Consumption of medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols decreases body fat and blood triglyceride in Chinese hypertriglyceridemic subjects

Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerol: Preparation, Health Benefits, and Food Utilization

Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is a structured lipid with both medium- and long-chain fatty acids in one triacylglycerol molecule. Compared with long-chain triacylglycerol (LCT), which is mainly present in common edible oils, and the physical blend of medium-chain triacylglycerol with LCT (MCT/LCT), MLCT has different physicochemical properties, metabolic characteristics, and nutritional values. In this article, the recent advances in the use of MLCT in food formulations are reviewed. The natural sources and preparation of MLCT are discussed. A comprehensive summary of MLCT digestion, absorption, transport, and oxidation is provided as well as its health benefits, including reducing the risk of overweight, hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects, etc. The potential MLCT uses in food formulations, such as infant formulas, healthy foods for weight loss, and sports foods, are summarized. Finally, the current safety assessment and regulatory status of MLCT in food formulations are reviewed.

Lipase in-situ immobilized in covalent organic framework: Enzymatic properties and application in the preparation of 1, 3-dioleoyl-2-palmitoylglycerol

In this study, the critical importance of designing an appropriate immobilized carrier and method for free lipase to ensure exceptional biological catalytic activity and stability was emphasized. Covalent organic frameworks (COF-1) were synthesized as a novel porous carrier with an azine structure (-CN-NC-) through the condensation of hydrazine hydrate and benzene-1,3,5-tricarbaldehyde at room temperature. Simultaneously, Rhizomucor miehei lipase (RML) was immobilized within the COF-1 carrier using an in-situ aqueous phase method. Characterization of the carrier and RML@COF-1 and evaluation of the lipase properties of RML and RML@COF-1 through p-Nitrophenyl palmitate hydrolysis were conducted. Additionally, application in the synthesis of 1, 3-dioleoyl-2-palmitoylglycerol (OPO) was explored. The results showed that RML@COF-1 exhibited a high enzymatic loading of 285.4 mg/g. Under 60℃ conditions, the activity of RML@COF-1 was 2.31 times higher than that of free RML, and RML@COF-1 retained 77.25% of its original activity after 10 cycles of repeated use, indicating its excellent thermal stability and repeatability. Under the optimal conditions (10%, 1:8 PPP/OA, 45℃, 5 h), the yield of OPO reached 47.35%, showcasing the promising application prospects of the novel immobilized enzyme synthesized via in-situ aqueous phase synthesis for OPO preparation.

Novel Human Milk Fat Substitutes Based on Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerol Regulate Thermogenesis, Lipid Metabolism, and Gut Microbiota Diversity in C57BL/6J Mice

Human milk is naturally rich in medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCT), accounting for approximately 30% of the total fat. However, infant formula fat is prepared using a physical blend of vegetable oils, which rarely contains MLCT, similar to human milk. The differences in MLCT between human milk and infant formulas may cause different lipid metabolisms and physiological effects on infants, which are unknown. This study aimed to analyze the metabolic characteristics of formula lipid containing novel human milk fat substitutes based on MLCT (FL-MLCT) and compare their effects with those of the physical blend of vegetable oils (FL-PB) on lipid metabolism and gut microbiota in mice. Compared with the FL-PB group, the FL-MLCT group showed increased energy expenditure, decreased serum triacylglycerol level, and significantly lower aspartate aminotransferase level, epididymal and perirenal fat weight, and adipocyte size. Moreover, the abundances of Firmicutes/Bacteroidota, Actinobacteriota, and Desulfovibrionaceae were significantly decreased in the FL-MLCT group. Novel human milk fat substitutes MLCT could inhibit visceral fat accumulation, improve liver function, and modulate the mice gut microbiota composition, which may contribute to controlling obesity.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Structured Lipids Enriched with Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerols via Pickering Emulsion-Assisted Interfacial Catalysis: A Preliminary Exploration

Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT), as a novel functional lipid, is valuable due to its special nutritional properties. Its low content in natural resources and inefficient synthesis during preparation have limited its practical applications. In this study, we developed an effective Pickering emulsion interfacial catalysis system (PE system) for the enzymatic synthesis of MLCT by trans-esterification. Lipase NS 40086 served simultaneously as a catalyst and a solid emulsifier to stabilize the Pickering emulsion. Benefitting from the sufficient oil-water interface, the obtained PE system exhibited outstanding catalytic efficiency, achieving 77.5% of MLCT content within 30 min, 26% higher than that of a water-free system. The Km value (0.259 mM) and activation energy (14.45 kJ mol-1) were 6.8-fold and 1.6-fold lower than those of the water-free system, respectively. The kinetic parameters as well as the molecular dynamics simulation and the tunnel analysis implied that the oil-water interface enhanced the binding between substrate and lipase and thus boosted catalytic efficiency. The conformational changes in the lipase were further explored by FT-IR. This method could give a novel strategy for enhancing lipase activity and the design of efficient catalytic systems to produce added-value lipids. This work will open a new methodology for the enzymatic synthesis of structured lipids.

Ingestion of triglycerides containing medium- and long-chain fatty acids can increase metabolism of ingested long-chain triglycerides in overweight persons

Introduction

Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) have attracted considerable attention for preventing or improving obesity, which is a recognized risk factor for lifestyle-related diseases. Medium- and long-chain triglycerides (MLCTs) are expected to improve the metabolism of ingested long-chain triglycerides (LCTs). However, previous studies have reported mixed results. In this study, the effect of ingestion of MLCTs was evaluated on the metabolism of LCTs and compared to the ingestion of rapeseed oil (control oil).

Methods

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study was performed among sedentary participants with BMIs ranging from 25 below 30 kg/m2. Thirty participants were asked to ingest either 14 g of MLCTs or a control oil for 4 weeks. The metabolism of ingested LCTs was evaluated by measuring isotopically labeled carbon dioxide released by the degradation of carbon-13 (13C)-labeled LCTs.

Results

Ingestion of MLCTs markedly enhanced the metabolism of ingested LCTs by comparison to the control oil.

Conclusion

The findings of this study suggest that ingestion of MLCTs may enhance the metabolism of dietary LCTs through activation of β-oxidation in liver mitochondria, which may increase the metabolic kinetics of ingested long-chain fatty acid (LCFAs).

Clinical trial registration

https://center6.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000053101, identifier: UMIN000046604.

Impaired Skeletal Muscle in Patients with Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Compared with Non-COPD Patients

Purpose

This study was designed to investigate the differences in skeletal-muscle atrophy between patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and healthy controls; associated factors were also considered. The study comprised selected residents of communities near the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University in Suzhou City, East China.

Patients and Methods

Included in this study were 123 COPD patients and 60 controls. All patients completed spirometry as well as examinations to determine their functional exercise capacity, body composition, and handgrip strength (HGS).

Results

COPD patients had less fat-free mass (FFM), a lower FFM index (FFMI), and a lower 6-min walking distance (6MWD) compared with controls (P = 0.007, P = 0.020, and P < 0.001, respectively) (FFMI: 17.59 ± 1.83 vs 18.34 ± 1.64). The HGS of these patients was also lower compared with that of controls (32.88 ± 7.84 vs 35.48 ± 7.42), and HGS tended toward statistical significance (P = 0.064, respectively). In multivariate analysis, age (β = -0.107, P < 0.001), gender (β = 0.212, P < 0.001), body mass index (BMI) (β = 0.462, P < 0.001), FEV1% (β = 0.108, P = 0.009), and calf circumference (CC) (β = 0.457, P < 0.001) were significantly associated with FFMI.

Conclusion

Impaired skeletal muscle mass was more common in COPD patients than in controls. Multiple regression analysis showed that CC may be used to detect the degree of impairment, particularly by health-care providers working outside of the hospital.

Effects of Caprylic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid on Lipids, Inflammatory Levels, and the JAK2/STAT3 Pathway in ABCA1-Deficient Mice and ABCA1 Knock-Down RAW264.7 Cells

Our previous studies have found that caprylic acid (C8:0) can improve blood lipids and reduce inflammation levels and may be related to the upregulation of the p-JAK2/p-STAT3 pathway by ABCA1. This study aims to investigate the effects of C8:0 and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) on lipids, inflammatory levels, and the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in ABCA1-deficient mice (ABCA1^-/-) and ABCA1 knock-down (ABCA1-KD) RAW 264.7 cells. Twenty 6-week ABCA1^-/- mice were randomly divided into four groups and fed a high-fat diet, or a diet of 2% C8:0, 2% palmitic acid (C16:0) or 2% EPA for 8 weeks, respectively. The RAW 264.7 cells were divided into the control or control + LPS group, and the ABCA1-KD RAW 264.7 cells were divided into ABCA1-KD with LPS (LPS group), ABCA1-KD with LPS + C8:0 (C8:0 group), and ABCA1-KD with LPS + EPA (EPA group). Serum lipid profiles and inflammatory levels were measured, and ABCA1 and JAK2/STAT3 mRNA and protein expressions were determined by RT-PCR and Western blot analyses, respectively. Our results showed that serum lipid and inflammatory levels increased in ABCA1^-/- mice (p < 0.05). After the intervention of different fatty acids in ABCA1^-/- mice, TG and TNF-α were significantly lower, while MCP-1 increased significantly in the C8:0 group (p < 0.05); however, LDL-C, TC, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1 levels decreased significantly and IL-10 increased significantly in the EPA group (p < 0.05). In the aorta of ABCA1^-/- mice, C8:0 significantly decreased p-STAT3 and p-JAK2 mRNA, while EPA significantly reduced TLR4 and NF-κBp65 mRNA. In the ABCA1-KD RAW 264.7 cells, TNF-α and MCP-1 were increased significantly and IL-10 and IL-1β were significantly decreased in the C8:0 group (p < 0.05). The protein expressions of ABCA1 and p-JAK2 were significantly higher, and the NF-κBp65 was significantly lower in the C8:0 and EPA groups (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, compared to the C8:0 group, the NF-κBp65 protein expression was significantly lower in the EPA group (p < 0.05). Our study showed that EPA had better effects than C8:0 on inhibiting inflammation and improving blood lipids in the absence of ABCA1. C8:0 may be involved mainly in inhibiting inflammation through upregulation of the ABCA1 and p-JAK2/p-STAT3 pathways, while EPA may be involved mainly in inhibiting inflammation through the TLR4/NF-κBp65 signaling pathway. The upregulation of the ABCA1 expression pathway by functional nutrients may provide research targets for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis.

Applications of Medium-Chain Triglycerides in Foods

In the 1950s, the production of processed fats and oils from coconut oil was popular in the United States. It became necessary to find uses for the medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) that were byproducts of the process, and a production method for medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) was established. At the time of this development, its use as a non-fattening fat was being studied. In the early days MCFAs included fatty acids ranging from hexanoic acid (C6:0) to dodecanoic acid (C12:0), but today their compositions vary among manufacturers and there seems to be no clear definition. MCFAs are more polar than long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) because of their shorter chain length, and their hydrolysis and absorption properties differ greatly. These differences in physical properties have led, since the 1960s, to the use of MCTs to improve various lipid absorption disorders and malnutrition. More than half a century has passed since MCTs were first used in the medical field. It has been reported that they not only have properties as an energy source, but also have various physiological effects, such as effects on fat and protein metabolism. The enhancement of fat oxidation through ingestion of MCTs has led to interest in the study of body fat reduction and improvement of endurance during exercise. Recently, MCTs have also been shown to promote protein anabolism and inhibit catabolism, and applied research has been conducted into the prevention of frailty in the elderly. In addition, a relatively large ingestion of MCTs can be partially converted into ketone bodies, which can be used as a component of "ketone diets" in the dietary treatment of patients with intractable epilepsy, or in the nutritional support of terminally ill cancer patients. The possibility of improving cognitive function in dementia patients and mild cognitive impairment is also being studied. Obesity due to over-nutrition and lack of exercise, and frailty due to under-nutrition and aging, are major health issues in today's society. MCTs have been studied in relation to these concerns. In this paper we will introduce the results of applied research into the use of MCTs by healthy subjects.

MCT/LCT Mixed Oil Phase Enhances the Rheological Property and Freeze-Thawing Stability of Emulsion

The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of different oil phase compositions (medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) and long-chain triglyceride (LCT), the proportion of MCT is 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%, respectively) on the rheological properties and freeze-thaw stability of emulsions. The emulsions were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), rheometer, stability analyzer, Malvern particle size meter and confocal microscope. Results showed that all emulsions exhibited a gel-like characteristic with a storage modulus higher than the loss modulus. The elastic modulus and complex viscosity of the emulsions increased with the increase of MCT proportions. During the heating from 4 °C to 80 °C, the complex viscosity of all emulsions decreased first and then remained unchanged at a continuous high temperature, indicating that the emulsions had good stability and internal structural integrity during the cooling and high-temperature processes. With the increase of MCT proportions, the freeze-thaw stability of the emulsions increased first and then decreased, and showed the optimum with 10% MCT. That could be referred for the production of a product with better freeze-thaw stability and rheological property in the food and cosmetic industries.

Preparation of Human Milk Fat Substitutes: A Review

Human milk is generally regarded as the best choice for infant feeding. Human milk fat (HMF) is one of the most complex natural lipids, with a unique fatty acid composition and distribution and complex lipid composition. Lipid intake in infants not only affects their energy intake but also affects their metabolic mode and overall development. Infant formula is the best substitute for human milk when breastfeeding is not possible. As the main energy source in infant formula, human milk fat substitutes (HMFSs) should have a composition similar to that of HMF in order to meet the nutritional needs of infant growth and development. At present, HMFS preparation mainly focuses on the simulation of fatty acid composition, the application of structured lipids and the addition of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) supplements. This paper first reviews the composition and structure of HMF, and then the preparation development of structured lipids and MFGM supplements are summarized. Additionally, the evaluation and regulation of HMFSs in infant formula are also presented.

Impact of Replacement of Individual Dietary SFAs on Circulating Lipids and Other Biomarkers of Cardiometabolic Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials in Humans

Little is known of the impact of individual SFAs and their isoenergetic substitution with other SFAs or unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) on the prevention of cardiometabolic disease (CMD). This systematic literature review assessed the impact of such dietary substitutions on a range of fasting CMD risk markers, including lipid profile, markers of glycemic control and inflammation, and metabolic hormone concentrations. Eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigated the effect of isoenergetic replacements of individual dietary SFAs for ≥14 d on ≥1 CMD risk markers in humans. Searches of the PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane CENTRAL databases on 14 February, 2021 identified 44 RCTs conducted in participants with a mean ± SD age of 39.9 ± 15.2 y. Studies' risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool 2.0 for RCTs. Random-effect meta-analyses assessed the effect of ≥3 similar dietary substitutions on the same CMD risk marker. Other dietary interventions were described in qualitative syntheses. We observed reductions in LDL-cholesterol concentrations after the replacement of palmitic acid (16:0) with UFAs (-0.36 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.50, -0.21 mmol/L; I2 = 96.0%, n = 18 RCTs) or oleic acid (18:1n-9) (-0.16 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.28, -0.03 mmol/L; I2 = 89.6%, n = 9 RCTs), with a similar impact on total cholesterol and apoB concentrations. No effects on other CMD risk markers, including HDL-cholesterol, triacylglycerol, glucose, insulin, or C-reactive protein concentrations, were evident. Similarly, we found no evidence of a benefit from replacing dietary stearic acid (18:0) with UFAs on CMD risk markers (n = 4 RCTs). In conclusion, the impact of replacing dietary palmitic acid with UFAs on lipid biomarkers is aligned with current public health recommendations. However, owing to the high heterogeneity and limited studies, relations between all individual SFAs and biomarkers of cardiometabolic health need further confirmation from RCTs. This systematic review was registered at www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/ as CRD42020084241.

A Novel Lipase from Lasiodiplodia theobromae Efficiently Hydrolyses C8-C10 Methyl Esters for the Preparation of Medium-Chain Triglycerides' Precursors

Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are an emerging choice to treat neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. They are triesters of glycerol and three medium-chain fatty acids, such as capric (C8) and caprylic (C10) acids. The availability of C8-C10 methyl esters (C8-C10 ME) from vegetable oil processes has presented an opportunity to use methyl esters as raw materials for the synthesis of MCTs. However, there are few reports on enzymes that can efficiently hydrolyse C8-C10 ME to industrial specifications. Here, we report the discovery and identification of a novel lipase from Lasiodiplodia theobromae fungus (LTL1), which hydrolyses C8-C10 ME efficiently. LTL1 can perform hydrolysis over pH ranges from 3.0 to 9.0 and maintain thermotolerance up to 70 °C. It has high selectivity for monoesters over triesters and displays higher activity over commercially available lipases for C8-C10 ME to achieve 96.17% hydrolysis within 31 h. Structural analysis by protein X-ray crystallography revealed LTL1's well-conserved lipase core domain, together with a partially resolved N-terminal subdomain and an inserted loop, which may suggest its hydrolytic preference for monoesters. In conclusion, our results suggest that LTL1 provides a tractable route towards to production of C8-C10 fatty acids from methyl esters for the synthesis of MCTs.

A novel sn-1,3 specific lipase from Janibacter sp. as catalysts for the high-yield synthesis of long-medium-long type structured triacylglycerols

Our study offers a novel sn-1,3 specific lipase MAJ1 from marine member Janibacter sp. strain HTCC2649 for preparing long-medium-long (LML) type structured triacylglycerols (TAGs). Firstly, the resin ECR1030 was selected as a suitable support for the immobilization of lipase MAJ1. An efficient synthesis of LML-type structured TAGs by the immobilized lipase MAJ1-catalyzed interesterification of methyl palmitate and tricaprylin was studied in a solvent-free system. The reaction conditions, including substrate molar ratio, temperature and enzyme loading, were optimized. Under the optimum conditions (immobilized lipase MAJ1 of 45 U/g, substrate molar ratio of 4:1, temperature of 35 °C, reaction time of 24 h), the structured TAGs with double long chains (DLCST) were obtained in a yield of 44.3 mol%. Secondly, multi-dimensional mass spectrometry-based shotgun lipidomics (MDMS-SL) was employed to quantify each TAG positional isomer in DLCST. The content of 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-capryloyl-sn-glycerol in DLCST was 97.6% determined by the MDMS-SL technology.

Cutpoints for Muscle Mass and Strength Derived from Weakness or Mobility Impairment and Compared with Other Diagnostic Criteria in Community-Dwelling Elderly People

We identified the strength cutpoints concerning mobility impairment, then identified the muscle mass cutpoints concerning weakness, and compared the results with other diagnostic criteria to develop the clinical diagnostic criteria associated with functional impairment. In 7583 elderly people, classification and regression tree (CART) and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analyses were used for determining cutpoints for handgrip strength (HGS) and appendicular lean mass (ALM) indices associated with slowness or weakness. Logistic regressions were then used to quantify the strength of the association between muscle mass (or strength) categories and weakness (or slowness). The CART second cutpoints of muscle mass and strength indices were lower than those specified by the ROC method and were between those cutpoints determined by the 20th and Mean-2SD methods. After adjusting for covariates, the associations remained significant in handgrip strength categories defined by the CART and ROC cutpoints and HGS/BMI categories defined by the CART, ROC, and 20th cutpoints in men and women (P < 0.05), ALM, ALM/Ht² categories defined by all four cutpoints (P < 0.05) and ALM/BMI categories defined by CART and ROC cutpoints in men (P < 0.05), and ALM and ALM/Ht² categories defined by the CART cutpoints in women (P < 0.05). Our approaches resulted in a definition of weak strength as handgrip strength or HGS/BMI less than 26.55 kg or 1.114 in men and less than 16.45 kg or 0.697 in women and then defined ALM, ALM/Ht², or ALM/BMI less than 18.92 kg, 7.08 kg/m², or 0.795 in men and less than 15.04 kg, 5.99 kg/m², or 0.517 in women as low lean mass.

Epidemiological Study on the Dose-Effect Association between Physical Activity Volume and Body Composition of the Elderly in China

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate Chinese old adults’ different body compositions in response to various levels of physical activity (PA). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the dose–response relationship between PA and body composition in old adults. Methods: 2664 participants older than 60 years (males: n = 984, females: n = 1680) were recruited for this cross-sectional health survey. PA was assessed by the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and the body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) instruments. The differences of separate body composition indices (lean body mass, LBM; bone mass, BM; and fat mass, FM) of older participants with different PA levels (below PA recommendation and over PA recommendation) were examined using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). To compare the differences of three body composition indices with six different multiples of PA recommendation (0–1 REC, 1–2 REC, 2–4 REC, 4–6 REC, >6 REC), the one-way ANOVA and Turkey’s test was used for the post hoc analysis to identify the upper PA-benefit threshold in different indices of body composition. Results: The LBM and BM are significantly higher and the FM are significantly lower in old adults performing more PA volume than the WHO recommendation, compared with individuals performing less PA volume than the WHO recommendation. There were significant increases in LBM for males in “1–2 REC”, “2–4 REC”, and “>6 REC” groups, compared with the “0–1 REC” group; and there were significant increases in BM for males in “1–2 REC”, “2–4 REC”, compared with the “0–1 REC” group. The best PA volume for LBM and BM in females was the PA volume of “2–4 REC”. Additionally, whether males or females, there was no significant difference in FM between the “0–1 REC” group and other separate groups. Conclusion: The PA volume that causes best benefit for body composition of the elderly occurs at 1 to 2 times the recommended minimum PA for males, while it occurs at 2 to 4 times that recommended for females. No additional harms for old adults’ body composition occurs at six or more times the recommended minimum PA.

Caprylic acid suppresses inflammation via TLR4/NF-κB signaling and improves atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice

Background

As reported previously by our group, medium-chain triglycerides can ameliorate atherosclerosis. Given that TLR4 is closely related to atherosclerosis, we hypothesized herein that caprylic acid (C8:0) would suppress inflammation via TLR4/NF-κB signaling and further promote the amelioration of atherosclerosis in apoE- deficient (apoE^-/-) mice.

Methods

Fifty 6-week male apoE^-/- mice were randomly allocated into five diet groups: a high-fat diet (HFD) without or with 2% caprylic acid (C8:0), capric acid (C10:0), stearic acid (C18:0), or linolenic acid (C18:3). RAW246.7 cells were treated with caprylic acid (C8:0), docosahexenoic acid (DHA), palmitic acid (C16:0), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with or without TLR4 knock-down (TLR4-KD). The serum lipid profiles, inflammatory biomolecules, and mRNA and protein expression levels were measured. Atherosclerotic lesions that occurred in the aorta and aortic sinuses were evaluated and quantified.

Results

Our results indicated that C8:0 reduced body fat, improved the lipid profiles, suppressed inflammatory cytokine production, downregulated aortic TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, TNF-α, IKKα, and IKKβ mRNA expression, and alleviated atherosclerosis in the apoE^-/- mice (P < 0.05). In RAW 264.7 cells, C8:0 diminished the inflammatory response and both mRNA and protein expression of TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, and TNF-α compared to those in the LPS and C16:0 groups (P < 0.05). However, in the TLR4-KD RAW 264.7 cells, C8:0 significantly upregulated NF-κB mRNA and protein expression compared to those in the C16:0 and DHA groups.

Conclusions

These results suggest that C8:0 functions via TLR4/NF-κB signaling to improve the outcomes of apoE^-/- mice through suppressing inflammation and ameliorating atherosclerosis. Thus, C8:0 may represent as a promising nutrient against chronic inflammatory diseases.

Sarcopenia-related features and factors associated with low muscle mass, weak muscle strength, and reduced function in Chinese rural residents: a cross-sectional study

Muscle strength and function declined more than the concomitant loss of muscle mass. Measures of muscle strength and function are an effective way to assess functional ability and physical health in older people. A healthy lifestyle such as physical exercise, good nutrition, and higher BMI can benefit older people.

INTRODUCTION

The study investigated the characteristics of aging-related differences in appendicular lean mass (ALM/Ht²), handgrip strength (HGS), usual gait speed (UGS), repeated chair stands (RCS), Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, and their associated factors in 6703 rural residents.

METHODS

We assessed their anthropometry, body composition, muscle strength and function, bone mineral density, blood pressure, and blood biochemical indices via clinical examination or laboratory tests and investigated demographic characteristics, lifestyle, medical history, physical activity, and dietary intake via questionnaire. Stepwise logistic regression was used to determine the associated factors of low muscle mass, weak muscle strength, reduced physical performance, and sarcopenia.

RESULTS

The mean values of muscle strength and function decreased more rapidly with age than the mean values of muscle mass, especially in females. The prevalence of low ALM/Ht², weak HGS, slow UGS, long RCS, long TUG, and sarcopenia increased (P < 0.01). Higher body mass index (BMI) and daytime sleep were associated with high ALM/Ht². Comorbidity factors such as hypertension, bone mineral density loss, central adiposity, metabolic syndrome, and tumors were associated with the risk of weak muscle strength and reduced physical performance, while physical activity and better nutrition were associated with better muscle strength and physical performance.

CONCLUSIONS

At the higher decades of life, the decline of muscle strength and function is greater than the loss in muscle mass. Measures of muscle strength and function are an effective way to assess functional ability and physical health in older people. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle by means such as physical exercise, good nutrition, and higher BMI throughout the course of life may be benefit older people by improving their muscle mass, strength, and function.

Investigation of Lipid Metabolism by a New Structured Lipid with Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerols from Cinnamomum camphora Seed Oil in Healthy C57BL/6J Mice

In the present study, a new structured lipid with medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCTs) was synthesized from camellia oil (CO) and Cinnamomum camphora seed oil (CCSO) by enzymatic interesterification. Meanwhile, the antiobesity effects of structured lipid were investigated through observing the changes of enzymes related to lipid mobilization in healthy C57BL/6J mice. Results showed that after synthesis, the major triacylgeride (TAG) species of intesterificated product changed to LaCC/CLaC (12.6 ± 0.46%), LaCO/LCL (21.7 ± 0.76%), CCO/LaCL (14.2 ± 0.55%), COO/OCO (10.8 ± 0.43%), and OOO (18.6 ± 0.64%). Through second-stage molecular distillation, the purity of interesterified product (MLCT) achieved 95.6%. Later, male C57BL/6J mice were applied to study whether the new structured lipid with MLCT has the efficacy of preventing the formation of obesity or not. After feeding with different diets for 6 weeks, MLCTs could reduce body weight and fat deposition in adipose tissue, lower plasma triacylglycerols (TG) (0.89 ± 0.16 mmol/L), plasma total cholesterol (TC) (4.03 ± 0.08 mmol/L), and hepatic lipids (382 ± 34.2 mg/mice) by 28.8%, 16.0%, and 30.5%, respectively, when compared to the control 2 group. This was also accompanied by increasing fecal lipids (113%) and the level of enzymes including cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), protein kinase A (PKA), hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), and adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) related to lipid mobilization in MLCT group. From the results, it can be concluded that MLCT reduced body fat deposition probably by modulating enzymes related to lipid mobilization in C57BL/6J mice.

Structural difference of palm based Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerol (MLCT) further reduces body fat accumulation in DIO C57BL/6J mice when consumed in low fat diet for a mid-term period

Medium-and-Long Chain Triacylglycerol (MLCT) is a type of structured lipid that is made up of medium chain, MCFA (C8-C12) and long chain, LCFA (C16-C22) fatty acid. Studies claimed that consumption of MLCT has the potential in reducing visceral fat accumulation as compared to long chain triacylglycerol, LCT. This is mainly attributed to the rapid metabolism of MCFA as compared to LCFA. Our study was designed to compare the anti-obesity effects of a enzymatically interesterified MLCT (E-MLCT) with physical blend of palm kernel and palm oil (B-PKOPO) having similar fatty acid composition and a commercial MLCT (C-MLCT) made of rapeseed/soybean oil on Diet Induced Obesity (DIO) C57BL/6J mice for a period of four months in low fat, LF (7%) and high fat, HF (30%) diet. The main aim was to determine if the anti-obesity effect of MLCT was contributed solely by its triacylglycerol structure alone or its fatty acid composition or both. Out of the three types of MLCT, mice fed with Low Fat, LF (7%) E-MLCT had significantly (P<0.05) lower body weight gain (by ~30%), body fat accumulation (by ~37%) and hormone leptin level as compared to both the LF B-PKOPO and LF C-MLCT. Histological examination further revealed that dietary intake of E-MLCT inhibited hepatic lipid accumulation. Besides, analysis of serum profile also demonstrated that consumption of E-MLCT was better in regulating blood glucose compared to B-PKOPO and C-MLCT. Nevertheless, both B-PKO-PO and E-MLCT which contained higher level of myristic acid was found to be hypercholesterolemic compared to C-MLCT. In summary, our finding showed that triacylglycerol structure, fatty acid composition and fat dosage play a pivotal role in regulating visceral fat accumulation. Consumption of E-MLCT in low fat diet led to a significantly lesser body fat accumulation. It was postulated that the MLM/MLL/LMM/MML/LLM types of triacylglycerol and C8-C12 medium chain fatty acids were the main factors that contributed to the visceral fat suppressing effect of MLCT. Despite being able to reduce body fat, the so called healthful functional oil E-MLCT when taken in high amount do resulted in fat accumulation. In summary, E-MLCT when taken in moderation can be used to manage obesity issue. However, consumption of E-MLCT may lead to higher total cholesterol and LDL level.

Effects of Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerols on Lipid Metabolism and Gut Microbiota Composition in C57BL/6J Mice

Obesity is related to an increasing risk of chronic diseases. Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCT) have been recognized as a promising choice to reduce body weight. In this study, three MLCT with different contents of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) (10-30%, w/w) were prepared, and their effects on lipid metabolism and fecal gut microbiota composition of C57BL/6J mice were systematically investigated. MLCT with 30% (w/w) MCFA showed the best performance in decreasing body weight gain as well as optimizing serum lipid parameters and liver triacylglycerol content. The expression levels of genes encoding enzymes for fatty acid degradation increased markedly and expression levels of genes encoding enzymes for de novo fatty acid biosynthesis decreased significantly in the liver of mice treated with MLCT containing 30% (w/w) MCFA. Interestingly, the dietary intake of a high fat diet containing MLCT did significantly decrease the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes and down-regulate the relative abundance of Proteobacteria that may attribute to weight loss. Furthermore, we found a notable increase in the total short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) content in feces of mice on a MLCT containing diet. All these results may be concomitantly responsible for the antiobesity effect of MLCT with relatively high contents of MCFA.

Greek-origin royal jelly improves the lipid profile of postmenopausal women

AIM

Menopause transition is associated with chronic conditions such as osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Concerns about the long-term safety of menopausal hormone therapy make alternative natural methods an appealing approach to management. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of royal jelly (RJ) on cardiovascular and bone turnover markers in clinically healthy postmenopausal women.

METHODS

A total of 36 postmenopausal healthy women were studied in a prospective follow-up study. Participants received 150 mg of RJ daily for three months. Circulating cardiovascular risk markers [lipid profile, antithrombin-III (ATIII), Protein C, Protein S, Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)] and bone turnover parameters [Total calcium, phosphate (P), parathormone (PTH), total type-1 Procollagen N-terminal (P1NP), Osteocalcin and serum collagen type 1 cross-linked C-telopeptide (CTX)] were compared between the baseline and the three-month visit.

RESULTS

The RJ used in this study was particularly rich in medium chain fatty acids, compounds with hypolipidemic properties, which comprised 63% of the dry weight fatty content. RJ treatment resulted in a significant increase in high density lipoprotein - cholesterol (HDL-C 60.2 mg/dL ± 12.3 versus 64.7 mg/dL ± 13.9, 7.7% increase, p = 0.0003), as well as in a significant decrease in low density lipoprotein - cholesterol (LDL-C, 143.9 ± 37.5 versus 136.2 ± 32, 4.1% decrease, p = 0.011) and in total cholesterol (224.4 ± 38.6 to 216.1 ± 36.5, 3.09% decrease, p = 0.018). No statistical significant changes were found in the remaining cardiovascular or the bone turnover parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

The intake of RJ 150 mg for three months is associated with significant improvements of the lipid profile of postmenopausal women. RJ supplementation may offer an alternative method of controlling the menopause - associated dyslipidemia.

Medium-chain fatty acid reduces lipid accumulation by regulating expression of lipid-sensing genes in human liver cells with steatosis

Accumulation of lipids in the liver can lead to cell dysfunction and steatosis, an important factor in pathogenesis causing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The mechanisms related to lipid deposition in the liver, however, remain poorly understood. This study was aimed to investigate the effects of medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) on the lipolysis and expression of lipid-sensing genes in human liver cells with steatosis. A cellular steatosis model, which is suitable to experimentally investigate the impact of fat accumulation in the liver, was established in human normal liver cells (LO2 cells) with a mixture of free fatty acids (oleate/palmitate, 2:1) at 200 μm for 24 h incubation. MCFA was found to down-regulate expression of liver X receptor-α, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase, CD 36 and lipoprotein lipase in this cellular model, and have positive effects on adipose triglyceride lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase. These results suggest that MCFA may reduce lipid accumulation by regulating key lipid-sensing genes in human liver cells with steatosis.

The diverse nature of saturated fats and the case of medium-chain triglycerides: how one recommendation may not fit all

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The adverse cardiovascular health effects of saturated fats have been debated recently since the publication of studies reporting no increase in cardiovascular risk with saturated fat intakes. We purport that this may be because of the varied nature of saturated fats, which range in length from 2 to over 20 carbon atoms, and review evidence surrounding the cardiovascular health effects of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT).

RECENT FINDINGS

MCTs are saturated fats of shorter chain length than other, more readily consumed saturated fats. Studies have reported that consumption of MCT may lead to improvements in body composition without adversely affecting cardio-metabolic risk factors. There may also be synergistic actions between MCT and n-3 polyunsaturated fats that may lead to improvements in cardiovascular health.

SUMMARY

It is clinically relevant to distinguish between sources of saturated fats for cardiovascular health. Medium, and possibly shorter chain, saturated fats behave differently than long-chain saturated fats and should not be judged similarly when it comes to their cardio-metabolic health effects. Given their neutral, and potentially beneficial cardiovascular health effects, they should not be categorized together.

Genome- and epigenome-wide association study of hypertriglyceridemic waist in Mexican American families

BACKGROUND

There is growing interest in the hypertriglyceridemic waist (HTGW) phenotype, defined as high waist circumference (≥95 cm in males and ≥80 cm in females) combined with high serum triglyceride concentration (≥2.0 mmol/L in males and ≥1.5 mmol/L in females) as a marker of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular disease. However, the prevalence of this phenotype in high-risk populations, its association with T2D, and the genetic or epigenetic influences on HTGW are not well explored. Using data from large, extended families of Mexican Americans (a high-risk minority population in the USA) we aimed to: (1) estimate the prevalence of this phenotype, (2) test its association with T2D and related traits, and (3) dissect out the genetic and epigenetic associations with this phenotype using genome-wide and epigenome-wide studies, respectively.

RESULTS

Data for this study was from 850 Mexican American participants (representing 39 families) recruited under the ongoing San Antonio Family Heart Study, 26 % of these individuals had HTGW. This phenotype was significantly heritable (h (2) r = 0.52, p = 1.1 × 10(-5)) and independently associated with T2D as well as fasting glucose levels and insulin resistance. We conducted genome-wide association analyses using 759,809 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and epigenome-wide association analyses using 457,331 CpG sites. There was no evidence of any SNP associated with HTGW at the genome-wide level but two CpG sites (cg00574958 and cg17058475) in CPT1A and one CpG site (cg06500161) in ABCG1 were significantly associated with HTGW and remained significant after adjusting for the closely related components of metabolic syndrome. CPT1A holds a cardinal position in the metabolism of long-chain fatty acids while ABCG1 plays a role in triglyceride metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reemphasize the value of HTGW as a marker of T2D. This phenotype shows association with DNA methylation within CPT1A and ABCG1, genes involved in fatty acid and triglyceride metabolism. Our results underscore the importance of epigenetics in a clinically informative phenotype.

Role of bioactive lipid mediators in obese adipose tissue inflammation and endocrine dysfunction

White adipose tissue is recognized as an active endocrine organ implicated in the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis. However, adipose tissue function, which has a crucial role in the development of obesity-related comorbidities including insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, is dysregulated in obese individuals. This review explores the physiological functions and molecular actions of bioactive lipids biosynthesized in adipose tissue including sphingolipids and phospholipids, and in particular fatty acids derived from phospholipids of the cell membrane. Special emphasis is given to polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-6 and omega-3 families and their conversion to bioactive lipid mediators through the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways. The participation of omega-3-derived lipid autacoids in the resolution of adipose tissue inflammation and in the prevention of obesity-associated hepatic complications is also thoroughly discussed.

Sheaolein-based cold-soluble powder fats with medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol: production via chemical interesterification using sheaolein and palm kernel stearin

Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is increasingly popular because of its anti-obesity ability, and therefore the cold soluble powder fat containing such triacylglycerol is considered as a healthy functional food.

Functional foods as potential therapeutic options for metabolic syndrome

Obesity as part of metabolic syndrome is a major lifestyle disorder throughout the world. Current drug treatments for obesity produce small and usually unsustainable decreases in body weight with the risk of major adverse effects. Surgery has been the only treatment producing successful long-term weight loss. As a different but complementary approach, lifestyle modification including the use of functional foods could produce a reliable decrease in obesity with decreased comorbidities. Functional foods may include fruits such as berries, vegetables, fibre-enriched grains and beverages such as tea and coffee. Although health improvements continue to be reported for these functional foods in rodent studies, further evidence showing the translation of these results into humans is required. Thus, the concept that these fruits and vegetables will act as functional foods in humans to reduce obesity and thereby improve health remains intuitive and possible rather than proven.

Soybean Oil Is More Obesogenic and Diabetogenic than Coconut Oil and Fructose in Mouse: Potential Role for the Liver

The obesity epidemic in the U.S. has led to extensive research into potential contributing dietary factors, especially fat and fructose. Recently, increased consumption of soybean oil, which is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), has been proposed to play a causal role in the epidemic. Here, we designed a series of four isocaloric diets (HFD, SO-HFD, F-HFD, F-SO-HFD) to investigate the effects of saturated versus unsaturated fat, as well as fructose, on obesity and diabetes. C57/BL6 male mice fed a diet moderately high in fat from coconut oil and soybean oil (SO-HFD, 40% kcal total fat) showed statistically significant increases in weight gain, adiposity, diabetes, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance compared to mice on a diet consisting primarily of coconut oil (HFD). They also had fatty livers with hepatocyte ballooning and very large lipid droplets as well as shorter colonic crypt length. While the high fructose diet (F-HFD) did not cause as much obesity or diabetes as SO-HFD, it did cause rectal prolapse and a very fatty liver, but no balloon injury. The coconut oil diet (with or without fructose) increased spleen weight while fructose in the presence of soybean oil increased kidney weight. Metabolomics analysis of the liver showed an increased accumulation of PUFAs and their metabolites as well as γ-tocopherol, but a decrease in cholesterol in SO-HFD. Liver transcriptomics analysis revealed a global dysregulation of cytochrome P450 (Cyp) genes in SO-HFD versus HFD livers, most notably in the Cyp3a and Cyp2c families. Other genes involved in obesity (e.g., Cidec, Cd36), diabetes (Igfbp1), inflammation (Cd63), mitochondrial function (Pdk4) and cancer (H19) were also upregulated by the soybean oil diet. Taken together, our results indicate that in mice a diet high in soybean oil is more detrimental to metabolic health than a diet high in fructose or coconut oil.

The role of dietary coconut for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease: potential mechanisms of action

Coconut, Cocos nucifera L., is a tree that is cultivated to provide a large number of products, although it is mainly grown for its nutritional and medicinal values. Coconut oil, derived from the coconut fruit, has been recognised historically as containing high levels of saturated fat; however, closer scrutiny suggests that coconut should be regarded more favourably. Unlike most other dietary fats that are high in long-chain fatty acids, coconut oil comprises medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA). MCFA are unique in that they are easily absorbed and metabolised by the liver, and can be converted to ketones. Ketone bodies are an important alternative energy source in the brain, and may be beneficial to people developing or already with memory impairment, as in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Coconut is classified as a highly nutritious 'functional food'. It is rich in dietary fibre, vitamins and minerals; however, notably, evidence is mounting to support the concept that coconut may be beneficial in the treatment of obesity, dyslipidaemia, elevated LDL, insulin resistance and hypertension - these are the risk factors for CVD and type 2 diabetes, and also for AD. In addition, phenolic compounds and hormones (cytokinins) found in coconut may assist in preventing the aggregation of amyloid-β peptide, potentially inhibiting a key step in the pathogenesis of AD. The purpose of the present review was to explore the literature related to coconut, outlining the known mechanistic physiology, and to discuss the potential role of coconut supplementation as a therapeutic option in the prevention and management of AD.

Effects of medium-chain triglycerides on weight loss and body composition: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) may result in negative energy balance and weight loss through increased energy expenditure and lipid oxidation. However, results from human intervention studies investigating the weight reducing potential of MCTs, have been mixed.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing the effects of MCTs, specifically C8:0 and C10:0, to long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) on weight loss and body composition in adults. Changes in blood lipid levels were secondary outcomes.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials >3 weeks' duration conducted in healthy adults were identified searching Web of Knowledge, Discover, PubMed, Scopus, New Zealand Science, and Cochrane CENTRAL until March 2014 with no language restriction. Identified trials were assessed for bias. Mean differences were pooled and analyzed using inverse variance models with fixed effects. Heterogeneity between studies was calculated using I(2) statistic. An I(2)>50% or P<0.10 indicated heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Thirteen trials (n=749) were identified. Compared with LCTs, MCTs decreased body weight (-0.51 kg [95% CI-0.80 to -0.23 kg]; P<0.001; I(2)=35%); waist circumference (-1.46 cm [95% CI -2.04 to -0.87 cm]; P<0.001; I(2)=0%), hip circumference (-0.79 cm [95% CI -1.27 to -0.30 cm]; P=0.002; I(2)=0%), total body fat (standard mean difference -0.39 [95% CI -0.57 to -0.22]; P<0.001; I(2)=0%), total subcutaneous fat (standard mean difference -0.46 [95% CI -0.64 to -0.27]; P<0.001; I(2)=20%), and visceral fat (standard mean difference -0.55 [95% CI -0.75 to -0.34]; P<0.001; I(2)=0%). No differences were seen in blood lipid levels. Many trials lacked sufficient information for a complete quality assessment, and commercial bias was detected. Although heterogeneity was absent, study designs varied with regard to duration, dose, and control of energy intake.

CONCLUSIONS

Replacement of LCTs with MCTs in the diet could potentially induce modest reductions in body weight and composition without adversely affecting lipid profiles. However, further research is required by independent research groups using large, well-designed studies to confirm the efficacy of MCT and to determine the dosage needed for the management of a healthy body weight and composition.

The effect of LXRα, ChREBP and Elovl6 in liver and white adipose tissue on medium- and long-chain fatty acid diet-induced insulin resistance

AIMS

We aimed to investigate the effects of LXRα, ChREBP and Elovl6 in the development of insulin resistance-induced by medium- and long-chain fatty acids.

METHODS

Sprague Dawley rats were fed a standard chow diet (Control group) or a high-fat, high sucrose diet with different fat sources (coconut oil, lard, sunflower and fish oil) for 8 weeks. These oils were rich in medium-chain saturated fatty acids (MCFA group), long-chain saturated fatty acids (LCFA group), n-6 and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA groups), respectively, which had different chain lengths and degrees of unsaturation. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with [6-(3)H] glucose infusion was performed in conscious rats to assess hepatic insulin sensitivity.

RESULTS

LCFA and n-6 PUFA groups induced hepatic insulin resistance and increased liver X receptor α (LXRα), carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP) and long-chain fatty acid elongase 6 (Elovl6) expression in liver and white adipose tissue (WAT). Furthermore, LCFA and n-6 PUFA groups suppressed Akt serine 473 phosphorylation in liver and WAT. By contrast, in liver and WAT, MCFA and n-3 PUFA groups decreased LXRα, ChREBP and Elovl6 expression and improved insulin signaling and insulin resistance, but Akt serine 473 phosphorylation was not restored by MCFA group in WAT.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that the mechanism of the different effects of medium- and long-chain fatty acids on hepatic insulin resistance involves LXRα, ChREBP and Elovl6 alternations in liver and WAT. It points to a new strategy for ameliorating insulin resistance and diabetes through intervention on Elovl6 or its control genes.

Medium-chain fatty acids enhanced the excretion of fecal cholesterol and cholic acid in C57BL/6J mice fed a cholesterol-rich diet

The objective of the present study was to investigate the cholesterol-reducing effect of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) completed by elevated excretion of fecal neutral steroids and/or bile acids. Blood and liver lipid profiles, fecal neutral steroids, bile acids, and mRNA and protein expression of the genes relevant to cholesterol homeostasis were measured and analyzed in C57BL/6J mice fed a cholesterol-rich diet with 2% caprylic acid or capric acid for 12 weeks. Blood total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) levels were reduced significantly as compared to diet with palmitic acid or stearic acid. Caprylic acid promoted the excretion of fecal neutral steroids, especially cholesterol. The excretion of fecal bile acids, mainly in the form of cholic acid was enhanced and accompanied by elevated expression of mRNA and the protein of hepatic cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). These results indicate that MCFAs can reduce blood cholesterol by promoting the excretion of fecal cholesterol and cholic acid.

Palm-based medium-and-long-chain triacylglycerol (P-MLCT): production via enzymatic interesterification and optimization using response surface methodology (RSM)

Structured lipid such as medium-and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is claimed to be able to suppress body fat accumulation and be used to manage obesity. Response surface methodology (RSM) with four factors and three levels (+1,0,-1) faced centered composite design (FCCD) was employed for optimization of the enzymatic interesterification conditions of palm-based MLCT (P-MLCT) production. The effect of the four variables namely: substrate ratio palm kernel oil: palm oil, PKO:PO (40:60-100:0 w/w), temperature (50-70 °C), reaction time (0.5-7.5 h) and enzyme load (5-15 % w/w) on the P-MLCT yield (%) and by products (%) produced were investigated. The responses were determined via acylglycerol composition obtained from high performance liquid chromatography. Well-fitted models were successfully established for both responses: P-MLCT yield (R (2) = 0.9979) and by-products (R (2) = 0.9892). The P-MLCT yield was significantly (P < 0.05) affected by substrate ratio, reaction time and reaction temperature but not enzyme load (P > 0.05). Substrate ratio PKO: PO (100:0 w/w) gave the highest yield of P-MLCT (61 %). Nonetheless, substrate ratio of PKO: PO (90:10w/w) was chosen to improve the fatty acid composition of the P-MLCT. The optimized conditions for substrate ratio PKO: PO (90:10 w/w) was 7.26 h, 50 °C and 5 % (w/w) Lipozyme TLIM lipase, which managed to give 60 % yields of P-MLCT. Up scaled results in stirred tank batch reactor gave similar yields as lab scale. A 20 % increase in P-MLCT yield was obtained via RSM. The effect of enzymatic interesterification on the physicochemical properties of PKO:PO (90:10 w/w) were also studied. Thermoprofile showed that the P-MLCT oil melted below body temperature of 37 °C.

Short-term calorie and protein restriction provide partial protection from chemotoxicity but do not delay glioma progression

Short-term starvation (STS) protects normal cells while simultaneously sensitizing malignant cells to high-dose chemotherapeutic drugs in mice and possibly patients. The fasting-dependent protection of normal cells and sensitization of malignant cells depends, in part, on reduced levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and glucose. Calorie restricted diets with defined macronutrient (carbohydrate, protein, fat) ratios were evaluated for the effects on stress sensitization markers and protection in mice treated with high-dose chemotherapy. We show that short-term CR significantly reduced both glucose and IGF-1 levels, but when specific macronutrient deficiencies were tested, only the complete lack of proteins reduced IGF-1 levels. Short-term 50% CR combined with either severe protein-deficiency or ketogenic diets improved chemotoxicity resistance similarly to the standard 50% CR, but did not result in the high protection caused by STS. Notably, a high protein diet reversed the beneficial effects of short-term CR. In a subcutaneous mouse model of glioma, feeding a low protein (4% calories from protein) diet for more than 20days did not delay tumor progression once the tumor became palpable. Also, cycles of short-term (3days) 50% CR did not augment the chemotherapy efficacy of cisplatin in a murine breast cancer model. These results indicate that the protection from chemotoxicity and retardation of the progression of certain tumors achieved with fasting is not obtained with short-term calorie and/or macronutrient restriction.

Lipases as biocatalysts for the synthesis of structured lipids

Structured lipids (SL) are broadly referred to as modified or synthetic oils and fats or lipids with functional or pharmaceutical applications. Some structured lipids, such as triglycerides that contain both long-chain (mainly essential) fatty acids and medium- or short-chain fatty acids and also artificial products that mimic the structure of natural materials, namely human milk fat substitutes and cocoa butter equivalents, have been discussed. Further, other modified or synthetic lipids, such as structured phospholipids and synthetic phenolic lipids are also included in this chapter. For all the products described in this chapter, enzymatic production in industry has been already conducted in one way or another. Cocoa butter equivalents, healthy oil containing medium-chain fatty acids, phosphatidyl serine, and phenol lipids from enzyme technology have been reported for commercial operation. As the demand for better quality functional lipids is increasing, the production of structured lipids becomes an interesting area. Thus, in this chapter we have discussed latest developments as well as present industrial situation of all commercially important structured lipids.