Relationship of intake of plant-based foods with 6-n-propylthiouracil sensitivity and food neophobia in Japanese preschool children

Arousal and the modulation of sensory experience: evidence from food-related emotions

Across sensory systems, several stimulus collative characteristics, including intensity, novelty, complexity and perceived dangerousness, are known to elicit high levels of physiological and psychological arousal. It has become apparent that food rejections by both children and adults are frequently linked to such arousal-inducing characteristics. This paper examines how arousal and arousability are important elements in responding to stimuli generally, but specifically to foods, ultimately influencing food preferences and choices. It is clear that responses to sensory properties are subject not just to variations in perceptual sensitivity due to genetics or experience-as in the case of widely rejected qualities such as bitterness or pungency-but also to the arousal potential of those stimuli. Moreover, this is linked to various enduring aspects of personality, suggesting that the impact of arousal on food choices is merely one aspect of a more general sensory sensitivity. The impact of diet on various health outcomes underlines the importance of understanding the relationship of arousal to food choices. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sensing and feeling: an integrative approach to sensory processing and emotional experience'.

Neophobia, sensory experience and child's schemata contribute to food choices

PURPOSE

The aim of the present review is to analyze dynamic interactions between nutrigenomics, environmental cues, and parental influence, which can all lead to children's neophobic reactions and its persistence in time.

METHODS

We reviewed studies available on electronic databases, conducted on children aged from birth to 18 years. We also considered official websites of Italian Institutions, providing advice on healthy eating during infancy.

RESULTS

Modern day societies are faced with an eating paradox, which has severe and ever-growing implications for health. In face of a wider availability of healthy foods, individuals instead often choose processed foods high in fat, salt and sugar content. Economic reasons surely influence consumers' access to foods. However, there is mounting evidence that food choices depend on the interplay between social learning and genetic predispositions (e.g., individual eating traits and food schemata). Neophobia, the behavioral avoidance of new foods, represents an interesting trait, which can significantly influence children's food refusal. Early sensory experiences and negative cognitive schemata, in the context of primary caregiver-child interactions, importantly contribute to the priming of children's food rejection.

CONCLUSIONS

As neophobia strongly affects consumption of healthy foods, it will be relevant to rule definitively out its role in the genesis of maladaptive food choices and weight status in longitudinal studies tracking to adulthood and, in meanwhile, implement early in life effective social learning strategies, to reduce long-term effects of neophobia on dietary patterns and weight status.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, controlled trials without randomization.

Impact of the Gut-Brain Hormonal Axis and Enteric Peptides in the Development of Food Neophobia in Children with Genetically Determined Hypersensitivity to the Bitter Taste

Objective: The aim of this prospective study was to determine the role of the gut-brain hormonal axis and the effect of the enteric peptides, as well as the role of genetically determined sensitivity to the bitter taste, on the development of child food neophobia (CFN). Methods: 114 children were enrolled in the study: 43 in food neophobia group (FNG), 21 In the control group (CG) and 50 in prospective group (PG). All patients were assessed with the child food neophobia scale (CFNS), underwent an oral 6-propylthiouracil (6-PROP) test, buccal swab for bitter-taste genotyping, anthropometric measurements, and were tested for serum levels of leptin, adiponectin, insulin-like growth factor-1(IGF-1), ghrelin, and neuropeptide Y (NPY), and complete blood count (CBC); measurements were taken from a blood sample after 4 h fasting. Results: Subjects from FNG were more often hypersensitive to bitter taste (6-PROP) than CG (p = 0.001). There was no correlation between the result of genetic analysis and CFNS (p = 0.197), nor the body mass index (BMI) at the age of 18–36 months (p = 0.946) found. Correlation between 6-PRO perception and genotype have not been confirmed (p = 0.064). The score of CFNS was positively related to the serum level of NPY (p = 0.03). BMI percentile was negatively related to serum level of NPY (p = 0.03), but positively related to leptin serum level (p = 0.027). Conclusions: Bitter taste sensitivity to 6-PROP plays an important role in the development of the CFN, but correlation between 6-PROP perception and genotype have not been confirmed. Children with food neophobia due to elevated serum NPY level should be constantly monitored in order to control the nutritional status at a later age.

Application of a salt substitute in bitter taste suppression and toward better acceptance of cruciferous vegetables in diet

The addition of table salt has been reported to enable better acceptance when consuming the least preferred vegetables belonging to the Cruciferae family. Considering the adverse effect of excessive table salt intake on incidence of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases, it is essential to explore an alternative healthier option for better acceptance and to encourage consumption of these vegetables. In this study, 261 adult participants were evaluated for their preferences toward basic tastes and food as well as sensory evaluation of a meal prepared from cruciferous vegetables with the addition of two different salts, sodium chloride and salt substitute containing a blend of potassium and sodium salts. A general questionnaire was used to assess taste and food preferences, while the Cruciferous Vegetable Food Frequency Questionnaire (CVFFQ) was used for vegetable intake assessment. The Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS), Just About Right (JAR) scale, and several hedonic scales were used to determine taster status and sensory evaluation. The results show that a low concentration of the salt substitute did not impact bitterness suppression but did result in higher preference of the cruciferous vegetable meal. Although, subjects self-reported to have salty taste preferences were more sensitive to bitter taste, they did not perceive samples as less salty and less acceptable than subjects with lower sensitivity. The results show the necessity for further examination of the effectiveness of different concentrations of the assessed salt substitute in suppressing perceived bitterness of cruciferous vegetables and regarding their overall acceptance for inclusion in diets.

Low adherence to traditional dietary pattern and food preferences of low-income preschool children with food neophobia

OBJECTIVE

To associate dietary patterns and food neophobia in low-income preschoolers.

DESIGN

This was a cross-sectional study using a semi-structured questionnaire for socio-demographic data, birth conditions and breast-feeding history. Food neophobia was assessed using an adapted version of the Child Food Neophobia Scale. Children's nutritional status was assessed using BMI-for-age and height-for-age Z-scores. Dietary patterns were estimated using a semi-quantitative FFQ through exploratory factor analysis. Multiple linear regression was used to test for an association between food neophobia and dietary pattern adherence.

SETTING

Philanthropic childhood education schools in Aracaju, an urban community in northeastern Brazil, between July and December 2017.

PARTICIPANTS

Two hundred fourteen children aged 3-6 years and their parents.

RESULTS

The percentages of low/medium and high food neophobia among preschoolers were 85·9 % and 11·2 %, respectively. Children with high food neophobia more frequently consumed ultra-processed foods rich in sugars (snacks, filled and unfilled cookies and sweets), as well as protein-rich foods (white meat, cheese and yogurt). Three dietary patterns were identified (traditional, snacks and school snacks). Children with a high level of neophobia had lower adherence to traditional dietary patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

A high level of food neophobia among socially vulnerable preschoolers is an eating behaviour related to unhealthy eating and is associated with the poorest diet in typical foods.

How bitter taste influences nutrition and health in primary care

Sensitivity to bitter tastes has a genetic basis which is partly mediated by the TAS2R3 gene. Existing research on how this gene influences dietary habits and successful strategies for encouraging the incorporation of additional fruits and vegetables into individuals’ diets is discussed. We propose that knowledge of a patient's status TAS2R3 genotype could help physicians develop personalized nutritional strategies using exposure and associative conditioning techniques to encourage optimal nutrition.

TAS2R38 bitter taste genotype is associated with complementary feeding behavior in infants

Background

Genetically mediated sensitivity to bitter taste has been associated with food preferences and eating behavior in adults and children. The aim of this study was to assess the association between TAS2R38 bitter taste genotype and the first complementary food acceptance in infants.

Parents of healthy, breastfed, term-born infants were instructed, at discharge from the nursery, to feed their baby with a first complementary meal of 150 mL at 4 to 6 months of age. They recorded the day when the child ate the whole meal in a questionnaire. Additional data included food composition, breastfeeding duration, feeding practices, and growth at 6 months. Infants’ TAS2R38 genotypes were determined at birth, and infants were classified as “bitter-insensitive” (genotype AVI/AVI) and “bitter-sensitive” (genotypes AVI/PAV or PAV/PAV).

Results

One hundred seventy-six infants and their mothers were enrolled; completed data were available for 131/176 (74.4%) infants (gestational age 39.3 ± 1.1 weeks, birth weight 3390 ± 430 g). Bitter-insensitive were 45/131 (34.3%), and bitter-sensitive were 86/131 (65.6%). Thirty-one percent of bitter-insensitive infants consumed the whole complementary meal at first attempt, versus 13% of bitter-sensitive ones (p = 0.006). This difference was significant independently of confounding variables such as sex, breastfeeding, or foods used in the meal. Growth at 6 months did not differ between the two groups.

Conclusions

Differences in TAS2R38 bitter taste gene were associated with acceptance of the first complementary food in infants, suggesting a possible involvement in eating behavior at weaning.

A Biopsychosocial Model of Sex Differences in Children's Eating Behaviors

The prevalence of obesity and eating disorders varies by sex, but the extent to which sex influences eating behaviors, especially in childhood, has received less attention. The purpose of this paper is to critically discuss the literature on sex differences in eating behavior in children and present new findings supporting the role of sex in child appetitive traits and neural responses to food cues. In children, the literature shows sex differences in food acceptance, food intake, appetitive traits, eating-related compensation, and eating speed. New analyses demonstrate that sex interacts with child weight status to differentially influence appetitive traits. Further, results from neuroimaging suggest that obesity in female children is positively related to neural reactivity to higher-energy-dense food cues in regions involved with contextual processing and object recognition, while the opposite was found in males. In addition to differences in how the brain processes information about food, other factors that may contribute to sex differences include parental feeding practices, societal emphasis on dieting, and peer influences. Future studies are needed to confirm these findings, as they may have implications for the development of effective intervention programs to improve dietary behaviors and prevent obesity.

A Polish Study on the Influence of Food Neophobia in Children (10-12 Years Old) on the Intake of Vegetables and Fruits

Adhering to the recommended intake of fruits and vegetables is an important habit that should be inculcated in children, whereas food neophobia is indicated as one of the most important factors creating food preferences that may interfere. The aim of the presented study was to analyze the association between the food neophobia level and the intake of fruits and vegetables in children aged 10-12 years. The study was conducted among a group of 163 children (78 girls and 85 boys). The assessment of the food neophobia level was based on the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) questionnaire and the assessment of the fruit and vegetable intake was based on the food frequency questionnaire. A negative correlation between the food neophobia level and the vegetable intake was observed both for girls (p = 0.032; R = -0.2432) and for boys (p = 0.004; R = -0.3071), whereas for girls differences in vegetable intake were observed also between various food neophobia categories (p = 0.0144). It may be concluded that children with higher food neophobia level are characterized by lower vegetable intake than children with lower food neophobia level. For fruits and juices of fruits and vegetables, associations with food neophobia level were not observed.

Variation in the Ability to Taste Bitter Thiourea Compounds: Implications for Food Acceptance, Dietary Intake, and Obesity Risk in Children

The ability to taste bitter thiourea compounds, such as phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), is inherited. Polymorphisms in the bitter-taste receptor TAS2R38 explain the majority of phenotypic variation in the PROP phenotype. It has been hypothesized that the PROP phenotype is a marker for perception of a variety of chemosensory experiences. In this review, we discuss studies that have investigated the relationship between bitter-taste response and dietary behaviors and chronic health in children. Investigators have hypothesized that children who are PROP tasters have lower liking and consumption of bitter foods, such as cruciferous vegetables. Additionally, several studies suggest that children who are unable to taste PROP (i.e., nontasters) like and consume more dietary fat and are prone to obesity. The relationship between the PROP phenotype and obesity is influenced by multiple confounders, including sex, food access, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Future studies that adjust for these variables are needed.

Early Eating Behaviours and Food Acceptance Revisited: Breastfeeding and Introduction of Complementary Foods as Predictive of Food Acceptance

Current dietary advice for children is that they should eat at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day (Department of Health. National Diet and Nutrition Survey, 2014). However, many parents report that children are reluctant to eat vegetables and often fail to comply with the five-a-day rule. In fact, in surveys carried out in areas in the UK, the number of children eating according to the five-a-day rule has been found to be as low as 16 % (Cockroft et al. Public Health Nutr 8(7):861-69, 2005). This narrative review looks at those factors which contribute to food acceptance, especially fruit and vegetables, and how acceptance might be enhanced to contribute to a wider dietary range in infancy and later childhood. The questions we address are whether the range of foods accepted is determined by the following: innate predispositions interacting with early experience with taste and textures, sensitive periods in infancy for introduction, breastfeeding and the pattern of introduction of complementary foods. Our conclusions are that all of these factors affect dietary range, and that both breastfeeding and the timely introduction of complementary foods predict subsequent food acceptance.

Developmental and Environmental Influences on Young Children's Vegetable Preferences and Consumption

Food intake patterns begin to be shaped at the earliest points in life. Early exposures and experiences are critical for the acceptance of some foods, particularly healthful foods such as vegetables, which often have a bitter component in their flavor profiles. In addition to repeated exposure to these foods, the quality and emotional tone of parent-child interactions are important in facilitating children's acceptance of vegetables. During early childhood, parents are challenged by children's developmental characteristics related to eating, such as the emergence of child neophobia, and by individual characteristics of the child that are more biologically based, including genetic predispositions to bitter taste and sensory sensitivities. Experimental studies consistently show that repeated exposure to novel and rejected familiar foods is the most powerful method to improve acceptance. However, the manner and persistence with which these exposures are performed are critical. Research investigating influences on children's vegetable acceptance and ingestion has focused on associations among availability, parent intakes, child neophobia, and the parental feeding response to children's reluctance to try and consume vegetables. Because young children's dietary intakes are low and below dietary recommendations, investigations have focused more on factors that impede children's vegetable acceptance, such as controlling feeding practices, than on positive influences. Research that addresses the multifaceted nature of these interactions among different levels of social-ecological environment, individual traits, parental feeding styles and practices, and socioeconomic influences and that uses longitudinal designs and complex statistical approaches is called for to ascertain more effective methods to improve children's vegetable acceptance.

LA Sprouts: A 12-Week Gardening, Nutrition, and Cooking Randomized Control Trial Improves Determinants of Dietary Behaviors

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of an exploratory 12-week nutrition, cooking, and gardening trial (LA Sprouts) on preference for fruit and vegetables (FV); willingness to try FV; identification of FV; self-efficacy to garden, eat, and cook FV; motivation to garden, eat, and cook FV; attitudes toward FV; nutrition and gardening knowledge; and home gardening habits.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

SETTING

Four elementary schools.

PARTICIPANTS

Three hundred four predominately Hispanic/Latino third- through fifth-grade students were randomized to either the LA Sprouts group (n = 167 students) or control group (n = 137 students).

INTERVENTION

Twelve-week after-school nutrition, cooking, and gardening intervention.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Determinants of dietary behavior as measured by questionnaire at baseline and postintervention.

ANALYSIS

Analyses of covariance.

RESULTS

After the 12-week program, compared with controls, LA Sprouts participants improved scores for identification of vegetables (+11% vs +5%; P = .001) and nutrition and gardening knowledge (+14.5% vs -5.0%; P = .003), and were more likely to garden at home (+7.5% vs -4.4%; P = .003).

CONCLUSIONS

The LA Sprouts program positively affected a number of determinants of dietary behaviors that suggest possible mechanisms by which gardening and nutrition education act to improve dietary intake and health outcomes.

Food neophobia and its association with diet quality and weight in children aged 24 months: a cross sectional study

BACKGROUND

Food neophobia, the rejection of unknown or novel foods, may result in poor dietary patterns. This study investigates the cross-sectional relationship between neophobia in children aged 24 months and variety of fruit and vegetable consumption, intake of discretionary foods and weight.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of data from 330 parents of children enrolled in the NOURISH RCT (control group only) and SAIDI studies was performed using data collected at child age 24 months. Neophobia was measured at 24 months using the Child Food Neophobia Scale (CFNS). The cross-sectional associations between total CFNS score and fruit and vegetable variety, discretionary food intake and BMI (Body Mass Index) Z-score were examined via multiple regression models; adjusting for significant covariates.

RESULTS

At 24 months, more neophobic children were found to have lower variety of fruits (β = -0.16, p = 0.003) and vegetables (β = -0.29, p < 0.001) but have a greater proportion of daily energy from discretionary foods (β = 0.11, p = 0.04). There was no significant association between BMI Z-score and CFNS score.

CONCLUSIONS

Neophobia is associated with poorer dietary quality. Results highlight the need for interventions to (1) begin early to expose children to a wide variety of nutritious foods before neophobia peaks and (2) enable health professionals to educate parents on strategies to overcome neophobia.

Food neophobia associates with lower dietary quality and higher BMI in Finnish adults

OBJECTIVE

Food neophobia has been associated with decreased consumption of vegetables mainly among children. We hypothesized that food neophobia in adults is also associated with lower overall dietary quality and higher BMI.

DESIGN

Data for the present cross-sectional analyses were derived from parents in a follow-up family study.

SETTING

The STEPS study, a longitudinal study of health and development of a cohort of children born in south-west Finland.

SUBJECTS

The parents, 1178 women (age 19-45 years, mean 32·2 years) and 1013 men (age 18-57 years, mean 34·1 years), completed a questionnaire at home when their child was 13 months old. The questionnaire included the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS; range 10-70), the Index of Diet Quality (IDQ; range 0-16) and a measure of fruit and vegetable consumption. At that time the participants' height and weight were also measured by a research nurse to calculate BMI.

RESULTS

Compared with the food neophilics (FNS score 10-24), the food neophobics (FNS score 40-70) consumed fewer vegetables (women: 15 v. 10 portions/week; men: 13 v. 7 portions/week), scored lower on the IDQ (women: 9·7 v. 8·5; men: 8·8 v. 7·8) and had higher BMI (women: 24·2 v. 26·0 kg/m²; men: 26·5 v. 27·5 kg/m²) as tested by one-way ANOVA, with all P values <0·001 in women and <0·05 in men. The food neophobics followed a diet lower in nutritional quality than did the food neophilics, especially regarding vegetables.

CONCLUSIONS

Food neophobia may complicate adaptation to dietary recommendations and predispose to overweight.

Genetic sensitivity to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and its association with physiological mechanisms controlling body mass index (BMI)

Taste sensitivity to the bitter compound 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) is considered a marker for individual differences in taste perception that may influence food preferences and eating behavior, and thereby energy metabolism. This review describes genetic factors that may contribute to PROP sensitivity including: (1) the variants of the TAS2R38 bitter receptor with their different affinities for the stimulus; (2) the gene that controls the gustin protein that acts as a salivary trophic factor for fungiform taste papillae; and (3) other specific salivary proteins that could be involved in facilitating the binding of the PROP molecule with its receptor. In addition, we speculate on the influence of taste sensitivity on energy metabolism, possibly via modulation of the endocannabinoid system, and its possible role in regulating body composition homeostasis.

A population-based approach to study the impact of PROP perception on food liking in populations along the Silk Road

Taste is one of the main factors determining food choices. Differences in PROP bitter taste perception have been implicated in individual differences in food preferences and selection. The present study examined associations between, PROP phenotypes, self-reported food liking and TAS2R38 polymorphisms, the major gene implicated in PROP bitterness, in six different populations of the Caucasus and Central Asia, located along the ancient Silk Road. Differences in the distribution of PROP phenotypes across populations were detected, with a higher frequency of super tasters in Tajikistan (31.3%) and Armenia (39.0%) and a higher frequency of non tasters in Georgia (50.9%). While no relationships were observed between PROP phenotypes and food liking using standard statistical tests, we used an approach based on comparison of distance matrices derived from these data. The first matrix compared the food liking ratings of each population to all others pairwise using the Kruskal-Wallis test (at p<0.00063), and the second one compared the distribution of PROP phenotypes across all populations in a similar manner calculating the chi-square statistic as a distance measure. A strong correlation between the two matrices was found (Mantel test: r = 0.67, p-value = 0.03), suggesting that the pattern of food liking across populations was closely related to the distribution of PROP phenotypes. This same relationship was not observed when TAS2R38 genotypes were substituted for PROP phenotypes in this analysis. Our data suggest that a population-based approach utilizing distance matrices is a useful technique for detecting PROP-related differences in food liking and can be applied to other taste phenotypes.

Associations between BMI and fat taste sensitivity in humans

The objective of this study was to examine the reliability of associations between fat taste, hunger, dietary fat intake, and body mass index (BMI). Detection thresholds for oleic acid (OA) were obtained during each of 7 consecutive visits using a modified staircase procedure. Participants were 48 (N = 17 male; N = 31 female) healthy adults (mean age: 28.5 ± 10.4 years) with BMI's ranging from 18.9 to 47.2 (≥ 25 kg · m(-2), N = 24). OA detection thresholds and self-reported hunger (100-mm visual analog scale) were assessed at each visit. BMI and dietary fat intake (Block Rapid Fat Screener) were determined at baseline. There was a significant decrease of threshold concentration over repeated trials among lean and overweight (BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 kg · m(-2)) participants but not in the obese. Combining the lean and overweight and contrasting their responses to the obese revealed the lean plus overweight group to be significantly more sensitive at visits 6 and 7. No change of threshold sensitivity or correlation with fat intake was observed in the obese participants unlike findings in the lean and lean plus overweight participants. Correlations between saturated fat intake and threshold sensitivity were positive (greater intake associated with higher thresholds) at baseline for the group, with additional correlations observed among the lean plus overweight but not in the obese, leaving open questions about the nutritional significance of the association. No significant associations were observed between sensitivity to OA and hunger. Repeated testing is required to assess associations between fat taste and other outcome variables.

Influence of the PROP bitter taste phenotype and eating attitudes on energy intake and weight status in pre-adolescents: a 6-year follow-up study

The PROP bitter-taste phenotype is a marker for food preferences and eating behavior, and may associate with differences in body weight in children. Previous work has shown that PROP status in combination with eating attitudes are better predictors of weight status in preadolescents, than either factor alone. However, no studies have examined the role of PROP phenotypes in body weight change in children over time. The primary objective of this study was to investigate current weight status and change in weight status in children from preschool (baseline) to preadolescence as a function of eating attitudes and PROP phenotype. Other measures included self-reported food intakes and physical activity by activity monitor. Seventy-three lean (BMI percentile=57.7±3.2%) children with mean age=10.3±0.5yrs, participated in the follow up. There were no group differences in energy intake, current BMI-percentile or change in BMI percentile from baseline by PROP phenotype in either boys or girls. However, there was a trend for non-taster girls to show a downward shift in BMI-percentile at follow up. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that baseline BMI percentile and physical activity energy expenditure were the strongest predictors of current weight (28.5% variance),followed by child restraint, the taster×gender interaction, and the maternal BMI×maternal emotional eating interaction, accounting for 7.1%, 6.0% and 4.8% of variance in the model, respectively. These findings suggest that PROP status and eating attitudes are modest predictors of weight status in preadolescent children.

Marked increase in PROP taste responsiveness following oral supplementation with selected salivary proteins or their related free amino acids

The genetic predisposition to taste 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) varies among individuals and is associated with salivary levels of Ps-1 and II-2 peptides, belonging to the basic proline-rich protein family (bPRP). We evaluated the role of these proteins and free amino acids that selectively interact with the PROP molecule, in modulating bitter taste responsiveness. Subjects were classified by their PROP taster status based on ratings of perceived taste intensity for PROP and NaCl solutions. Quantitative and qualitative determinations of Ps-1 and II-2 proteins in unstimulated saliva were performed by HPLC-ESI-MS analysis. Subjects rated PROP bitterness after supplementation with Ps-1 and II-2, and two amino acids (L-Arg and L-Lys) whose interaction with PROP was demonstrated by (1)H-NMR spectroscopy. ANOVA showed that salivary levels of II-2 and Ps-1 proteins were higher in unstimulated saliva of PROP super-tasters and medium tasters than in non-tasters. Supplementation of Ps-1 protein in individuals lacking it in saliva enhanced their PROP bitter taste responsiveness, and this effect was specific to the non-taster group.(1)H-NMR results showed that the interaction between PROP and L-Arg is stronger than that involving L-Lys, and taste experiments confirmed that oral supplementation with these two amino acids increased PROP bitterness intensity, more for L-Arg than for L-Lys. These data suggest that Ps-1 protein facilitates PROP bitter taste perception and identifies a role for free L-Arg and L-Lys in PROP tasting.

Intrinsic and extrinsic influences on children's acceptance of new foods

The foods that tend to be rejected by children include those which may have greatest importance for later health. This paper reviews some of the intrinsic and extrinsic influences on preschool children's eating behavior, with particular reference to their acceptance of new foods into their diet. Factors conceptualized as intrinsic to the child in this review include sensory processing, taste perception, neophobia, and temperament. The important extrinsic determinants of children's food acceptance which are reviewed include parental and peer modeling, the family food environment, infant feeding practices including breastfeeding and age at weaning, concurrent feeding practices including restriction, pressure to eat, prompting and reward, and the taste & energy content of foods. Children's willingness to accept new foods is influenced by a wide range of factors that likely have individual and also interactive effects on children's willingness to taste, and then continue to eat, new foods. The literature lacks longitudinal and experimental studies, which will be particularly important in determining interventions most likely to be effective in facilitating children's acceptance of healthy foods.

Otitis media exposure associates with dietary preference and adiposity: a community-based observational study of at-risk preschoolers

Chronic exposure to otitis media (OM) has been linked to risk of overweight/obesity. Here we tested if dietary behaviors explained some of the OM-adiposity relationship among 485 racially-diverse, low-income preschoolers (253 girls, mean age=45±7 months) enrolled in government-supported urban preschool programs. From measured weight/height, 4% were underweight, 17% were overweight and 13% were obese. OM exposure according to parent report varied across nearly equal quartiles-low (never, once) to high (3-5 times, 6+ times) exposure categories. Boys were more likely to be in the high exposure categories. Parents rated their child's liking/disliking of foods (high-fat/added sugar, fruits/juice, vegetables) and non-food activities. In analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), mean liking for vegetables and fruits/juice fell as OM exposure increased, with significant differences between lowest and highest exposure categories (p<.05). Food neophobic versus non-neophobic preschoolers also liked vegetables and fruits less (p<.001). In a two-way ANCOVA, main effects of OM and food neophobia independently predicted vegetable and fruit liking; preschoolers with more OM exposure and neophobia had the lowest liking. Although ANCOVA failed to reveal OM effects on mean liking for fat/sugar foods, the relative ranking of liking for these foods differed by OM category. Fat/sugar foods were ranked as most preferred for the high OM children, particularly the boys, surpassing the ranking of pleasurable non-food items. Conversely, low OM children ranked pleasurable non-food items and fruits/juice as more pleasurable than high OM children. BMI percentile varied with OM exposure, but not neophobia: preschoolers with the greatest exposure averaged the highest percentiles. In multiple regression analyses, liking for vegetables or fruits failed to associate significantly with BMI percentile. There was a small but significant association between greater fat/sugar liking and higher BMI percentile. Overall these findings confirm associations between high OM exposure and elevated adiposity in preschoolers. They also suggest this relationship is explained through lower affinity for vegetables and fruits and greater affinity for fat/sugar foods.