 may be a clinically valuable treatment for retinal neurodegeneration.

Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Damage of Retinal Neurons: Drug Development Targets for Therapies of Chronic Neurodegeneration of the Retina

The significance of oxidative stress in the development of chronic neurodegenerative diseases of the retina has become increasingly apparent in recent years. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are free radicals produced at low levels as a result of normal cellular metabolism that are ultimately metabolized and detoxified by endogenous and exogenous mechanisms. In the presence of oxidative cellular stress, ROS are produced in excess, resulting in cellular injury and death and ultimately leading to tissue and organ dysfunction. Recent studies have investigated the role of excess ROS in the pathogenesis and development of chronic neurodegenerative diseases of the retina including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration. Findings from these studies are promising insofar as they provide clear rationales for innovative treatment and prevention strategies of these prevalent and disabling diseases where currently therapeutic options are limited. Here, we briefly outline recent developments that have contributed to our understanding of the role of ROS in the pathogenesis of chronic neurodegenerative diseases of the retina. We then examine and analyze the peer-reviewed evidence in support of ROS as targets for therapy development in the area of chronic neurodegeneration of the retina.

Recent advances in genetically modified animal models of glaucoma and their roles in drug repositioning

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of vision loss in the world. Currently, pharmacological intervention for glaucoma therapy is limited to eye drops that reduce intraocular pressure (IOP). Recent studies have shown that various factors as well as IOP are involved in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, especially in the subtype of normal tension glaucoma. To date, various animal models of glaucoma have been established, including glutamate/aspartate transporter knockout (KO) mice, excitatory amino acid carrier 1 KO mice, optineurin E50K knock-in mice, DBA/2J mice and experimentally induced models. These animal models are very useful for elucidating the pathogenesis of glaucoma and for identifying potential therapeutic targets. However, each model represents only some aspects of glaucoma, never the whole disease. This review will summarise the benefits and limitations of using disease models of glaucoma and recent basic research in retinal protection using existing drugs.

Role of neuritin in retinal ganglion cell death in adult mice following optic nerve injury

Neuritin is a small extracellular protein that plays important roles in the process of neural development, synaptic plasticity, and neural cell survival. Here we investigated the function of neuritin in a mouse model of optic nerve injury (ONI). ONI induced upregulation of neuritin mRNA in the retina of WT mice. The retinal structure and the number of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) were normal in adult neuritin knockout (KO) mice. In vivo retinal imaging and histopathological analyses demonstrated that RGC death and inner retinal degeneration following ONI were more severe in neuritin KO mice. Immunoblot analyses revealed that ONI-induced phosphorylation of Akt and ERK were suppressed in neuritin KO mice. Our findings suggest that neuritin has neuroprotective effects following ONI and may be useful for treatment of posttraumatic complication.

Comparative analysis of retinal ganglion cell damage in three glaucomatous rat models

Progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death is the major cause of retinal nerve fiber layer thinning and visual field defects in glaucoma. The purpose of this study was to compare RGC damage in three commonly used glaucomatous rat models. These models were generated by (i) injection of paramagnetic microbeads into the anterior chamber; (ii) cauterization of three episcleral veins of the eye (EVC); and (iii) intravitreal injection of N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA). Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured with a rebound tonometer at 6, 12, and 18 h; 1, 3, and 5 days; and 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 weeks. We measured the RGC density of the three glaucomatous models in the flat-mounted retina by immunofluorescence. Subsequently, the thicknesses of both retinal ganglion cell layer (GCL) and inner retinal layer (IRL) were analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin staining of retinal sections. The visual functional deterioration was evaluated by measurement of the photopic negative response (PhNR) of different models. The IOP averages during three weeks were 22.35 ± 1.23 mmHg (mean ± SD), 20.91 ± 1.97 mmHg, and 9.67 ± 0.42 mmHg, with 50.2%, 44.00% and 66.76% RGC loss by 8 weeks, respectively, in the microbead group, EVC group and NMDA group. Decreased thickness in the GCL was observed in all three groups, while the thickness of IRL and ONL was decreased in the EVC and NMDA groups. Significant positive correlation of RGC loss rate with ΔIOP integral were demonstrated in both microbead and EVC models. Moreover, we found that the PhNR amplitudes declined early by the first day in the NMDA group, 5 days later in the EVC group and by 7 days in the microbead group. Each glaucomatous rat model has its strength and weakness. Our study provides detailed data for choosing suitable animal models to advance glaucoma research.

NMDA Receptors Contribute to Retrograde Synaptic Transmission from Ganglion Cell Photoreceptors to Dopaminergic Amacrine Cells

Recently, a line of evidence has demonstrated that the vertebrate retina possesses a novel retrograde signaling pathway. In this pathway, phototransduction is initiated by the photopigment melanopsin, which is expressed in a small population of retinal ganglion cells. These ganglion cell photoreceptors then signal to dopaminergic amacrine cells (DACs) through glutamatergic synapses, influencing visual light adaptation. We have previously demonstrated that in Mg²⁺-containing solution, α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA) receptors mediate this glutamatergic transmission. Here, we demonstrate that removing extracellular Mg²⁺ enhances melanopsin-based DAC light responses at membrane potentials more negative than −40 mV. Melanopsin-based responses in Mg²⁺-free solution were profoundly suppressed by the selective N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist D-AP5. In addition, application of NMDA to the retina produced excitatory inward currents in DACs. These data strongly suggest that DACs express functional NMDA receptors. We further found that in the presence of Mg²⁺, D-AP5 reduced the peak amplitude of melanopsin-based DAC responses by ~70% when the cells were held at their resting membrane potential (−50 mV), indicating that NMDA receptors are likely to contribute to retrograde signal transmission to DACs under physiological conditions. Moreover, our data show that melanopsin-based NMDA-receptor-mediated responses in DACs are suppressed by antagonists specific to either the NR2A or NR2B receptor subtype. Immunohistochemical results show that NR2A and NR2B subunits are expressed on DAC somata and processes. These results suggest that DACs express functional NMDA receptors containing both NR2A and NR2B subunits. Collectively, our data reveal that, along with AMPA receptors, NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDA receptors mediate retrograde signal transmission from ganglion cell photoreceptors to DACs.

Biallelic loss-of-function variants in DOCK3 cause muscle hypotonia, ataxia, and intellectual disability

DOCK3 encodes the dedicator of cytokinesis 3 protein, a member of the DOCK180 family of proteins that are characterized by guanine-nucleotide exchange factor activity. DOCK3 is expressed exclusively in the central nervous system and plays an important role in axonal outgrowth and cytoskeleton reorganization. Dock3 knockout mice exhibit motor deficiencies with abnormal ataxic gait and impaired learning. We report 2 siblings with biallelic loss-of-function variants in DOCK3. Diagnostic whole-exome sequencing (WES) and chromosomal microarray were performed on a proband with severe developmental disability, hypotonia, and ataxic gait. Testing was also performed on the proband's similarly affected brother. A paternally inherited 458 kb deletion in chromosomal region 3p21.2 disrupting the DOCK3 gene was identified in both affected siblings. WES identified a nonsense variant c.382C>G (p.Gln128*) in the DOCK3 gene (NM_004947) on the maternal allele in both siblings. Common features in both affected individuals include severe developmental disability, ataxic gait, and severe hypotonia, which recapitulates the Dock3 knockout mouse phenotype. We show that complete DOCK3 deficiency in humans leads to developmental disability with significant hypotonia and gait ataxia, probably due to abnormal axonal development.

Epigenetic intervention with a BET inhibitor ameliorates acute retinal ganglion cell death in mice

PURPOSE

The bromo and extraterminal (BET) epigenetic "reader" family is becoming an appealing new therapeutic target for several common diseases, yet little is known of its role in retinal neurodegeneration. We explored the potential of BET inhibition in the protection of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).

METHODS

To test the therapeutic effect of JQ1, an inhibitor highly selective for the BET family of proteins, we used an acute RGC damage model induced by N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) excitotoxicity. Adult C57BL/6 mice received an intravitreal injection of NMDA with (or without) JQ1 in one eye and vehicle control in the contralateral eye; RGC loss was assessed on retinal sections and whole mounts. Gene expression and apoptosis were analyzed by quantitative real time (RT)-PCR and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL), respectively. For counting RGCs, immunostaining of the marker protein BRN3A was performed on whole mounts.

RESULTS

NMDA treatment eliminated RGCs (day 7 and day 14 post injection) and diminished the expression (mRNAs) of RGC-selective genes, including Thy1, Nrn1, Sncg, and Nfl (day 3 and day 7). In contrast, co-injection with JQ1 maintained the number and gene expression of RGCs at ~2 fold of the control (NMDA only, no JQ1), and it decreased NMDA-induced TUNEL-positive cells in the RGC layer by 35%. While NMDA treatment dramatically upregulated mRNAs of inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β, MCP-1, RANTES) in retinal homogenates, co-injection with JQ1 suppressed their upregulation by ~50%.

CONCLUSIONS

Intravitreal injection of a BET inhibitor (JQ1) ameliorates NMDA-induced RGC death, revealing the RGC-protective potential of pharmacological blockage of the BET family. This new strategy of epigenetic intervention may be extended to other retinal degenerative conditions.

Targeting Oxidative Stress for Treatment of Glaucoma and Optic Neuritis

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease of the eye and it is one of the leading causes of blindness. Glaucoma is characterized by progressive degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons, namely, the optic nerve, usually associated with elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Current glaucoma therapies target reduction of IOP, but since RGC death is the cause of irreversible vision loss, neuroprotection may be an effective strategy for glaucoma treatment. One of the risk factors for glaucoma is increased oxidative stress, and drugs with antioxidative properties including valproic acid and spermidine, as well as inhibition of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1, an enzyme that is involved in oxidative stress, have been reported to prevent glaucomatous retinal degeneration in mouse models of glaucoma. Optic neuritis is a demyelinating inflammation of the optic nerve that presents with visual impairment and it is commonly associated with multiple sclerosis, a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Although steroids are commonly used for treatment of optic neuritis, reduction of oxidative stress by approaches such as gene therapy is effective in ameliorating optic nerve demyelination in preclinical studies. In this review, we discuss oxidative stress as a therapeutic target for glaucoma and optic neuritis.

Integrated Approaches to Drug Discovery for Oxidative Stress-Related Retinal Diseases

Excessive oxidative stress induces dysregulation of functional networks in the retina, resulting in retinal diseases such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Although various therapies have been developed to reduce oxidative stress in retinal diseases, most have failed to show efficacy in clinical trials. This may be due to oversimplification of target selection for such a complex network as oxidative stress. Recent advances in high-throughput technologies have facilitated the collection of multilevel omics data, which has driven growth in public databases and in the development of bioinformatics tools. Integration of the knowledge gained from omics databases can be used to generate disease-related biological networks and to identify potential therapeutic targets within the networks. Here, we provide an overview of integrative approaches in the drug discovery process and provide simple examples of how the approaches can be exploited to identify oxidative stress-related targets for retinal diseases.

Neuroprotection, Growth Factors and BDNF-TrkB Signalling in Retinal Degeneration

Neurotrophic factors play key roles in the development and survival of neurons. The potent neuroprotective effects of neurotrophic factors, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), suggest that they are good therapeutic candidates for neurodegenerative diseases. Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease of the eye that causes irreversible blindness. It is characterized by damage to the optic nerve, usually due to high intraocular pressure (IOP), and progressive degeneration of retinal neurons called retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Current therapy for glaucoma focuses on reduction of IOP, but neuroprotection may also be beneficial. BDNF is a powerful neuroprotective agent especially for RGCs. Exogenous application of BDNF to the retina and increased BDNF expression in retinal neurons using viral vector systems are both effective in protecting RGCs from damage. Furthermore, induction of BDNF expression by agents such as valproic acid has also been beneficial in promoting RGC survival. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic potential of neurotrophic factors in retinal diseases and focus on the differential roles of glial and neuronal TrkB in neuroprotection. We also discuss the role of neurotrophic factors in neuroregeneration.

Alteration of Golgi Structure by Stress: A Link to Neurodegeneration?

The Golgi apparatus is well-known for its role as a sorting station in the secretory pathway as well as for its role in regulating post-translational protein modification. Another role for the Golgi is the regulation of cellular signaling by spatially regulating kinases, phosphatases, and GTPases. All these roles make it clear that the Golgi is a central regulator of cellular homeostasis. The response to stress and the initiation of adaptive responses to cope with it are fundamental abilities of all living cells. It was shown previously that the Golgi undergoes structural rearrangements under various stress conditions such as oxidative or osmotic stress. Neurodegenerative diseases are also frequently associated with alterations of Golgi morphology and many stress factors have been described to play an etiopathological role in neurodegeneration. It is however unclear whether the stress-Golgi connection plays a role in neurodegenerative diseases. Using a combination of bioinformatics modeling and literature mining, we will investigate evidence for such a tripartite link and we ask whether stress-induced Golgi arrangements are cause or consequence in neurodegeneration.

TrkB Signaling in Retinal Glia Stimulates Neuroprotection after Optic Nerve Injury

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates neural cell survival mainly by activating TrkB receptors. Several lines of evidence support a key role for BDNF-TrkB signaling in survival of adult retinal ganglion cells in animal models of optic nerve injury (ONI), but the neuroprotective effect of exogenous BDNF is transient. Glial cells have recently attracted considerable attention as mediators of neural cell survival, and TrkB expression in retinal glia suggests its role in neuroprotection. To elucidate this point directly, we examined the effect of ONI on TrkB(flox/flox):glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-Cre+ (TrkB(GFAP)) knockout (KO) mice, in which TrkB is deleted in retinal glial cells. ONI markedly increased mRNA expression levels of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in wild-type (WT) mice but not in TrkB(GFAP) KO mice. Immunohistochemical analysis at 7 days after ONI (d7) revealed bFGF up-regulation mainly occurred in Müller glia. ONI-induced retinal ganglion cell loss in WT mice was consistently mild compared with TrkB(GFAP) KO mice at d7. On the other hand, ONI severely decreased TrkB expression in both WT and TrkB(GFAP) KO mice after d7, and the severity of retinal degeneration was comparable with TrkB(GFAP) KO mice at d14. Our data provide direct evidence that glial TrkB signaling plays an important role in the early stage of neural protection after traumatic injury.

Retinal ganglion cell apoptotic pathway in glaucoma: Initiating and downstream mechanisms

Apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in glaucoma causes progressive visual field loss, making it the primary cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Elevated intraocular pressure and aging, the main risk factors for glaucoma, accelerate RGC apoptosis. Numerous pathways and mechanisms were found to be involved in RGC death in glaucoma. Neurotrophic factors deprivation is an early event. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, glial cell dysfunction, and activation of apoptotic pathways and prosurvival pathways play a significant role in RGC death in glaucoma. The most important among the involved pathways are the MAP-kinase pathway, PI-3 kinase/Akt pathway, Bcl-2 family, caspase family, and IAP family.

Using genetic mouse models to gain insight into glaucoma: Past results and future possibilities

While all forms of glaucoma are characterized by a specific pattern of retinal ganglion cell death, they are clinically divided into several distinct subclasses, including normal tension glaucoma, primary open angle glaucoma, congenital glaucoma, and secondary glaucoma. For each type of glaucoma there are likely numerous molecular pathways that control susceptibility to the disease. Given this complexity, a single animal model will never precisely model all aspects of all the different types of human glaucoma. Therefore, multiple animal models have been utilized to study glaucoma but more are needed. Because of the powerful genetic tools available to use in the laboratory mouse, it has proven to be a highly useful mammalian system for studying the pathophysiology of human disease. The similarity between human and mouse eyes coupled with the ability to use a combination of advanced cell biological and genetic tools in mice have led to a large increase in the number of studies using mice to model specific glaucoma phenotypes. Over the last decade, numerous new mouse models and genetic tools have emerged, providing important insight into the cell biology and genetics of glaucoma. In this review, we describe available mouse genetic models that can be used to study glaucoma-relevant disease/pathobiology. Furthermore, we discuss how these models have been used to gain insights into ocular hypertension (a major risk factor for glaucoma) and glaucomatous retinal ganglion cell death. Finally, the potential for developing new mouse models and using advanced genetic tools and resources for studying glaucoma are discussed.

Regulating Rac in the nervous system: molecular function and disease implication of Rac GEFs and GAPs

Rho family GTPases, including RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 as the most studied members, are master regulators of actin cytoskeletal organization. Rho GTPases control various aspects of the nervous system and are associated with a number of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. The activity of Rho GTPases is controlled by two families of regulators, guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) as the activators and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) as the inhibitors. Through coordinated regulation by GEFs and GAPs, Rho GTPases act as converging signaling molecules that convey different upstream signals in the nervous system. So far, more than 70 members of either GEFs or GAPs of Rho GTPases have been identified in mammals, but only a small subset of them have well-known functions. Thus, characterization of important GEFs and GAPs in the nervous system is crucial for the understanding of spatiotemporal dynamics of Rho GTPase activity in different neuronal functions. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of GEFs and GAPs for Rac1, with emphasis on the molecular function and disease implication of these regulators in the nervous system.

Arundic acid attenuates retinal ganglion cell death by increasing glutamate/aspartate transporter expression in a model of normal tension glaucoma

Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness worldwide and is characterized by gradual visual impairment owing to progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons. Glutamate excitotoxicity has been implicated as a mechanism of RGC death in glaucoma. Consistent with this claim, we previously reported that glutamate/aspartate transporter (GLAST)-deficient mice show optic nerve degeneration that is similar to that observed in glaucoma. Therefore, drugs that upregulate GLAST may be useful for neuroprotection in glaucoma. Although many compounds are known to increase the expression of another glial glutamate transporter, EAAT2/GLT1, few compounds are shown to increase GLAST expression. Arundic acid is a glial modulating agent that ameliorates delayed ischemic brain damage by attenuating increases in extracellular glutamate. We hypothesized that arundic acid neuroprotection involves upregulation of GLAST. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of arundic acid on GLAST expression and glutamate uptake. We found that arundic acid induces GLAST expression in vitro and in vivo. In addition, arundic acid treatment prevented RGC death by upregulating GLAST in heterozygous (GLAST^+/−) mice. Furthermore, arundic acid stimulates the human GLAST ortholog, EAAT1, expression in human neuroglioblastoma cells. Thus, discovering compounds that can enhance EAAT1 expression and activity may be a novel strategy for therapeutic treatment of glaucoma.

Valproic acid prevents NMDA-induced retinal ganglion cell death via stimulation of neuronal TrkB receptor signaling

Valproic acid (VPA) is widely prescribed for treatment of epilepsy, mood disorders, migraines, and neuropathic pain. It exerts its therapeutic benefits through multiple mechanisms, including enhancement of GABAergic activity, activation of prosurvival protein kinases, and inhibition of histone deacetylase. Increasing evidence suggests that VPA possesses neuroprotective properties. We examined neuroprotective effects of VPA in an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) excitotoxicity model, which mimics some of the pathological features of glaucoma. In vivo retinal imaging using optical coherence tomography revealed that NMDA-induced retinal degeneration was suppressed in the VPA-treated retina, and histological analyses confirmed that VPA reduced retinal ganglion cell death. In vivo electrophysiological analyses demonstrated that visual impairment was prevented in the VPA-treated retina, clearly establishing both histological and functional effects of VPA. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression was up-regulated in Müller glial cells, and neuroprotective effects of VPA on retinal ganglion cells were significantly reduced in a conditional knockout mouse strain with deletion of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), a receptor for BDNF from retinal ganglion cells. The results show that VPA stimulates BDNF up-regulation in Müller glial cells and provides direct evidence that neuronal TrkB is important in VPA-mediated neuroprotection. Also, VPA suppresses oxidative stress induced by NMDA in the retina. Our findings raise intriguing possibilities that the widely prescribed drug VPA may be useful for treatment of glaucoma.

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav3 regulates differentiation of progenitor cells in the developing mouse retina

The seven main cell types in the mammalian retina arise from multipotent retinal progenitor cells, a process that is tightly regulated by intrinsic and extrinsic signals. However, the molecular mechanisms that control proliferation, differentiation and cell-fate decisions of retinal progenitor cells are not fully understood yet. Here, we report that the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav3, a regulator of Rho-GTPases, is involved in retinal development. We demonstrate that Vav3 is expressed in the mouse retina during the embryonic period. In order to study the role of Vav3 in the developing retina, we generate Vav3-deficient mice. The loss of Vav3 results in an accelerated differentiation of retinal ganglion cells and cone photoreceptors during early and late embryonic development. We provide evidence that more retinal progenitor cells express the late progenitor marker Sox9 in Vav3-deficient mice than in wild-types. This premature differentiation is compensated during the postnatal period and late-born cell types such as bipolar cells and Müller glia display normal numbers. Taken together, our data imply that Vav3 is a regulator of retinal progenitor cell differentiation, thus highlighting a novel role for guanine nucleotide exchange factors in retinogenesis.

The emerging role of guanine nucleotide exchange factors in ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases

Small GTPases participate in a broad range of cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and migration. The exchange of GDP for GTP resulting in the activation of these GTPases is catalyzed by a group of enzymes called guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), of which two classes: Dbl-related exchange factors and the more recently described dedicator of cytokinesis proteins family exchange factors. Increasingly, deregulation of normal GEF activity or function has been associated with a broad range of disease states, including neurodegeneration and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this review, we examine this evidence with special emphasis on the novel role of Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (RGNEF/p190RhoGEF) in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. RGNEF is the first neurodegeneration-linked GEF that regulates not only RhoA GTPase activation but also functions as an RNA binding protein that directly acts with low molecular weight neurofilament mRNA 3' untranslated region to regulate its stability. This dual role for RGNEF, coupled with the increasing understanding of the key role for GEFs in modulating the GTPase function in cell survival suggests a prominent role for GEFs in mediating a critical balance between cytotoxicity and neuroprotection which, when disturbed, contributes to neuronal loss.

Dock3 protects myelin in the cuprizone model for demyelination

Dedicator of cytokinesis 3 (Dock3) belongs to an atypical family of the guanine nucleotide exchange factors. It is predominantly expressed in the neural tissues and causes cellular morphological changes by activating the small GTPase Rac1. We previously reported that Dock3 overexpression protects retinal ganglion cells from excitotoxic cell death. Oligodendrocytes are the myelinating cells of axons in the central nervous system and these cells are damaged in demyelinating disorders including multiple sclerosis (MS) and optic neuritis. In this study, we examined if Dock3 is expressed in oligodendrocytes and if increasing Dock3 signals can suppress demyelination in a cuprizone-induced demyelination model, an animal model of MS. We demonstrate that Dock3 is expressed in oligodendrocytes and Dock3 overexpression protects myelin in the corpus callosum following cuprizone treatment. Furthermore, we show that cuprizone demyelinates optic nerves and the extent of demyelination is ameliorated in mice overexpressing Dock3. Cuprizone treatment impairs visual function, which was demonstrated by multifocal electroretinograms, an established non-invasive method, and Dock3 overexpression prevented this effect. In mice overexpressing Dock3, Erk activation is increased, suggesting this may at least partly explain the observed protective effects. Our findings suggest that Dock3 may be a therapeutic target for demyelinating disorders including optic neuritis.

Dock3 overexpression and p38 MAPK inhibition synergistically stimulate neuroprotection and axon regeneration after optic nerve injury

The dedicator of cytokinesis 3 (Dock3) is an atypical guanine nucleotide exchange factor that is predominantly expressed in the CNS. Dock3 exerts neuroprotective effects and stimulates optic nerve regeneration. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase acts downstream of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) signaling and plays an important role in neural cell death. We assessed a therapeutic efficacy of Dock3 stimulation and p38 inhibition in retinal degeneration induced by optic nerve injury (ONI). In vivo retinal imaging using optical coherence tomography revealed that ONI-induced retinal degeneration was ameliorated in SB203580 (a p38 inhibitor)-treated WT mice and PBS-treated Dock3 overexpressing (Dock3 Tg) mice, and SB203580 further stimulated retinal protection in Dock3 Tg mice. In addition, SB203580 increased the number of regenerating axons after ONI in both WT and Dock3 Tg mice. ONI-induced phosphorylation of ASK1, p38 and the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor 2B subunit were suppressed in the retina of Dock3 Tg mice. Inhibition of the ASK1 pathway in Dock3 Tg mice suggests that Dock3 may have an antioxidant-like property. These results indicate that overexpression of Dock3 and pharmacological interruption of p38 have synergistic effects for both neuroprotection and axon regeneration, thus combined application may be beneficial for the treatment of ONI.

Brimonidine prevents neurodegeneration in a mouse model of normal tension glaucoma

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness that is characterized by progressive degeneration of optic nerves and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). In the mammalian retina, excitatory amino-acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) is expressed in neural cells, including RGCs, and the loss of EAAC1 leads to RGC degeneration without elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Brimonidine (BMD) is an α2-adrenergic receptor agonist and it is commonly used in a form of eye drops to lower IOP in glaucoma patients. Recent studies have suggested that BMD has direct protective effects on RGCs involving IOP-independent mechanisms, but it is still controversial. In the present study, we examined the effects of BMD in EAAC1-deficient (KO) mice, an animal model of normal tension glaucoma. BMD caused a small decrease in IOP, but sequential in vivo retinal imaging and electrophysiological analysis revealed that treatment with BMD was highly effective for RGC protection in EAAC1 KO mice. BMD suppressed the phosphorylation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 2B (NR2B) subunit in RGCs in EAAC1 KO mice. Furthermore, in cultured Müller glia, BMD stimulated the production of several neurotrophic factors that enhance RGC survival. These results suggest that, in addition to lowering IOP, BMD prevents glaucomatous retinal degeneration by stimulating multiple pathways including glia–neuron interactions.

Renin-angiotensin system regulates neurodegeneration in a mouse model of normal tension glaucoma

Glaucoma, one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness, is characterized by progressive degeneration of optic nerves and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). In the mammalian retina, excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) is expressed in neural cells, including RGCs, and the loss of EAAC1 leads to RGC degeneration without elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). In the present study, we found that expressions of angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1-R) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) are increased in RGCs and retinal Müller glia in EAAC1-deficient (KO) mice. The orally active AT1-R antagonist candesartan suppressed TLR4 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions in the EAAC1 KO mouse retina. Sequential in vivo retinal imaging and electrophysiological analysis revealed that treatment with candesartan was effective for RGC protection in EAAC1 KO mice without affecting IOP. In cultured Müller glia, candesartan suppressed LPS-induced iNOS production by inhibiting the TLR4-apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 pathway. These results suggest that the renin–angiotensin system is involved in the innate immune responses in both neural and glial cells, which accelerate neural cell death. Our findings raise intriguing possibilities for the management of glaucoma by utilizing widely prescribed drugs for the treatment of high blood pressure, in combination with conventional treatments to lower IOP.

Dock GEFs and their therapeutic potential: neuroprotection and axon regeneration

The dedicator of cytokinesis (Dock) family is composed of atypical guanine exchange factors (GEFs) that activate the Rho GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42. Rho GTPases are best documented for their roles in actin polymerization and they regulate important cellular functions, including morphogenesis, migration, neuronal development, and cell division and adhesion. To date, 11 Dock family members have been identified and their roles have been reported in diverse contexts. There has been increasing interest in elucidating the roles of Dock proteins in recent years and studies have revealed that they are potential therapeutic targets for various diseases, including glaucoma, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and combined immunodeficiency. Among the Dock proteins, Dock3 is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system and recent studies have revealed that Dock3 plays a role in protecting retinal ganglion cells from neurotoxicity and oxidative stress as well as in promoting optic nerve regeneration. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the 11 Dock GEFs and their therapeutic potential, with a particular focus on Dock3 as a novel target for the treatment of glaucoma and other neurodegenerative diseases.

MicroRNA-486-dependent modulation of DOCK3/PTEN/AKT signaling pathways improves muscular dystrophy-associated symptoms

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by mutations in the gene encoding dystrophin, which results in dysfunctional signaling pathways within muscle. Previously, we identified microRNA-486 (miR-486) as a muscle-enriched microRNA that is markedly reduced in the muscles of dystrophin-deficient mice (Dmdmdx-5Cv mice) and in DMD patient muscles. Here, we determined that muscle-specific transgenic overexpression of miR-486 in muscle of Dmdmdx-5Cv mice results in reduced serum creatine kinase levels, improved sarcolemmal integrity, fewer centralized myonuclei, increased myofiber size, and improved muscle physiology and performance. Additionally, we identified dedicator of cytokinesis 3 (DOCK3) as a miR-486 target in skeletal muscle and determined that DOCK3 expression is induced in dystrophic muscles. DOCK3 overexpression in human myotubes modulated PTEN/AKT signaling, which regulates muscle hypertrophy and growth, and induced apoptosis. Furthermore, several components of the PTEN/AKT pathway were markedly modulated by miR-486 in dystrophin-deficient muscle. Skeletal muscle-specific miR-486 overexpression in Dmdmdx-5Cv animals decreased levels of DOCK3, reduced PTEN expression, and subsequently increased levels of phosphorylated AKT, which resulted in an overall beneficial effect. Together, these studies demonstrate that stable overexpression of miR-486 ameliorates the disease progression of dystrophin-deficient skeletal muscle.