Duodenal GLP-1 signaling regulates hepatic glucose production through a PKC-δ-dependent neurocircuitry

Resistance exercise breaks during prolonged sitting augment the blood flow response to a subsequent oral glucose load in sedentary adults

Sitting-induced impairments in postprandial blood flow are an important link between sedentary behaviour and cardiometabolic disease risk. The objective of this work was to examine the effects of resistance exercise breaks (REB) performed every 30 min during an otherwise sedentary 3-h period on the vasodilatory response to a subsequent oral glucose load in sedentary adults. Twenty-four sedentary adults (27 ± 7 years, 16 females) completed two conditions. Fasting blood glucose, insulin, popliteal artery blood flow (PABF) and gastrocnemius perfusion were measured immediately before standardized breakfast consumption. After breakfast, the 3-h REB or uninterrupted (SIT) intervention period commenced. Participants sat at a workstation, and popliteal artery shear rate (PASR) was measured 60 and 120 min into this period. In the REB condition, participants performed a 3-min REB (3 × [20 s squats, 20 s high knees, 20 s calf raises]) every 30 min. Following the intervention period, baseline measurements were repeated. Participants then consumed a 75 g glucose beverage, and PABF and perfusion were measured every 30-60 min for the following 120 min. Relative to SIT, REB increased PASR at 60 min (+31.4 ± 9.2/s, P = 0.037) and 120 min (+37.4 ± 10.2/s, P = 0.019) into the intervention period. Insulin and glucose increased (P < 0.001) in response to glucose consumption, with no differences between conditions (P ≥ 0.299). In response to the glucose load, perfusion (1.57 vs. 1.11 mL/100 mL/min, P = 0.023) and PABF (+45.3 ± 11.8 mL/min, P = 0.001) were greater after REB versus SIT. Performing 3-min REB every 30 min during an otherwise sedentary 3-h period augmented leg blood flow responses to an oral glucose load. HIGHLIGHTS: What is the central question of this study? Can 3-min resistance exercise breaks (REB) performed during an otherwise sedentary 3-h period augment the vasodilatory response to a subsequent oral glucose load in sedentary adults? What is the main finding and its importance? Performing 3-min REB, which included squats, high knees, and calf raises, every 30 min augmented lower limb blood flow responses to a subsequent oral glucose load compared to 3 h of uninterrupted sitting in sedentary adults. Sitting-induced impairment in postprandial vasodilatory function has been identified as a link between sedentary behaviour and cardiometabolic disease. Thus, the current study presents a potentially effective strategy to offset this risk.

Increased hepatic gluconeogenesis and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Abnormally increased hepatic gluconeogenesis is a significant contributor to hyperglycemia in the fasting state in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) due to insulin resistance. Metformin, the most prescribed drug for the treatment of T2DM, is believed to exert its effect mainly by reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis. Here, we discuss how increased hepatic gluconeogenesis contributes to T2DM and we review newly revealed mechanisms underlying the attenuation of gluconeogenesis by metformin. In addition, we analyze the recent findings on new determinants involved in the regulation of gluconeogenesis, which might ultimately lead to the identification of novel and targeted treatment strategies for T2DM.

An extended minimal model of OGTT: estimation of α- and β-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance, and the incretin effect

Loss of insulin sensitivity, α- and β-cell dysfunction, and impairment in incretin effect have all been implicated in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Parsimonious mathematical models are useful in quantifying parameters related to the pathophysiology of T2D. Here, we extend the minimum model developed to describe the glucose-insulin-glucagon dynamics in the isoglycemic intravenous glucose infusion (IIGI) experiment to the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The extended model describes glucose and hormone dynamics in OGTT including the contribution of the incretin hormones, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), to insulin secretion. A new function describing glucose arrival from the gut is introduced. The model is fitted to OGTT data from eight individuals with T2D and eight weight-matched controls (CS) without diabetes to obtain parameters related to insulin sensitivity, β- and α-cell function. The parameters, i.e., measures of insulin sensitivity, a1, suppression of glucagon secretion, k1, magnitude of glucagon secretion, γ2, and incretin-dependent insulin secretion, γ3, were found to be different between CS and T2D with P values < 0.002, <0.017, <0.009, <0.004, respectively. A new rubric for estimating the incretin effect directly from modeling the OGTT is presented. The average incretin effect correlated well with the experimentally determined incretin effect with a Spearman rank test correlation coefficient of 0.67 (P < 0.012). The average incretin effect was found to be different between CS and T2D (P < 0.032). The developed model is shown to be effective in quantifying the factors relevant to T2D pathophysiology.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A new extended model of oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) has been developed that includes glucagon dynamics and incretin contribution to insulin secretion. The model allows the estimation of parameters related to α- and β-cell dysfunction, insulin sensitivity, and incretin action. A new function describing the influx of glucose from the gut has been introduced. A new rubric for estimating the incretin effect directly from the OGTT experiment has been developed. The effect of glucose dose was also investigated.

Endogenous glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 as alternative for GLP-1 receptor agonists: Could this work and how?

In recent years, we have witnessed the many beneficial effects of glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 receptor agonists, including the reduction in cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes, and the reduction of body weight in those with obesity. Increasing evidence suggests that these agents differ considerably from endogenous GLP-1 when it comes to their routes of action, although their clinical effects appear to be the same. Given the limitations of the GLP-1 receptor agonists, could it be useful to develop agents which stimulate GLP-1 release? Here we will discuss the differences and similarities between GLP-1 receptor agonists and endogenous GLP-1, and will detail how endogenous GLP-1-when stimulated appropriately-could have clinically relevant effects.

Enhanced glucose homeostasis via Clostridium symbiosum-mediated glucagon-like peptide 1 inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis in mid-intestinal bypass surgery

BACKGROUND

The small intestine is known to play a crucial role in the development and remission of diabetes mellitus (DM). However, the exact mechanism by which mid-small intestinal bypass improves glucose metabolism in diabetic rats is not fully understood.

AIM

To elucidate the mechanisms by which mid-small intestinal bypass improves glucose metabolism.

METHODS

Streptozotocin (STZ) was used to induce DM in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats at a dose of 60 mg/kg. The rats were then randomly divided into two groups: The mid-small intestine bypass (MSIB) group and the sham group (underwent switch laparotomy). Following a 6-wk recovery period post-surgery, the rats underwent various assessments, including metabolic parameter testing, analysis of liver glycogen levels, measurement of key gluconeogenic enzyme activity, characterization of the gut microbiota composition, evaluation of hormone levels, determination of bile acid concentrations, and assessment of the expression of the intestinal receptors Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 and farnesoid X receptor.

RESULTS

The MSIB group of rats demonstrated improved glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism, along with increased hepatic glycogen content. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the expression of the key gluconeogenic enzymes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 and glucose-6-phosphatase. Importantly, the MSIB group exhibited a substantial increase in the abundances of intestinal Lactobacillus, Clostridium symbiosum, Ruminococcus gnavus, and Bilophila. Moreover, higher levels of secondary bile acids, such as intestinal lithocholic acid, were observed in this group. Remarkably, the changes in the gut microbiota showed a significant correlation with the expression of key gluconeogenic enzymes and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) at 6 wk postoperatively, highlighting their potential role in glucose regulation. These findings highlight the beneficial effects of mid-small intestine bypass on glucose metabolism and the associated modulation of the gut microbiota.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study demonstrate that the introduction of postoperative intestinal Clostridium symbiosum in the mid-small intestine contributes to the enhancement of glucose metabolism in nonobese diabetic rats. This improvement is attributed to the increased inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis mediated by GLP-1, resulting in a favorable modulation of glucose homeostasis.

Neprilysin deficiency reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis in high fat-fed mice

Neprilysin is a peptidase that cleaves glucoregulatory peptides, including glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and cholecystokinin (CCK). Some studies suggest that its inhibition in diabetes and/or obesity improves glycemia, and that this is associated with enhanced insulin secretion, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. Whether reduced neprilysin activity also improves hepatic glucose metabolism has not been explored. We sought to determine whether genetic deletion of neprilysin suppresses hepatic glucose production (HGP) in high fat-fed mice. Nep+/+ and Nep-/- mice were fed high fat diet for 16 weeks, and then underwent a pyruvate tolerance test (PTT) to assess hepatic gluconeogenesis. Since glycogen breakdown in liver can also yield glucose, we assessed liver glycogen content in fasted and fed mice. In Nep-/- mice, glucose excursion during the PTT was reduced when compared to Nep+/+ mice. Further, liver glycogen levels were significantly greater in fasted but not fed Nep-/- versus Nep+/+ mice. Since gut-derived factors modulate HGP, we tested whether gut-selective inhibition of neprilysin could recapitulate the suppression of hepatic gluconeogenesis observed with whole-body inhibition, and this was indeed the case. Finally, the gut-derived neprilysin substrates, GLP-1 and CCK, are well-known to suppress HGP. Having previously demonstrated elevated plasma GLP-1 levels in Nep-/- mice, we now measured plasma CCK bioactivity and reveal an increase in Nep-/- versus Nep+/+ mice, suggesting GLP-1 and/or CCK may play a role in reducing HGP under conditions of neprilysin deficiency. In sum, neprilysin modulates hepatic gluconeogenesis and strategies to inhibit its activity may reduce HGP in type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor-based Therapeutics for Metabolic Liver Disease

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) controls islet hormone secretion, gut motility, and body weight, supporting development of GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and obesity. GLP-1RA exhibit a favorable safety profile and reduce the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events in people with T2D. Considerable preclinical data, supported by the results of clinical trials, link therapy with GLP-RA to reduction of hepatic inflammation, steatosis, and fibrosis. Mechanistically, the actions of GLP-1 on the liver are primarily indirect, as hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and stellate cells do not express the canonical GLP-1R. GLP-1RA reduce appetite and body weight, decrease postprandial lipoprotein secretion, and attenuate systemic and tissue inflammation, actions that may contribute to attenuation of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD). Here we discuss evolving concepts of GLP-1 action that improve liver health and highlight evidence that links sustained GLP-1R activation in distinct cell types to control of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism, and reduction of experimental and clinical nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The therapeutic potential of GLP-1RA alone, or in combination with peptide agonists, or new small molecule therapeutics is discussed in the context of potential efficacy and safety. Ongoing trials in people with obesity will further clarify the safety of GLP-1RA, and pivotal studies underway in people with NASH will define whether GLP-1-based medicines represent effective and safe therapies for people with MAFLD.

Storage and Utilization of Glycogen by Mouse Liver during Adaptation to Nutritional Changes Are GLP-1 and PASK Dependent

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and PAS kinase (PASK) control glucose and energy homeostasis according to nutritional status. Thus, both glucose availability and GLP-1 lead to hepatic glycogen synthesis or degradation. We used a murine model to discover whether PASK mediates the effect of exendin-4 (GLP-1 analogue) in the adaptation of hepatic glycogen metabolism to nutritional status. The results indicate that both exendin-4 and fasting block the Pask expression, and PASK deficiency disrupts the physiological levels of blood GLP1 and the expression of hepatic GLP1 receptors after fasting. Under a non-fasted state, exendin-4 treatment blocks AKT activation, whereby Glucokinase and Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein-1c (Srebp1c) expressions were inhibited. Furthermore, the expression of certain lipogenic genes was impaired, while increasing Glucose Transporter 2 (GLUT2) and Glycogen Synthase (GYS). Moreover, exendin-4 treatment under fasted conditions avoided Glucose 6-Phosphatase (G6pase) expression, while maintaining high GYS and its activation state. These results lead to an abnormal glycogen accumulation in the liver under fasting, both in PASK-deficient mice and in exendin-4 treated wild-type mice. In short, exendin-4 and PASK both regulate glucose transport and glycogen storage, and some of the exendin-4 effects could therefore be due to the blocking of the Pask expression.

Holdemanella biformis improves glucose tolerance and regulates GLP-1 signaling in obese mice

Impaired glucose homeostasis in obesity is mitigated by enhancing the glucoregulatory actions of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and thus, strategies that improve GLP-1 sensitivity and secretion have therapeutic potential for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. This study shows that Holdemanella biformis, isolated from the feces of a metabolically healthy volunteer, ameliorates hyperglycemia, improves oral glucose tolerance and restores gluconeogenesis and insulin signaling in the liver of obese mice. These effects were associated with the ability of H. biformis to restore GLP-1 levels, enhancing GLP-1 neural signaling in the proximal and distal small intestine and GLP-1 sensitivity of vagal sensory neurons, and to modify the cecal abundance of unsaturated fatty acids and the bacterial species associated with metabolic health. Our findings overall suggest the potential use of H biformis in the management of type 2 diabetes in obesity to optimize the sensitivity and function of the GLP-1 system, through direct and indirect mechanisms.

Genetic ablation of C-reactive protein gene confers resistance to obesity and insulin resistance in rats

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Besides serving as a traditional inflammatory marker, C-reactive protein (CRP) is closely associated with the development of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases as a metabolic and inflammatory marker. We hypothesise that CRP protein directly participates in the regulation of energy and glucose metabolism rather than just being a surrogate marker, and that genetic deficiency of CRP will lead to resistance to obesity and insulin resistance.

METHODS

Crp gene deletion was achieved by transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN) technology in rats. The Crp knockout animals were placed on either a standard chow diet or a high-fat diet. Phenotypic changes in body weight, glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, energy expenditure and inflammation condition were examined. The central impact of CRP deficiency on leptin and insulin hypothalamic signalling, as well as glucose homeostasis, were examined via intracerebral ventricular delivery of leptin and CRP plus glucose clamp studies in the wild-type and Crp knockout rats.

RESULTS

CRP deficiency led to a significant reduction in weight gain and food intake, elevated energy expenditure and improved insulin sensitivity after exposure to high-fat diet. Glucose clamp studies revealed enhanced hepatic insulin signalling and actions. Deficiency of CRP enhanced and prolonged the weight-reducing effect of central injected leptin and promoted the central and peripheral roles of leptin. By contrast, reinstatement of CRP into the hypothalamus of the knockout rats attenuated the effects of central leptin signalling on insulin sensitivity and peripheral glucose metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

This study represents the first line of genetic evidence that CRP is not merely a surrogate blood marker for inflammation and metabolic syndromes but directly regulates energy balance, body weight, insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis through direct regulation of leptin's central effect and hypothalamic signalling.

The metabolic impact of small intestinal nutrient sensing

The gastrointestinal tract maintains energy and glucose homeostasis, in part through nutrient-sensing and subsequent signaling to the brain and other tissues. In this review, we highlight the role of small intestinal nutrient-sensing in metabolic homeostasis, and link high-fat feeding, obesity, and diabetes with perturbations in these gut-brain signaling pathways. We identify how lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins, initiate gut peptide release from the enteroendocrine cells through small intestinal sensing pathways, and how these peptides regulate food intake, glucose tolerance, and hepatic glucose production. Lastly, we highlight how the gut microbiota impact small intestinal nutrient-sensing in normal physiology, and in disease, pharmacological and surgical settings. Emerging evidence indicates that the molecular mechanisms of small intestinal nutrient sensing in metabolic homeostasis have physiological and pathological impact as well as therapeutic potential in obesity and diabetes.

The gastrointestinal tract participates in maintaining metabolic homeostasis in part through nutrient-sensing and subsequent gut-brain signalling. Here the authors review the role of small intestinal nutrient-sensing in regulation of energy intake and systemic glucose metabolism, and link high-fat diet, obesity and diabetes with perturbations in these pathways.

Pancreatic GLP-1r binding potential is reduced in insulin-resistant pigs

INTRODUCTION

The insulinotropic capacity of exogenous glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is reduced in type 2 diabetes and the insulin-resistant obese. We have tested the hypothesis that this response is the consequence of a reduced pancreatic GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1r) density in insulin-resistant obese animals.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

GLP-1r density was measured in lean and insulin-resistant adult miniature pigs after the administration of a ⁶⁸Ga-labeled GLP-1r agonist. The effect of hyperinsulinemia on GLP-1r was assessed using sequential positron emission tomography (PET), both in the fasted state and during a clamp. The impact of tissue perfusion, which could account for changes in GLP-1r agonist uptake, was also investigated using ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA imaging.

RESULTS

GLP-1r binding potential in the obese pancreas was reduced by 75% compared with lean animals. Similar reductions were evident for fat tissue, but not for the duodenum. In the lean group, induced hyperinsulinemia reduced pancreatic GLP-1r density to a level comparable with that of the obese group. The reduction in blood to tissue transfer of the GLP-1r ligand paralleled that of tissue perfusion estimated using ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations establish that a reduction in abdominal tissue perfusion and a lower GLP-1r density account for the diminished insulinotropic effect of GLP-1 agonists in type 2 diabetes.

Microbiota and Diabetes Mellitus: Role of Lipid Mediators

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is an inflammatory clinical entity with different mechanisms involved in its physiopathology. Among these, the dysfunction of the gut microbiota stands out. Currently, it is understood that lipid products derived from the gut microbiota are capable of interacting with cells from the immune system and have an immunomodulatory effect. In the presence of dysbiosis, the concentration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) increases, favoring damage to the intestinal barrier. Furthermore, a pro-inflammatory environment prevails, and a state of insulin resistance and hyperglycemia is present. Conversely, during eubiosis, the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) is fundamental for the maintenance of the integrity of the intestinal barrier as well as for immunogenic tolerance and appetite/satiety perception, leading to a protective effect. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that alterations or dysregulation of the gut microbiota can be reversed by modifying the eating habits of the patients or with the administration of prebiotics, probiotics, and symbiotics. Similarly, different studies have demonstrated that drugs like Metformin are capable of modifying the composition of the gut microbiota, promoting changes in the biosynthesis of LPS, and the metabolism of SCFA.

Resection of the duodenum causes long-term endocrine and exocrine dysfunction after Whipple procedure for benign tumors - Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Metabolic dysfunctions after pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) need to be considered when pancreatic head resection is likely to lead to long-term survival.

METHODS

Medline, Embase and Cochrane Library were searched for studies reporting measured data of metabolic function after PD and duodenum-sparing total pancreatic head resection (DPPHR). Data from 23 cohort studies comprising 1019 patients were eligible; 594 and 910 patients were involved in systematic review and meta-analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

The cumulative incidence of postoperative new onset of diabetes mellitus (pNODM) after PD for benign tumors was 46 of 321 patients (14%) measured after follow-up of in mean 36 months postoperatively. New onset of postoperative exocrine insufficiency (PEI) was exhibited by 91 of 209 patients (44%) after PD for benign tumors measured in mean 23 months postoperatively. The meta-analysis indicated pNODM after PD for benign tumor in 32 of 208 patients (15%) and in 10 of 178 patients (6%) after DPPHR (p = 0.007; OR 3.01; (95%CI:1.39-6.49)). PEI was exhibited by 80 of 178 patients (45%) after PD and by 6 of 88 patients (7%) after DPPHR (p < 0.001). GI hormones measured in 194 patients revealed postoperatively a significant impairment of integrated responses of gastrin, motilin, insulin, secretin, PP and GIP (p < 0.050-0.001) after PD. Fasting and stimulated levels of GLP-1 and glucagon levels displayed a significant increase (p < 0.020/p < 0.030). Following DPPHR, responses of gastrin, motilin, secretin and CCK displayed no change compared to preoperative levels.

CONCLUSIONS

After PD, duodenectomy, rather than pancreatic head resection is the main cause for long-term persisting, postoperative new onset of DM and PEI.

Brunner's Gland Hyperplasia in a Patient after Roux-Y Gastric Bypass: An Important Pitfall in GLP-1 Receptor Imaging

Severe cases of postprandial hypoglycaemia after bariatric surgery can be a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The diagnostic role of ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA-Exendin-4 PET/CT in postbariatric hypoglycaemia for further treatment decisions is unclear. We present a case of a 50-year-old woman with frequent and severe postprandial hypoglycaemic (≤2.5 mmol/L) episodes starting three years after Roux-Y gastric bypass. Despite strict dietary adherence and several medical therapies, the patient remained severely affected, and ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA-Exendin-4 PET/CT was performed to exclude atypical presentation of an insulinoma or nesidioblastosis. No pancreatic abnormalities were found, but intensive tracer accumulation in the first and second part of the duodenum was detected, which proved to be hyperplastic Brunner's glands on histology and were strongly positive for the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor. This case provides histopathological verification that duodenal ⁶⁸Ga-DOTA-Exendin-4 uptake is caused by uptake in Brunner's glands and points to a potential relationship between bariatric surgery and Brunner's glands.

DOCK5 regulates energy balance and hepatic insulin sensitivity by targeting mTORC1 signaling

The dedicator of cytokinesis 5 (DOCK5) is associated with obesity. However, the mechanism by which DOCK5 contributes to obesity remains completely unknown. Here, we show that hepatic DOCK5 expression significantly decreases at a state of insulin resistance (IR). Deletion of DOCK5 in mice reduces energy expenditure, promotes obesity, augments IR, dysregulates glucose metabolism, and activates the mTOR (Raptor)/S6K1 pathway under a high-fat diet (HFD). The overexpression of DOCK5 in hepatocytes inhibits gluconeogenic gene expression and increases the level of insulin receptor (InsR) and Akt phosphorylation. DOCK5 overexpression also inhibits mTOR/S6K1 phosphorylation and decreases the level of raptor protein expression. The opposite effects were observed in DOCK5-deficient hepatocytes. Importantly, in liver-specific Raptor knockout mice and associated hepatocytes, the effects of an adeno-associated virus (AAV8)- or adenovirus-mediated DOCK5 knockdown on glucose metabolism and insulin signaling are largely eliminated. Additionally, DOCK5-Raptor interaction is indispensable for the DOCK5-mediated regulation of hepatic glucose production (HGP). Therefore, DOCK5 acts as a regulator of Raptor to control hepatic insulin activity and glucose homeostasis.

Central Sfrp5 regulates hepatic glucose flux and VLDL-triglyceride secretion

OBJECTIVE

Secreted frizzled-related protein 5 (Sfrp5) has been shown to be associated with energy homeostasis and insulin resistance in mouse models of obesity and diabetes. However, its central role in glucose and lipid metabolism is unknown.

METHODS

HFD-fed rats received ICV infusions of vehicle or Sfrp5 during a pancreatic euglycemic clamp procedure. To delineate the pathway(s) by which ICV Sfrp5 modulates HGP and VLDL-TG secretion, we inhibited the hypothalamic K_ATP channel using glibenclamide, the DVC NMDA receptor with MK801, and selectively transected the hepatic branch of the vagal nerve while centrally infusing Sfrp5.

RESULTS

ICV Sfrp5 in HFD-fed rats significantly increased the glucose infusion required to maintain euglycemia due to HGP inhibition during the clamp procedure; moreover, hepatic PEPCK and G6Pase expression was decreased, and InsR and Akt phosphorylation was increased in the liver. ICV Sfrp5 also decreased circulating triglyceride levels via inhibiting hepatic VLDL-TG secretion. These changes were accompanied by the inhibition of enzymes related to lipogenesis in the liver. ICV Sfrp5 significantly increased insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of InsR and Akt in the hypothalamus of HFD-fed rats, and insulin-stimulated immunodetectable PIP3 levels were higher in Sfrp5 group than in control group both in vitro and vivo. The glucose- and lipid-lowering effects of ICV Sfrp5 were eliminated by NMDA receptor or DVC K_ATP channel inhibition or HVAG.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates that central Sfrp5 signaling activates a previously unappreciated InsR-Akt-PI3k-K_ATP channel pathway in the hypothalamus and brain-hepatic vagus neurocircuitry to decrease HGP and VLDL-TG secretion.

mTOR Signaling in X/A-Like Cells Contributes to Lipid Homeostasis in Mice

Gastric mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling is inversely associated with the expression and secretion of ghrelin, a 28-aa peptide hormone produced by gastric X/A-like cells. Ghrelin contributes to obesity and hepatic steatosis. We sought to control global lipid metabolism via the manipulation of gastric mTOR signaling in X/A-like cells. We established a ghrl-cre transgene in which the Cre enzyme is expressed in X/A-like cells under the control of the ghrelin-promoter. mTOR^flox/flox and tuberous sclerosis 1 (TSC1)^flox/flox mice were separately bred with ghrl-cre mice to generate mTOR-ghrl-cre or TSC1-ghrl-cre mice, within which mTOR signaling was suppressed or activated, respectively. Lipid metabolism in liver and adipose depots was analyzed. Under the control of the ghrelin-promoter, the Cre enzyme was exclusively expressed in stomach X/A-like cells in adult animals. Knockout of mTOR in X/A-like cells increased circulating acyl-ghrelin and promoted hepatic lipogenesis with effects on adipose depots. Activation of mTOR signaling by deletion of its upstream inhibitor, TSC1, decreased ghrelin expression and secretion, altering lipid metabolism as evidenced by resistance to high-fat diet-induced obesity and hepatic steatosis. Both ghrelin administration and injection of rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, altered the phenotypes of TSC1-ghrl-cre mice. Conclusion: Gastric mTOR signaling in X/A-like cells contributes to organism lipid homeostasis by regulating hepatic and adipose lipid metabolism. Gastric mTOR signaling may provide an alternative strategy for intervention in lipid disorders.

Gut ghrelin regulates hepatic glucose production and insulin signaling via a gut-brain-liver pathway

BACKGROUND

Ghrelin modulates many physiological processes. However, the effects of intestinal ghrelin on hepatic glucose production (HGP) are still unclear. The current study was to explore the roles of intestinal ghrelin on glucose homeostasis and insulin signaling in the liver.

METHODS

The system of intraduodenal infusion and intracerebral microinfusion into the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the normal chow-diet rats and pancreatic-euglycemic clamp procedure (PEC) combined with [3-³H] glucose as a tracer were used to analyze the effect of intestinal ghrelin. Intraduodenal co-infusion of ghrelin, tetracaine and Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) activator (AICAR), or pharmacologic and molecular inhibitor of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors within the dorsal vagal complex, or hepatic vagotomy in rats were used to explore the possible mechanism of the effect of intestinal ghrelin on HGP.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that gut infusion of ghrelin inhibited duodenal AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) signal pathways, increased HGP and expression of gluconeogenic enzymes, and decreased insulin signaling in the liver of the rat. Intraduodenal co-infusion of ghrelin receptor antagonist [D-Lys³]-GHRP-6 and AMPK agonist with ghrelin diminished gut ghrelin-induced increase in HGP and decrease in glucose infusion rate (GIR) and hepatic insulin signaling. The effects of gut ghrelin were also negated by co-infusion with tetracaine, or MK801, an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor inhibitor, and adenovirus expressing the shRNA of NR1 subunit of NMDA receptors (Ad-shNR1) within the dorsal vagal complex, and hepatic vagotomy in rats. When ghrelin and lipids were co-infused into the duodenum, the roles of gut lipids in increasing the rate of glucose infusion (GIR) and lowering HGP were reversed.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study provided evidence that intestinal ghrelin has an effect on HGP and identified a neural glucoregulatory function of gut ghrelin signaling.

Pleiotropic Effects of GLP-1 and Analogs on Cell Signaling, Metabolism, and Function

The incretin hormone Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) is best known for its "incretin effect" in restoring glucose homeostasis in diabetics, however, it is now apparent that it has a broader range of physiological effects in the body. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that GLP-1 mimetics alleviate endoplasmic reticulum stress, regulate autophagy, promote metabolic reprogramming, stimulate anti-inflammatory signaling, alter gene expression, and influence neuroprotective pathways. A substantial body of evidence has accumulated with respect to how GLP-1 and its analogs act to restore and maintain normal cellular functions. These findings have prompted several clinical trials which have reported GLP-1 analogs improve cardiac function, restore lung function and reduce mortality in patients with obstructive lung disease, influence blood pressure and lipid storage, and even prevent synaptic loss and neurodegeneration. Mechanistically, GLP-1 elicits its effects via acute elevation in cAMP levels, and subsequent protein kinase(s) activation, pathways well-defined in pancreatic β-cells which stimulate insulin secretion in conjunction with elevated Ca2+ and ATP. More recently, new studies have shed light on additional downstream pathways stimulated by chronic GLP-1 exposure, findings which have direct relevance to our understanding of the potential therapeutic effects of longer lasting analogs recently developed for clinical use. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of the diverse roles for GLP-1 across multiple tissues, describe downstream pathways stimulated by acute and chronic exposure, and discuss novel pleiotropic applications of GLP-1 mimetics in the treatment of human disease.

GLP-1 receptor agonists stimulate ANGPTL8 production through the PI3K/Akt pathway in a GLP-1 receptor-dependent manner

The level of serum angiopoietin-like protein 8 (ANGPTL8), a novel hepatokine, is associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aims of this study were to investigate whether serum ANGPTL8 level in patients with T2DM was affected by treatment with exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist, and to determine whether and how GLP-1R agonists regulated ANGPTL8 production in hepatocytes. A multiple-center trial was conducted in China. Among 240 patients with T2DM enrolled in this trial, 195 patients adhered to a 16-week exenatide treatment and follow-up. Human liver cell line HepG2 cells were incubated for 24 h with either exendin-4 (a native form of exenatide) or liraglutide in the presence or absence of GLP-1R antagonist exendin (9-39) and PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Change of serum ANGPTL8 level in patients with T2DM and regulation of ANGPTL8 production by the GLP-1R agonists in HepG2 cells were evaluated. Results showed that compared with baseline, exenatide treatment significantly increased serum ANGPTL8 level, and lowered body weight, fasting blood glucose (FBG) and glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) in patients with T2DM (all P <  0.05). The exenatide treatment-mediated upregulation of serum ANGPTL8 level was not associated with the levels of its lowering effects on body weight, FBG and HbA1c stratified by the median. Moreover, exendin-4 or liraglutide dose-dependently upregulated the level of ANGPTL8 expression and secretion in HepG2 cells, which was eliminated by adding exendin (9-39) and LY294002. In conclusion, GLP-1R agonists enhance ANGPTL8 production in vivo and in vitro, which is mediated via the PI3K/Akt pathway in a GLP-1R-dependent manner.

Superior reductions in hepatic steatosis and fibrosis with co-administration of a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist and obeticholic acid in mice

OBJECTIVE

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is an unmet need associated with metabolic syndrome. There are no approved therapies for NASH; however, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) and farnesoid-X receptor (FXR) agonists are promising drug targets. We investigated the therapeutic effects of co-administration of a GLP-1R agonist, IP118, with FXR agonist obeticholic acid (OCA) in mice.

METHODS

OCA and IP118 alone and in combination were sub-chronically administered to Lep^ob/Lep^ob mice with diet-induced NASH or diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. Metabolic (body weight and glucose) and liver (biochemical and histological) endpoints were assessed. NASH severity in Lep^ob/Lep^ob mice was graded using a customized integrated scoring system.

RESULTS

OCA reduced liver weight and lipid in NASH mice (both by -17%) but had no effect on plasma ALT or AST levels. In contrast, IP118 significantly reduced liver weight (-21%), liver lipid (-15%), ALT (-29%), and AST (-27%). The combination of OCA + IP118 further reduced liver weight (-29%), liver lipid (-22%), ALT (-39%), and AST (-36%). Combination therapy was superior to monotherapies in reducing hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis. Hepatic improvements with IP118 and OCA + IP118 were associated with reduced body weight (-4.3% and -3.5% respectively) and improved glycemic control in OCA + IP118-treated mice. In DIO mice, OCA + IP118 co-administration reduced body weight (-25.3%) to a greater degree than IP118 alone (-12.5%) and further improved glucose tolerance and reduced hepatic lipid.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest a complementary or synergistic therapeutic effect of GLP-1R and FXR agonism in mouse models of metabolic disease and NASH.

Duodenal and ileal glucose infusions differentially alter gastrointestinal peptides, appetite response, and food intake: a tube feeding study

Background: Activation of the ileal brake through the delivery of nutrients into the distal small intestine to promote satiety and suppress food intake provides a new target for weight loss. Evidence is limited, with support from naso-ileal lipid infusion studies.Objective: The objective of the study was to investigate whether glucose infused into the duodenum and ileum differentially alters appetite response, food intake, and secretion of satiety-related gastrointestinal peptides.Design: Fourteen healthy male participants were randomly assigned to a blinded 4-treatment crossover, with each treatment of single-day duration. On the day before the intervention (day 0), a 380-cm multilumen tube (1.75-mm diameter) with independent port access to the duodenum and ileum was inserted, and position was confirmed by X-ray. Subsequently (days 1-4), a standardized breakfast meal was followed midmorning by a 90-min infusion of isotonic glucose (15 g, 235 kJ) or saline to the duodenum or ileum. Appetite ratings were assessed with the use of visual analog scales (VASs), blood samples collected, and ad libitum energy intake (EI) measured at lunch, afternoon snack, and dinner.Results: Thirteen participants completed the 4 infusion days. There was a significant effect of nutrient infused and site (treatment × time, P < 0.05) such that glucose-to-ileum altered VAS-rated fullness, satisfaction, and thoughts of food compared with saline-to-ileum (Tukey's post hoc, P < 0.05); decreased ad libitum EI at lunch compared with glucose-to-duodenum [-22%, -988 ± 379 kJ (mean ± SEM), Tukey's post hoc, P < 0.05]; and increased glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) compared with all other treatments (Tukey's post hoc, P < 0.05).Conclusions: Macronutrient delivery to the proximal and distal small intestine elicits different outcomes. Glucose infusion to the ileum increased GLP-1 and PYY secretion, suppressed aspects of VAS-rated appetite, and decreased ad libitum EI at a subsequent meal. Although glucose to the duodenum also suppressed appetite ratings, eating behavior was not altered. This trial was registered at www.anzctr.org.au as ACTRN12612000429853.

Glucose kinetics: an update and novel insights into its regulation by glucagon and GLP-1

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Glucagon and GLP-1 share the same origin (i.e., proglucagon); primarily GLP-1 is generated from intestinal L-cells and glucagon from pancreatic α-cell, but intestinal glucagon and pancreatic GLP-1 secretion is likely. Glucose kinetics are tightly regulated by pancreatic hormones insulin and glucagon, but other hormones, including glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), also play an important role. The purpose of this review is to describe the recent findings on the mechanisms by which these two hormones regulate glucose kinetics.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent findings showed new important mechanisms of action of glucagon and GLP-1 in the regulation of glucose metabolism. Knock out of glucagon receptors protects against hyperglycemia without causing hypoglycemia. GLP-1 not only stimulates insulin secretion, but it has also an independent effect on the liver and inhibits glucose production. Moreover, when coinfused with glucagon, GLP-1 limits the hyperglycemic effects. Both hormones have also central effects on gastric emptying (delayed), intestinal motility (reduced), and satiety (increased).

SUMMARY

The implications of these findings are very important for the management of type 2 diabetes given that GLP-1 receptor agonist are currently approved for the treatment of hyperglycemia and glucagon receptor antagonists and GLP-1/glucagon dual agonists are under development.

Pancreas and Not Gut Mediates the GLP-1-Induced Glucoincretin Effect

The gut is believed to be the source of GLP-1 that augments insulin secretion in response to oral nutrients. In this issue of Cell Metabolism, Chambers et al. (2017) shift the paradigm by finding that GLP-1 produced within the islets of the pancreas, and not the gut, is responsible for the incretin effect in mice.