Optic atrophy 1 is an A-kinase anchoring protein on lipid droplets that mediates adrenergic control of lipolysis

Novel insight into the role of A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) in ischemic stroke and therapeutic potentials

Ischemic stroke, a devastating disease associated with high mortality and disability worldwide, has emerged as an urgent public health issue. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) are a group of signal-organizing molecules that compartmentalize and anchor a wide range of receptors and effector proteins and have a major role in stabilizing mitochondrial function and promoting neurodevelopmental development in the central nervous system (CNS). Growing evidence suggests that dysregulation of AKAPs expression and activity is closely associated with oxidative stress, ion disorder, mitochondrial dysfunction, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment in ischemic stroke. However, the underlying mechanisms remain inadequately understood. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the composition and structure of A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP) family members, emphasizing their physiological functions in the CNS. We explored in depth the molecular and cellular mechanisms of AKAP complexes in the pathological progression and risk factors of ischemic stroke, including hypertension, hyperglycemia, lipid metabolism disorders, and atrial fibrillation. Herein, we highlight the potential of AKAP complexes as a pharmacological target against ischemic stroke in the hope of inspiring translational research and innovative clinical approaches.

Molecular mechanisms of perilipin protein function in lipid droplet metabolism

Perilipins are abundant lipid droplet (LD) proteins present in all metazoans and also in Amoebozoa and fungi. Humans express five perilipins, which share a similar domain organization: an amino-terminal PAT domain and an 11-mer repeat region, which can fold into amphipathic helices that interact with LDs, followed by a structured carboxy-terminal domain. Variations of this organization that arose during vertebrate evolution allow for functional specialization between perilipins in relation to the metabolic needs of different tissues. We discuss how different features of perilipins influence their interaction with LDs and their cellular targeting. PLIN1 and PLIN5 play a direct role in lipolysis by regulating the recruitment of lipases to LDs and LD interaction with mitochondria. Other perilipins, particularly PLIN2, appear to protect LDs from lipolysis, but the molecular mechanism is not clear. PLIN4 stands out with its long repetitive region, whereas PLIN3 is most widely expressed and is used as a nascent LD marker. Finally, we discuss the genetic variability in perilipins in connection with metabolic disease, prominent for PLIN1 and PLIN4, underlying the importance of understanding the molecular function of perilipins.

Single-nucleus RNA-sequencing reveals NRF1/NFE2L1 as a key factor determining the thermogenesis and cellular heterogeneity and dynamics of brown adipose tissues in mice

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a major site of non-shivering thermogenesis in mammals and plays an important role in energy homeostasis. Nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 1 (NFE2L1, also known as Nrf1), a master regulator of cellular metabolic homeostasis and numerous stress responses, has been found to function as a critical driver in BAT thermogenic adaption to cold or obesity by providing proteometabolic quality control. Our recent studies using adipocyte-specific Nfe2l1 knockout [Nfe2l1(f)-KO] mice demonstrated that NFE2L1-dependent transcription of lipolytic genes is crucial for white adipose tissue (WAT) homeostasis and plasticity. In the present study, we found that Nfe2l1(f)-KO mice develop an age-dependent whitening and shrinking of BAT, with signatures of down-regulation of proteasome, impaired mitochondrial function, reduced thermogenesis, pro-inflammation, and elevated regulatory cell death (RCD). Mechanistic studies revealed that deficiency of Nfe2l1 in brown adipocytes (BAC) primarily results in down-regulation of lipolytic genes, which decelerates lipolysis, making BAC unable to fuel thermogenesis. These changes lead to BAC hypertrophy, inflammation-associated RCD, and consequently cold intolerance. Single-nucleus RNA-sequencing of BAT reveals that deficiency of Nfe2l1 induces significant transcriptomic changes leading to aberrant expression of a variety of genes involved in lipid metabolism, proteasome, mitochondrial stress, inflammatory responses, and inflammation-related RCD in distinct subpopulations of BAC. Taken together, our study demonstrated that NFE2L1 serves as a vital transcriptional regulator that controls the lipid metabolic homeostasis in BAC, which in turn determines the metabolic dynamics, cellular heterogeneity and subsequently cell fates in BAT.

Tapping lipid droplets: A rich fat diet of intracellular bacterial pathogens

Lipid droplets (LDs) are dynamic and versatile organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. LDs consist of a hydrophobic core of neutral lipids, a phospholipid monolayer coat, and a variety of associated proteins. LDs are formed at the endoplasmic reticulum and have diverse roles in lipid storage, energy metabolism, membrane trafficking, and cellular signaling. In addition to their physiological cellular functions, LDs have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including metabolic disorders, cancer, and infections. A number of intracellular bacterial pathogens modulate and/or interact with LDs during host cell infection. Members of the genera Mycobacterium, Legionella, Coxiella, Chlamydia, and Salmonella exploit LDs as a source of intracellular nutrients and membrane components to establish their distinct intracellular replicative niches. In this review, we focus on the biogenesis, interactions, and functions of LDs, as well as on their role in lipid metabolism of intracellular bacterial pathogens.

OPA1 Regulates Lipid Metabolism and Cold-Induced Browning of White Adipose Tissue in Mice

Mitochondria play a vital role in white adipose tissue (WAT) homeostasis including adipogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and lipolysis. We recently reported that the mitochondrial fusion protein optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) is required for induction of fatty acid oxidation and thermogenic activation in brown adipocytes. In the current study we investigated the role of OPA1 in WAT function in vivo. We generated mice with constitutive or inducible knockout of OPA1 selectively in adipocytes. Studies were conducted under baseline conditions, at thermoneutrality, following high-fat feeding or during cold exposure. OPA1 deficiency reduced mitochondrial respiratory capacity in white adipocytes, impaired lipolytic signaling, repressed expression of de novo lipogenesis and triglyceride synthesis pathways, and promoted adipose tissue senescence and inflammation. Reduced WAT mass was associated with hepatic triglycerides accumulation and glucose intolerance. Moreover, mice deficient for OPA1 in adipocytes had impaired adaptive thermogenesis and reduced cold-induced browning of subcutaneous WAT and were completely resistant to diet-induced obesity. In conclusion, OPA1 expression and function in adipocytes are essential for adipose tissue expansion, lipid biosynthesis, and fatty acid mobilization of WAT and brown adipocytes and for thermogenic activation of brown and beige adipocytes.

Interaction between the Anchoring Domain of A-Kinase Anchoring Proteins and the Dimerization and Docking Domain of Protein Kinase A: A Potent Tool for Synthetic Biology

Nature is enriched with specific interactions between receptor proteins and their cognate ligands. These interacting pairs can be exploited and applied for the construction of well-ordered multicomponent assemblies with multivalency and multifunctionality. One of the research hotspots of this area is the formation of multienzyme complexes with stable and tunable architectures, which may bear the potential to facilitate cascade biocatalysis and/or strengthen metabolic fluxes. Here we focus on a special interacting pair, the anchoring domain (AD) derived from A-kinase anchoring protein and its interacting dimerization and docking domain (DDD) derived from cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase, which has potential to be an effective and powerful synthetic biology tool for the construction of multienzyme assemblies. We review the origin and interaction mechanism of AD-DDD, followed by the application of this so-called dock-and-lock pair to form various bioconjugates with multivalency and multispecificity. Then several recent studies related to the construction of multienzyme complexes using AD-DDD, and more specifically, the RIAD-RIDD interacting pair, are presented. Finally, we also discuss the great biotechnology potential and perspectives of AD-DDD as a potent synthetic biology tool for post-translational modifications.

Housekeeping Proteins Exhibit a High Level of Expression Variability Within Control Group and Between Ischemic Human Heart Biopsies

Background Human cardiac biopsies are widely used in clinical and fundamental research to decipher molecular events that characterize cardiac physiological and pathophysiological states. One of the main approaches relies on the analysis of semiquantitative immunoblots that reveals alterations in protein expression levels occurring in diseased hearts. To maintain semiquantitative results, expression level of target proteins must be standardized. The expression of HKP (housekeeping proteins) is commonly used to this purpose. Methods and Results We evaluated the stability of HKP expression (actin, β-tubulin, GAPDH, vinculin, and calsequestrin) and total protein staining within control (coefficient of variation) and comparatively with ischemic human heart biopsies (P value). All HKP exhibited a high level of intragroup (ie, actin, β-tubulin, and GAPDH) and/or intergroup variability (ie, GAPDH, vinculin, and calsequestrin). Among all, we found total protein staining to exhibit the highest degree of stability within and between groups, which makes this reference the best to study protein expression level in human biopsies from ischemic hearts and age-matched controls. In addition, we illustrated that using an inappropriate reference protein marker misleads interpretation on SERCA2 (sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ ATPase) and cMyBPC (cardiac myosin binding protein-C) expression level after myocardial infarction. Conclusions These reemphasize the need to standardize the level of protein expression with total protein staining in comparative immunoblot studies on human samples from control and diseased hearts.

Activation of ADRB2/PKA Signaling Pathway Facilitates Lipid Synthesis in Meibocytes, and Beta-Blocker Glaucoma Drug Impedes PKA-Induced Lipid Synthesis by Inhibiting ADRB2

Meibomian gland dysfunction is one of the main causes of dry eye disease and has limited therapeutic options. In this study, we investigated the biological function of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor (ADRB2)/protein kinase A (PKA) pathway in lipid synthesis and its underlying mechanisms in human meibomian gland epithelial cells (HMGECs). HMGECs were cultured in differentiation media with or without forskolin (an activator of adenylate cyclase), salbutamol (an ADRB2 agonist), or timolol (an ADRB2 antagonist) for up to 4 days. The phosphorylation of the cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) and the expression of peroxisome proliferator activator receptor (PPAR)γ and sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1 were measured by immunoblotting and quantitative PCR. Lipid synthesis was examined by LipidTOX immunostaining, AdipoRed assay, and Oil Red O staining. PKA pathway activation enhanced PPARγ expression and lipid synthesis in differentiated HMGECs. When treated with agonists of ADBR2 (upstream of the PKA signaling system), PPARγ expression and lipid synthesis were enhanced in HMGECs. The ADRB2 antagonist timolol showed the opposite effect. The activation of the ADRB2/PKA signaling pathway enhances lipid synthesis in HMGECs. These results provide a potential mechanism and therapeutic target for meibomian gland dysfunction, particularly in cases induced by beta-blocker glaucoma drugs.

Expression of Functional Cannabinoid Type-1 (CB1) Receptor in Mitochondria of White Adipocytes

Via activation of the cannabinoid type-1 (CB₁) receptor, endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids modulate important biochemical and cellular processes in adipocytes. Several pieces of evidence suggest that alterations of mitochondrial physiology might be a possible mechanism underlying cannabinoids' effects on adipocyte biology. Many reports suggest the presence of CB₁ receptor mRNA in both white and brown adipose tissue, but the detailed subcellular localization of CB₁ protein in adipose cells has so far been scarcely addressed. In this study, we show the presence of the functional CB₁ receptor at different subcellular locations of adipocytes from epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) depots. We observed that CB₁ is located at different subcellular levels, including the plasma membrane and in close association with mitochondria (mtCB₁). Functional analysis in tissue homogenates and isolated mitochondria allowed us to reveal that cannabinoids negatively regulate complex-I-dependent oxygen consumption in eWAT. This effect requires mtCB₁ activation and consequent regulation of the intramitochondrial cAMP-PKA pathway. Thus, CB₁ receptors are functionally present at the mitochondrial level in eWAT adipocytes, adding another possible mechanism for peripheral regulation of energy metabolism.

Mitochondrial a Kinase Anchor Proteins in Cardiovascular Health and Disease: A Review Article on Behalf of the Working Group on Cellular and Molecular Biology of the Heart of the Italian Society of Cardiology

Second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) has been found to regulate multiple mitochondrial functions, including respiration, dynamics, reactive oxygen species production, cell survival and death through the activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) and other effectors. Several members of the large family of A kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs) have been previously shown to locally amplify cAMP/PKA signaling to mitochondria, promoting the assembly of signalosomes, regulating multiple cardiac functions under both physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we will discuss roles and regulation of major mitochondria-targeted AKAPs, along with opportunities and challenges to modulate their functions for translational purposes in the cardiovascular system.

Adipose tissue-specific ablation of PGC-1β impairs thermogenesis in brown fat

Impaired thermogenesis observed in mice with whole-body ablation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1β (PGC-1β; officially known as PPARGC1B) may result from impaired brown fat (brown adipose tissue; BAT) function, but other mechanism(s) could be involved. Here, using adipose-specific PGC-1β knockout mice (PGC-1β-AT-KO mice) we aimed to learn whether specific PGC-1β ablation in adipocytes is sufficient to drive cold sensitivity. Indeed, we found that warm-adapted (30°C) mutant mice were relatively sensitive to acute cold exposure (6°C). When these mice were subjected to cold exposure for 7 days (7-day-CE), adrenergic stimulation of their metabolism was impaired, despite similar levels of thermogenic uncoupling protein 1 in BAT in PGC-1β-AT-KO and wild-type mice. Gene expression in BAT of mutant mice suggested a compensatory increase in lipid metabolism to counteract the thermogenic defect. Interestingly, a reduced number of contacts between mitochondria and lipid droplets associated with low levels of L-form of optic atrophy 1 was found in BAT of PGC-1β-AT-KO mice. These genotypic differences were observed in warm-adapted mutant mice, but they were partially masked by 7-day-CE. Collectively, our results suggest a role for PGC-1β in controlling BAT lipid metabolism and thermogenesis. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Organelle transporters and inter-organelle communication as drivers of metabolic regulation and cellular homeostasis

Background

Spatial compartmentalization of metabolic pathways within membrane-separated organelles is key to the ability of eukaryotic cells to precisely regulate their biochemical functions. Membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lysosomes enable the concentration of metabolic precursors within optimized chemical environments, greatly accelerating the efficiency of both anabolic and catabolic reactions, enabling division of labor and optimal utilization of resources. However, metabolic compartmentalization also poses a challenge to cells because it creates spatial discontinuities that must be bridged for reaction cascades to be connected and completed. To do so, cells employ different methods to coordinate metabolic fluxes occurring in different organelles, such as membrane-localized transporters to facilitate regulated metabolite exchange between mitochondria and lysosomes, non-vesicular transport pathways via physical contact sites connecting the ER with both mitochondria and lysosomes, as well as localized regulatory signaling processes that coordinately regulate the activity of all these organelles.

Scope of review

This review covers how cells use membrane transporters, membrane contact sites, and localized signaling pathways to mediate inter-organelle communication and coordinate metabolism. We also describe how disruption of inter-organelle communication is an emerging driver in a multitude of diseases, from cancer to neurodegeneration.

Major conclusions

Effective communication among organelles is essential to cellular health and function. Identifying the major molecular players involved in mediating metabolic coordination between organelles will further our understanding of cellular metabolism in health and lead us to design better therapeutics against dysregulated metabolism in disease.

Differential Effects of Oleic and Palmitic Acids on Lipid Droplet-Mitochondria Interaction in the Hepatic Cell Line HepG2

Fatty acid overload, either of the saturated palmitic acid (PA) or the unsaturated oleic acid (OA), causes triglyceride accumulation into specialized organelles termed lipid droplets (LD). However, only PA overload leads to liver damage mediated by mitochondrial dysfunction. Whether these divergent outcomes stem from differential effects of PA and OA on LD and mitochondria joint dynamics remains to be uncovered. Here, we contrast how both fatty acids impact the morphology and interaction between both organelles and mitochondrial bioenergetics in HepG2 cells. Using confocal microscopy, we showed that short-term (2–24 h) OA overload promotes more and bigger LD accumulation than PA. Oxygen polarography indicated that both treatments stimulated mitochondrial respiration; however, OA favored an overall build-up of the mitochondrial potential, and PA evoked mitochondrial fragmentation, concomitant with an ATP-oriented metabolism. Even though PA-induced a lesser increase in LD-mitochondria proximity than OA, those LD associated with highly active mitochondria suggest that they interact mainly to fuel fatty acid oxidation and ATP synthesis (that is, metabolically “active” LD). On the contrary, OA overload seemingly stimulated LD-mitochondria interaction mainly for LD growth (thus metabolically “passive” LDs). In sum, these differences point out that OA readily accumulates in LD, likely reducing their toxicity, while PA preferably stimulates mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, which may contribute to liver damage progression.

Hello from the other side: Membrane contact of lipid droplets with other organelles and subsequent functional implications

Lipid droplets (LDs) are ubiquitous organelles that play crucial roles in response to physiological and environmental cues. The identification of several neutral lipid synthesizing and regulatory protein complexes have propelled significant advance on the mechanisms of LD biogenesis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Increasing evidence suggests that distinct proteins and regulatory factors, which localize to membrane contact sites (MCS), are involved not only in interorganellar lipid exchange and transport, but also function in other important cellular processes, including autophagy, mitochondrial dynamics and inheritance, ion signaling and inter-regulation of these MCS. More and more tethers and molecular determinants are associated to MCS and to a diversity of cellular and pathophysiological processes, demonstrating the dynamics and importance of these junctions in health and disease. The conjugation of lipids with proteins in supramolecular complexes is known to be paramount for many biological processes, namely membrane biosynthesis, cell homeostasis, regulation of organelle division and biogenesis, and cell growth. Ultimately, this physical organization allows the contact sites to function as crucial metabolic hubs that control the occurrence of chemical reactions. This leads to biochemical and metabolite compartmentalization for the purposes of energetic efficiency and cellular homeostasis. In this review, we will focus on the structural and functional aspects of LD-organelle interactions and how they ensure signaling exchange and metabolites transfer between organelles.

Opa1 Prevents Apoptosis and Cisplatin-Induced Ototoxicity in Murine Cochleae

Optic atrophy1 (OPA1) is crucial for inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) fusion and essential for maintaining crista structure and mitochondrial morphology. Optic atrophy and hearing impairment are the most prevalent clinical features associated with mutations in the OPA1 gene, but the function of OPA1 in hearing is still unknown. In this study, we examined the ability of Opa1 to protect against cisplatin-induced cochlear cell death in vitro and in vivo. Our results revealed that knockdown of Opa1 affects mitochondrial function in HEI-OC1 and Neuro 2a cells, as evidenced by an elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. The dysfunctional mitochondria release cytochrome c, which triggers apoptosis. Opa1 expression was found to be significantly reduced after cell exposed to cisplatin in HEI-OC1 and Neuro 2a cells. Loss of Opa1 aggravated the apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by cisplatin treatment, whereas overexpression of Opa1 alleviated cisplatin-induced cochlear cell death in vitro and in explant. Our results demonstrate that overexpression of Opa1 prevented cisplatin-induced ototoxicity, suggesting that Opa1 may play a vital role in ototoxicity and/or mitochondria-associated cochlear damage.

Luteinizing Hormone Regulation of Inter-Organelle Communication and Fate of the Corpus Luteum

The corpus luteum is an endocrine gland that synthesizes the steroid hormone progesterone. luteinizing hormone (LH) is a key luteotropic hormone that stimulates ovulation, luteal development, progesterone biosynthesis, and maintenance of the corpus luteum. Luteotropic and luteolytic factors precisely regulate luteal structure and function; yet, despite recent scientific progress within the past few years, the exact mechanisms remain largely unknown. In the present review, we summarize the recent progress towards understanding cellular changes induced by LH in steroidogenic luteal cells. Herein, we will focus on the effects of LH on inter-organelle communication and steroid biosynthesis, and how LH regulates key protein kinases (i.e., AMPK and MTOR) responsible for controlling steroidogenesis and autophagy in luteal cells.

Mitochondrial A-kinase anchoring proteins in cardiac ventricular myocytes

Compartmentation of cAMP signaling is a critical factor for maintaining the integrity of receptor-specific responses in cardiac myocytes. This phenomenon relies on various factors limiting cAMP diffusion. Our previous work in adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVMs) indicates that PKA regulatory subunits anchored to the outer membrane of mitochondria play a key role in buffering the movement of cytosolic cAMP. PKA can be targeted to discrete subcellular locations through the interaction of both type I and type II regulatory subunits with A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). The purpose of this study is to identify which AKAPs and PKA regulatory subunit isoforms are associated with mitochondria in ARVMs. Quantitative PCR data demonstrate that mRNA for dual specific AKAP1 and 2 (D-AKAP1 & D-AKAP2), acyl-CoA-binding domain-containing 3 (ACBD3), optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) are most abundant, while Rab32, WAVE-1, and sphingosine kinase type 1 interacting protein (SPHKAP) were barely detectable. Biochemical and immunocytochemical analysis suggests that D-AKAP1, D-AKAP2, and ACBD3 are the predominant mitochondrial AKAPs exposed to the cytosolic compartment in these cells. Furthermore, we show that both type I and type II regulatory subunits of PKA are associated with mitochondria. Taken together, these data suggest that D-AKAP1, D-AKAP2, and ACBD3 may be responsible for tethering both type I and type II PKA regulatory subunits to the outer mitochondrial membrane in ARVMs. In addition to regulating PKA-dependent mitochondrial function, these AKAPs may play an important role by buffering the movement of cAMP necessary for compartmentation.

Dominant optic atrophy: Culprit mitochondria in the optic nerve

Dominant optic atrophy (DOA) is an inherited mitochondrial disease leading to specific degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), thus compromising transmission of visual information from the retina to the brain. Usually, DOA starts during childhood and evolves to poor vision or legal blindness, affecting the central vision, whilst sparing the peripheral visual field. In 20% of cases, DOA presents as syndromic disorder, with secondary symptoms affecting neuronal and muscular functions. Twenty years ago, we demonstrated that heterozygous mutations in OPA1 are the most frequent molecular cause of DOA. Since then, variants in additional genes, whose functions in many instances converge with those of OPA1, have been identified by next generation sequencing. OPA1 encodes a dynamin-related GTPase imported into mitochondria and located to the inner membrane and intermembrane space. The many OPA1 isoforms, resulting from alternative splicing of three exons, form complex homopolymers that structure mitochondrial cristae, and contribute to fusion of the outer membrane, thus shaping the whole mitochondrial network. Moreover, OPA1 is required for oxidative phosphorylation, maintenance of mitochondrial genome, calcium homeostasis and regulation of apoptosis, thus making OPA1 the Swiss army-knife of mitochondria. Understanding DOA pathophysiology requires the understanding of RGC peculiarities with respect to OPA1 functions. Besides the tremendous energy requirements of RGCs to relay visual information from the eye to the brain, these neurons present unique features related to their differential environments in the retina, and to the anatomical transition occurring at the lamina cribrosa, which parallel major adaptations of mitochondrial physiology and shape, in the pre- and post-laminar segments of the optic nerve. Three DOA mouse models, with different Opa1 mutations, have been generated to study intrinsic mechanisms responsible for RGC degeneration, and these have further revealed secondary symptoms related to mitochondrial dysfunctions, mirroring the more severe syndromic phenotypes seen in a subgroup of patients. Metabolomics analyses of cells, mouse organs and patient plasma mutated for OPA1 revealed new unexpected pathophysiological mechanisms related to mitochondrial dysfunction, and biomarkers correlated quantitatively to the severity of the disease. Here, we review and synthesize these data, and propose different approaches for embracing possible therapies to fulfil the unmet clinical needs of this disease, and provide hope to affected DOA patients.

Mitochondrial function in development and disease

Mitochondria are organelles with vital functions in almost all eukaryotic cells. Often described as the cellular ‘powerhouses’ due to their essential role in aerobic oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondria perform many other essential functions beyond energy production. As signaling organelles, mitochondria communicate with the nucleus and other organelles to help maintain cellular homeostasis, allow cellular adaptation to diverse stresses, and help steer cell fate decisions during development. Mitochondria have taken center stage in the research of normal and pathological processes, including normal tissue homeostasis and metabolism, neurodegeneration, immunity and infectious diseases. The central role that mitochondria assume within cells is evidenced by the broad impact of mitochondrial diseases, caused by defects in either mitochondrial or nuclear genes encoding for mitochondrial proteins, on different organ systems. In this Review, we will provide the reader with a foundation of the mitochondrial ‘hardware’, the mitochondrion itself, with its specific dynamics, quality control mechanisms and cross-organelle communication, including its roles as a driver of an innate immune response, all with a focus on development, disease and aging. We will further discuss how mitochondrial DNA is inherited, how its mutation affects cell and organismal fitness, and current therapeutic approaches for mitochondrial diseases in both model organisms and humans.

Summary: Mitochondria have a plethora of functions beyond metabolism. This Review discusses the emerging and multifaceted roles of mitochondria in different model organisms and human disease biology.

Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA): Modeling the Kaleidoscopic Roles of OPA1 in Mitochondrial Homeostasis

In the year 2000, the discovery of OPA1 mutations as causative for dominant optic atrophy (DOA) was pivotal to rapidly expand the field of mitochondrial dynamics and describe the complex machinery governing this pathway, with a multitude of other genes and encoded proteins involved in neurodegenerative disorders of the optic nerve. OPA1 turned out to be a much more complex protein than initially envisaged, connecting multiple pathways beyond its strict role in mitochondrial fusion, such as sensing of OXPHOS needs and mitochondrial DNA maintenance. As a consequence, an increasing need to investigate OPA1 functions at multiple levels has imposed the development of multiple tools and models that are here reviewed. Translational mitochondrial medicine, with the ultimate objective of translating basic science necessary to understand pathogenic mechanisms into therapeutic strategies, requires disease modeling at multiple levels: from the simplest, like in yeast, to cell models, including the increasing use of reprogrammed stem cells (iPSCs) from patients, to animal models. In the present review, we thoroughly examine and provide the state of the art of all these approaches.

Mitochondrial dynamics keep balance of nutrient combustion in thermogenic adipocytes

Non-shivering thermogenesis takes place in brown and beige adipocytes and facilitates cold tolerance and acclimation. However, thermogenesis in adipose tissue also was found to be activated in metabolic overload states for fast utilization of nutrients excess. This observation spurred research interest in mechanisms of thermogenesis regulation for metabolic overload and obesity prevention. One of proposed regulators of thermogenic efficiency in adipocytes is the dynamics of mitochondria, where thermogenesis takes place. Indeed, brown and beige adipocytes exhibit fragmented round-shaped mitochondria, while white adipocytes have elongated organelles with high ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial morphology can determine uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) content, efficiency of catabolic pathways and electron transport chain, supplying thermogenesis. This review will highlight the co-regulation of mitochondrial dynamics and thermogenesis and formulate hypothetical ways for excessive nutrients burning in response to mitochondrial morphology manipulation.

The basics of mitochondrial cAMP signalling: Where, when, why

Cytosolic cAMP signalling in live cells has been extensively investigated in the past, while only in the last decade the existence of an intramitochondrial autonomous cAMP homeostatic system began to emerge. Thanks to the development of novel tools to investigate cAMP dynamics and cAMP/PKA-dependent phosphorylation within the matrix and in other mitochondrial compartments, it is now possible to address directly and in intact living cells a series of questions that until now could be addressed only by indirect approaches, in isolated organelles or through subcellular fractionation studies. In this contribution we discuss the mechanisms that regulate cAMP dynamics at the surface and inside mitochondria, and its crosstalk with organelle Ca²⁺ handling. We then address a series of still unsolved questions, such as the intramitochondrial localization of key elements of the cAMP signaling toolkit, e.g., adenylate cyclases, phosphodiesterases, protein kinase A (PKA) and Epac. Finally, we discuss the evidence for and against the existence of an intramitochondrial PKA pool and the functional role of cAMP increases within the organelle matrix.

Phenomic screen identifies a role for the yeast lysine acetyltransferase NuA4 in the control of Bcy1 subcellular localization, glycogen biosynthesis, and mitochondrial morphology

Cellular metabolism is tightly regulated by many signaling pathways and processes, including lysine acetylation of proteins. While lysine acetylation of metabolic enzymes can directly influence enzyme activity, there is growing evidence that lysine acetylation can also impact protein localization. As the Saccharomyces cerevisiae lysine acetyltransferase complex NuA4 has been implicated in a variety of metabolic processes, we have explored whether NuA4 controls the localization and/or protein levels of metabolic proteins. We performed a high-throughput microscopy screen of over 360 GFP-tagged metabolic proteins and identified 23 proteins whose localization and/or abundance changed upon deletion of the NuA4 scaffolding subunit, EAF1. Within this, three proteins were required for glycogen synthesis and 14 proteins were associated with the mitochondria. We determined that in eaf1Δ cells the transcription of glycogen biosynthesis genes is upregulated resulting in increased proteins and glycogen production. Further, in the absence of EAF1, mitochondria are highly fused, increasing in volume approximately 3-fold, and are chaotically distributed but remain functional. Both the increased glycogen synthesis and mitochondrial elongation in eaf1Δ cells are dependent on Bcy1, the yeast regulatory subunit of PKA. Surprisingly, in the absence of EAF1, Bcy1 localization changes from being nuclear to cytoplasmic and PKA activity is altered. We found that NuA4-dependent localization of Bcy1 is dependent on a lysine residue at position 313 of Bcy1. However, the glycogen accumulation and mitochondrial elongation phenotypes of eaf1Δ, while dependent on Bcy1, were not fully dependent on Bcy1-K313 acetylation state and subcellular localization of Bcy1. As NuA4 is highly conserved with the human Tip60 complex, our work may inform human disease biology, revealing new avenues to investigate the role of Tip60 in metabolic diseases.

Exercise Training-Enhanced Lipolytic Potency to Catecholamine Depends on the Time of the Day

Exercise training is well known to enhance adipocyte lipolysis in response to hormone challenge. However, the existence of a relationship between the timing of exercise training and its effect on adipocyte lipolysis is unknown. To clarify this issue, Wistar rats were run on a treadmill for 9 weeks in either the early part (E-EX) or late part of the active phase (L-EX). L-EX rats exhibited greater isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis expressed as fold induction over basal lipolysis, with greater protein expression levels of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) phosphorylated at Ser 660 compared to E-EX rats. Furthermore, we discovered that Brain and muscle Arnt-like (BMAL)1 protein can associate directly with several protein kinase A (PKA) regulatory units (RIα, RIβ, and RIIβ) of protein kinase, its anchoring protein (AKAP)150, and HSL, and that the association of BMAL1 with the regulatory subunits of PKA, AKAP150, and HSL was greater in L-EX than in E-EX rats. In contrast, comparison between E-EX and their counterpart sedentary control rats showed a greater co-immunoprecipitation only between BMAL1 and ATGL. Thus, both E-EX and L-EX showed an enhanced lipolytic response to isoproterenol, but the mechanisms underlying exercise training-enhanced lipolytic response to isoproterenol were different in each group.

A-kinase-anchoring protein 1 (dAKAP1)-based signaling complexes coordinate local protein synthesis at the mitochondrial surface

Compartmentalization of macromolecules is a ubiquitous molecular mechanism that drives numerous cellular functions. The appropriate organization of enzymes in space and time enables the precise transmission and integration of intracellular signals. Molecular scaffolds constrain signaling enzymes to influence the regional modulation of these physiological processes. Mitochondrial targeting of protein kinases and protein phosphatases provides a means to locally control the phosphorylation status and action of proteins on the surface of this organelle. Dual-specificity protein kinase A anchoring protein 1 (dAKAP1) is a multivalent binding protein that targets protein kinase A (PKA), RNAs, and other signaling enzymes to the outer mitochondrial membrane. Many AKAPs recruit a diverse set of binding partners that coordinate a broad range of cellular processes. Here, results of MS and biochemical analyses reveal that dAKAP1 anchors additional components, including the ribonucleoprotein granule components La-related protein 4 (LARP4) and polyadenylate-binding protein 1 (PABPC1). Local translation of mRNAs at organelles is a means to spatially control the synthesis of proteins. RNA-Seq data demonstrate that dAKAP1 binds mRNAs encoding proteins required for mitochondrial metabolism, including succinate dehydrogenase. Functional studies suggest that the loss of dAKAP1-RNA interactions reduces mitochondrial electron transport chain activity. Hence, dAKAP1 plays a previously unappreciated role as a molecular interface between second messenger signaling and local protein synthesis machinery.

Inter-organelle Communication in the Pathogenesis of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Impairments in mitochondrial function in patients with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes have been disputed for decades. This review aims to briefly summarize the current knowledge on mitochondrial dysfunction in metabolic tissues and to particularly focus on addressing a new perspective of mitochondrial dysfunction, the altered capacity of mitochondria to communicate with other organelles within insulin-resistant tissues.

RECENT FINDINGS

Organelle interactions are temporally and spatially formed connections essential for normal cell function. Recent studies have shown that mitochondria interact with various cellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and lipid droplets, forming inter-organelle junctions. We will discuss the current knowledge on alterations in these mitochondria-organelle interactions in insulin resistance and diabetes, with a focus on changes in mitochondria-lipid droplet communication as a major player in ectopic lipid accumulation, lipotoxicity and insulin resistance.

Novel role of dynamin-related-protein 1 in dynamics of ER-lipid droplets in adipose tissue

Dynamin-Related-Protein 1 (DRP1) critically regulates mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission in multicellular organisms. However, the impact of DRP1 on other organelles, especially its direct influence on ER functions remains largely unclear. Here, we report that DRP1 translocates to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in response to β-adrenergic stimulation. To further investigate the function of DRP1 on ER-lipid droplet (LD) dynamics and the metabolic subsequences, we generated an adipose tissue-specific DRP1 knockout model (Adipo-Drp1^flx/flx ). We found that the LDs in adipose tissues of Adipo-Drp1^flx/flx mice exhibited more unilocular morphology with larger sizes, and formed less multilocular structures upon cold exposure. Mechanistically, we discovered that abnormal LD morphology occurs because newly generated micro-LDs fail to dissociate from the ER due to DRP1 ablation. Conversely, the ER retention of LDs can be rescued by the overexpressed DRP1 in the adipocytes. The alteration of LD dynamics, combined with abnormal mitochondrial and autophagy functions in adipose tissue, ultimately lead to abnormalities in lipid metabolism in Adipo-Drp1^flx/flx mice.

The Role of Cyclic AMP Signaling in Cardiac Fibrosis

Myocardial stress and injury invariably promote remodeling of the cardiac tissue, which is associated with cardiomyocyte death and development of fibrosis. The fibrotic process is initially triggered by the differentiation of resident cardiac fibroblasts into myofibroblasts. These activated fibroblasts display increased proliferative capacity and secrete large amounts of extracellular matrix. Uncontrolled myofibroblast activation can thus promote heart stiffness, cardiac dysfunction, arrhythmias, and progression to heart failure. Despite the well-established role of myofibroblasts in mediating cardiac disease, our current knowledge on how signaling pathways promoting fibrosis are regulated and coordinated in this cell type is largely incomplete. In this respect, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling acts as a major modulator of fibrotic responses activated in fibroblasts of injured or stressed hearts. In particular, accumulating evidence now suggests that upstream cAMP modulators including G protein-coupled receptors, adenylyl cyclases (ACs), and phosphodiesterases (PDEs); downstream cAMP effectors such as protein kinase A (PKA) and the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Epac; and cAMP signaling organizers such as A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) modulate a variety of fundamental cellular processes involved in myocardial fibrosis including myofibroblast differentiation, proliferation, collagen secretion, and invasiveness. The current review will discuss recent advances highlighting the role of cAMP and AKAP-mediated signaling in regulating pathophysiological responses controlling cardiac fibrosis.

Mitochondrial Morphofunction in Mammalian Cells

Significance: In addition to their classical role in cellular ATP production, mitochondria are of key relevance in various (patho)physiological mechanisms including second messenger signaling, neuro-transduction, immune responses and death induction. Recent Advances: Within cells, mitochondria are motile and display temporal changes in internal and external structure ("mitochondrial dynamics"). During the last decade, substantial empirical and in silico evidence was presented demonstrating that mitochondrial dynamics impacts on mitochondrial function and vice versa. Critical Issues: However, a comprehensive and quantitative understanding of the bidirectional links between mitochondrial external shape, internal structure and function ("morphofunction") is still lacking. The latter particularly hampers our understanding of the functional properties and behavior of individual mitochondrial within single living cells. Future Directions: In this review we discuss the concept of mitochondrial morphofunction in mammalian cells, primarily using experimental evidence obtained within the last decade. The topic is introduced by briefly presenting the central role of mitochondria in cell physiology and the importance of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) therein. Next, we summarize in detail how mitochondrial (ultra)structure is controlled and discuss empirical evidence regarding the equivalence of mitochondrial (ultra)structure and function. Finally, we provide a brief summary of how mitochondrial morphofunction can be quantified at the level of single cells and mitochondria, how mitochondrial ultrastructure/volume impacts on mitochondrial bioreactions and intramitochondrial protein diffusion, and how mitochondrial morphofunction can be targeted by small molecules.

Mitofusins: Disease Gatekeepers and Hubs in Mitochondrial Quality Control by E3 Ligases

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles engaged in quality control and aging processes. They constantly undergo fusion, fission, transport, and anchoring events, which empower mitochondria with a very interactive behavior. The membrane remodeling processes needed for fusion require conserved proteins named mitofusins, MFN1 and MFN2 in mammals and Fzo1 in yeast. They are the first determinants deciding on whether communication and content exchange between different mitochondrial populations should occur. Importantly, each cell possesses hundreds of mitochondria, with a different severity of mitochondrial mutations or dysfunctional proteins, which potentially spread damage to the entire network. Therefore, the degree of their merging capacity critically influences cellular fitness. In turn, the mitochondrial network rapidly and dramatically changes in response to metabolic and environmental cues. Notably, cancer or obesity conditions, and stress experienced by neurons and cardiomyocytes, for example, triggers the downregulation of mitofusins and thus fragmentation of mitochondria. This places mitofusins upfront in sensing and transmitting stress. In fact, mitofusins are almost entirely exposed to the cytoplasm, a topology suitable for a critical relay point in information exchange between mitochondria and their cellular environment. Consistent with their topology, mitofusins are either activated or repressed by cytosolic post-translational modifiers, mainly by ubiquitin. Ubiquitin is a ubiquitous small protein orchestrating multiple quality control pathways, which is covalently attached to lysine residues in its substrates, or in ubiquitin itself. Importantly, from a chain of events also mediated by E1 and E2 enzymes, E3 ligases perform the ultimate and determinant step in substrate choice. Here, we review the ubiquitin E3 ligases that modify mitofusins. Two mitochondrial E3 enzymes—March5 and MUL1—one ligase located to the ER—Gp78—and finally three cytosolic enzymes—MGRN1, HUWE1, and Parkin—were shown to ubiquitylate mitofusins, in response to a variety of cellular inputs. The respective outcomes on mitochondrial morphology, on contact sites to the endoplasmic reticulum and on destructive processes, like mitophagy or apoptosis, are presented. Ultimately, understanding the mechanisms by which E3 ligases and mitofusins sense and bi-directionally signal mitochondria-cytosolic dysfunctions could pave the way for therapeutic approaches in neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and obesity-linked diseases.

The Metabolomic Signature of Opa1 Deficiency in Rat Primary Cortical Neurons Shows Aspartate/Glutamate Depletion and Phospholipids Remodeling

Pathogenic variants of OPA1, which encodes a dynamin GTPase involved in mitochondrial fusion, are responsible for a spectrum of neurological disorders sharing optic nerve atrophy and visual impairment. To gain insight on OPA1 neuronal specificity, we performed targeted metabolomics on rat cortical neurons with OPA1 expression inhibited by RNA interference. Of the 103 metabolites accurately measured, univariate analysis including the Benjamini-Hochberg correction revealed 6 significantly different metabolites in OPA1 down-regulated neurons, with aspartate being the most significant (p < 0.001). Supervised multivariate analysis by OPLS-DA yielded a model with good predictive capability (Q²_cum = 0.65) and a low risk of over-fitting (permQ2 = -0.16, CV-ANOVA p-value 0.036). Amongst the 46 metabolites contributing the most to the metabolic signature were aspartate, glutamate and threonine, which all decreased in OPA1 down-regulated neurons, and lysine, 4 sphingomyelins, 4 lysophosphatidylcholines and 32 phosphatidylcholines which were increased. The phospholipid signature may reflect intracellular membrane remodeling due to loss of mitochondrial fusion and/or lipid droplet accumulation. Aspartate and glutamate deficiency, also found in the plasma of OPA1 patients, is likely the consequence of respiratory chain deficiency, whereas the glutamate decrease could contribute to the synaptic dysfunction that we previously identified in this model.

Targeted OMA1 therapies for cancer

The mitochondrial inner membrane proteins OMA1 and OPA1 belong to the BAX/BAK1-dependent apoptotic signaling pathway, which can be regulated by tumor protein p53 and the prohibitins PHB and PHB2 in the context of neoplastic disease. For the most part these proteins have been studied separate from each other. Here, I argue that the OMA1 mechanism of action represents the missing link between p53 and cytochrome c release. The mitochondrial fusion protein OPA1 is cleaved by OMA1 in a stress-dependent manner generating S-OPA1. Excessive S-OPA1 can facilitate outer membrane permeabilization upon BAX/BAK1 activation through its membrane shaping properties. p53 helps outer membrane permeabilization in a 2-step process. First, cytosolic p53 activates BAX/BAK1 at the mitochondrial surface. Then, in a second step, p53 binds to prohibitin thereby releasing the restraint on OMA1. This activates OMA1, which cleaves OPA1 and promotes cytochrome c release. Clearly, OMA1 and OPA1 are not root causes for cancer. Yet many cancer cells rely on this pathway for survival, which can explain why loss of p53 function promotes tumor growth and confers resistance to chemotherapies.

New Advances in Adaptive Thermogenesis: UCP1 and Beyond

Brown and beige adipocytes can catabolize stored energy to generate heat, and this distinct capacity for thermogenesis could be leveraged as a therapy for metabolic diseases like obesity and type 2 diabetes. Thermogenic adipocytes drive heat production through close coordination of substrate supply with the mitochondrial oxidative machinery and effectors that control the rate of substrate oxidation. Together, this apparatus affords these adipocytes with tremendous capacity to drive thermogenesis. The best characterized thermogenic effector is uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). Importantly, additional mechanisms for activating thermogenesis beyond UCP1 have been identified and characterized to varying extents. Acute regulation of these thermogenic pathways has been an active area of study, and numerous regulatory factors have been uncovered in recent years. Here we will review the evidence for regulators of heat production in thermogenic adipocytes in the context of the thermodynamic and kinetic principles that govern their therapeutic utility.

Dysregulated Mitochondrial Dynamics and Metabolism in Obesity, Diabetes, and Cancer

Metabolism describes the life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms that provide both energy and building blocks for cellular survival and proliferation. Dysregulated metabolism leads to many life-threatening diseases including obesity, diabetes, and cancer. Mitochondria, subcellular organelles, contain the central energy-producing metabolic pathway, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Also, mitochondria exist in a dynamic network orchestrated by extracellular nutrient levels and intracellular energy needs. Upon stimulation, mitochondria undergo consistent interchange through fusion (small to big) and fission (big to small) processes. Mitochondrial fusion is primarily controlled by three GTPases, mitofusin 1 (Mfn1), Mfn2, and optic atrophy 1 (Opa1), while mitochondrial fission is primarily regulated by GTPase dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Dysregulated activity of these GTPases results in disrupted mitochondrial dynamics and cellular metabolism. This review will update the metabolic roles of these GTPases in obesity, diabetes, and cancer.

Depletion of dAKAP1-protein kinase A signaling islands from the outer mitochondrial membrane alters breast cancer cell metabolism and motility

Breast cancer screening and new precision therapies have led to improved patient outcomes. Yet, a positive prognosis is less certain when primary tumors metastasize. Metastasis requires a coordinated program of cellular changes that promote increased survival, migration, and energy consumption. These pathways converge on mitochondrial function, where distinct signaling networks of kinases, phosphatases, and metabolic enzymes regulate these processes. The protein kinase A-anchoring protein dAKAP1 compartmentalizes protein kinase A (PKA) and other signaling enzymes at the outer mitochondrial membrane and thereby controls mitochondrial function and dynamics. Modulation of these processes occurs in part through regulation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Here, we report an inverse relationship between the expression of dAKAP1 and mesenchymal markers in breast cancer. Molecular, cellular, and in silico analyses of breast cancer cell lines confirmed that dAKAP1 depletion is associated with impaired mitochondrial function and dynamics, as well as with increased glycolytic potential and invasiveness. Furthermore, disruption of dAKAP1-PKA complexes affected cell motility and mitochondrial movement toward the leading edge in invasive breast cancer cells. We therefore propose that depletion of dAKAP1-PKA "signaling islands" from the outer mitochondrial membrane augments progression toward metastatic breast cancer.

Mitochondrial Neuroglobin Is Necessary for Protection Induced by Conditioned Medium from Human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Astrocytic Cells Subjected to Scratch and Metabolic Injury

Astrocytes are specialized cells capable of regulating inflammatory responses in neurodegenerative diseases or traumatic brain injury. In addition to playing an important role in neuroinflammation, these cells regulate essential functions for the preservation of brain tissue. Therefore, the search for therapeutic alternatives to preserve these cells and maintain their functions contributes in some way to counteract the progress of the injury and maintain neuronal survival in various brain pathologies. Among these strategies, the conditioned medium from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (CM-hMSCA) has been reported with a potential beneficial effect against several neuropathologies. In this study, we evaluated the potential effect of CM-hMSCA in a model of human astrocytes (T98G cells) subjected to scratch injury. Our findings demonstrated that CM-hMSCA regulates the cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, GM-CSF, and TNF-α, downregulates calcium at the cytoplasmic level, and regulates mitochondrial dynamics and the respiratory chain. These actions are accompanied by modulation of the expression of different proteins involved in signaling pathways such as AKT/pAKT and ERK1/2/pERK, and may mediate the localization of neuroglobin (Ngb) at the cellular level. We also confirmed that Ngb mediated the protective effects of CM-hMSCA through regulation of proteins involved in survival pathways and oxidative stress. In conclusion, regulation of brain inflammation combined with the recovery of fundamental cellular aspects in the face of injury makes CM-hMSCA a promising candidate for the protection of astrocytes in brain pathologies.

Mitochondrial Membrane Dynamics-Functional Positioning of OPA1

The maintenance of mitochondrial energetics requires the proper regulation of mitochondrial morphology, and vice versa. Mitochondrial dynamins control mitochondrial morphology by mediating fission and fusion. One of them, optic atrophy 1 (OPA1), is the mitochondrial inner membrane remodeling protein. OPA1 has a dual role in maintaining mitochondrial morphology and energetics through mediating inner membrane fusion and maintaining the cristae structure. OPA1 is expressed in multiple variant forms through alternative splicing and post-translational proteolytic cleavage, but the functional differences between these variants have not been completely understood. Recent studies generated new information regarding the role of OPA1 cleavage. In this review, we will first provide a brief overview of mitochondrial membrane dynamics by describing fission and fusion that are mediated by mitochondrial dynamins. The second part describes OPA1-mediated fusion and energetic maintenance, the role of OPA1 cleavage, and a new development in OPA1 function, in which we will provide new insight for what OPA1 does and what proteolytic cleavage of OPA1 is for.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms alter kinase anchoring and the subcellular targeting of A-kinase anchoring proteins

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) shape second-messenger signaling responses by constraining protein kinase A (PKA) at precise intracellular locations. A defining feature of AKAPs is a helical region that binds to regulatory subunits (RII) of PKA. Mining patient-derived databases has identified 42 nonsynonymous SNPs in the PKA-anchoring helices of five AKAPs. Solid-phase RII binding assays confirmed that 21 of these amino acid substitutions disrupt PKA anchoring. The most deleterious side-chain modifications are situated toward C-termini of AKAP helices. More extensive analysis was conducted on a valine-to-methionine variant in the PKA-anchoring helix of AKAP18. Molecular modeling indicates that additional density provided by methionine at position 282 in the AKAP18γ isoform deflects the pitch of the helical anchoring surface outward by 6.6°. Fluorescence polarization measurements show that this subtle topological change reduces RII-binding affinity 8.8-fold and impairs cAMP responsive potentiation of L-type Ca²⁺ currents in situ. Live-cell imaging of AKAP18γ V282M-GFP adducts led to the unexpected discovery that loss of PKA anchoring promotes nuclear accumulation of this polymorphic variant. Targeting proceeds via a mechanism whereby association with the PKA holoenzyme masks a polybasic nuclear localization signal on the anchoring protein. This led to the discovery of AKAP18ε: an exclusively nuclear isoform that lacks a PKA-anchoring helix. Enzyme-mediated proximity-proteomics reveal that compartment-selective variants of AKAP18 associate with distinct binding partners. Thus, naturally occurring PKA-anchoring-defective AKAP variants not only perturb dissemination of local second-messenger responses, but also may influence the intracellular distribution of certain AKAP18 isoforms.

Cysteine-Based Redox Sensing and Its Role in Signaling by Cyclic Nucleotide-Dependent Kinases in the Cardiovascular System

Oxidant molecules are produced in biological systems and historically have been considered causal mediators of damage and disease. While oxidants may contribute to the pathogenesis of disease, evidence continues to emerge that shows these species also play important regulatory roles in health. A major mechanism of oxidant sensing and signaling involves their reaction with reactive cysteine thiols within proteins, inducing oxidative posttranslational modifications that can couple to altered function to enable homeostatic regulation. Protein kinase A and protein kinase G are regulated by oxidants in this way, and this review focuses on our molecular-level understanding of these events and their role in regulating cardiovascular physiology during health and disease.

Proteomic analysis of monolayer-integrated proteins on lipid droplets identifies amphipathic interfacial α-helical membrane anchors

Despite not spanning phospholipid bilayers, monotopic integral proteins (MIPs) play critical roles in organizing biochemical reactions on membrane surfaces. Defining the structural basis by which these proteins are anchored to membranes has been hampered by the paucity of unambiguously identified MIPs and a lack of computational tools that accurately distinguish monolayer-integrating motifs from bilayer-spanning transmembrane domains (TMDs). We used quantitative proteomics and statistical modeling to identify 87 high-confidence candidate MIPs in lipid droplets, including 21 proteins with predicted TMDs that cannot be accommodated in these monolayer-enveloped organelles. Systematic cysteine-scanning mutagenesis showed the predicted TMD of one candidate MIP, DHRS3, to be a partially buried amphipathic α-helix in both lipid droplet monolayers and the cytoplasmic leaflet of endoplasmic reticulum membrane bilayers. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations support these observations, suggesting that this helix is most stable at the solvent-membrane interface. The simulations also predicted similar interfacial amphipathic helices when applied to seven additional MIPs from our dataset. Our findings suggest that interfacial helices may be a common motif by which MIPs are integrated into membranes, and provide high-throughput methods to identify and study MIPs.

Effects of Genistein on Differentiation and Viability of Human Visceral Adipocytes

Obesity can lead to pathological growth of adipocytes by inducing inflammation and oxidative stress. Genistein could be a potential candidate for the treatment of obesity due to its antioxidant properties. Specific kits were used to examine the effects of genistein vs adiponectin on human visceral pre-adipocytes differentiation, cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential, and oxidative stress in pre-adipocytes and in white/brown adipocytes. Western Blot was performed to examine changes in protein activation/expression. Genistein increased human visceral pre-adipocytes differentiation and browning, and caused a dose-related improvement of cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential. Similar effects were observed in brown adipocytes and in white adipocytes, although in white cells the increase of cell viability was inversely related to the dose. Moreover, genistein potentiated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mitofusin2 activation/expression in pre-adipocytes and white/brown adipocytes and protected them from the effects of hydrogen peroxide. The effects caused by genistein were similar to those of adiponectin. The results obtained showed that genistein increases human visceral pre-adipocytes differentiation and browning, protected against oxidative stress in pre-adipocytes and white/brown adipocytes through mechanisms related to AMPK-signalling and the keeping of mitochondrial function.

DRP-1-mediated apoptosis induces muscle degeneration in dystrophin mutants

Mitochondria are double-membrane subcellular organelles with highly conserved metabolic functions including ATP production. Mitochondria shapes change continually through the combined actions of fission and fusion events rendering mitochondrial network very dynamic. Mitochondria are largely implicated in pathologies and mitochondrial dynamics is often disrupted upon muscle degeneration in various models. Currently, the exact roles of mitochondria in the molecular mechanisms that lead to muscle degeneration remain poorly understood. Here we report a role for DRP-1 in regulating apoptosis induced by dystrophin-dependent muscle degeneration. We found that: (i) dystrophin-dependent muscle degeneration was accompanied by a drastic increase in mitochondrial fragmentation that can be rescued by genetic manipulations of mitochondrial dynamics (ii) the loss of function of the fission gene drp-1 or the overexpression of the fusion genes eat-3 and fzo-1 provoked a reduction of muscle degeneration and an improved mobility of dystrophin mutant worms (iii) the functions of DRP-1 in apoptosis and of others apoptosis executors are important for dystrophin-dependent muscle cell death (iv) DRP-1-mediated apoptosis is also likely to induce age-dependent loss of muscle cell. Collectively, our findings point toward a mechanism involving mitochondrial dynamics to respond to trigger(s) of muscle degeneration via apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans.

OPA1-anchored PKA phosphorylates perilipin 1 on S522 and S497 in adipocytes differentiated from human adipose stem cells

Optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) is the A-kinase anchoring protein targeting the pool of protein kinase A (PKA) responsible for perilipin 1 phosphorylation, a gatekeeper for lipolysis. However, the involvement of OPA1-bound PKA in the downstream regulation of lipolysis is unknown. Here we show up-regulation and relocation of OPA1 from mitochondria to lipid droplets during adipocytic differentiation of human adipose stem cells. We employed various biochemical and immunological approaches to demonstrate that OPA1-bound PKA phosphorylates perilipin 1 at S522 and S497 on lipolytic stimulation. We show that the first 30 amino acids of OPA1 are essential for its lipid droplet localization as is OMA1-dependent processing. Finally, our results indicate that presence of OPA1 is necessary for lipolytic phosphorylation of downstream targets. Our results show for the first time, to our knowledge, how OPA1 mediates adrenergic control of lipolysis in human adipocytes by regulating phosphorylation of perilipin 1.

Mitochondrial cAMP-PKA signaling: What do we really know?

Mitochondria are key organelles for cellular homeostasis. They generate the most part of ATP that is used by cells through oxidative phosphorylation. They also produce reactive oxygen species, neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules. They are important for calcium homeostasis and apoptosis. Considering the role of this organelle, it is not surprising that most mitochondrial dysfunctions are linked to the development of pathologies. Various mechanisms adjust mitochondrial activity according to physiological needs. The cAMP-PKA signaling emerged in recent years as a direct and powerful mean to regulate mitochondrial functions. Multiple evidence demonstrates that such pathway can be triggered from cytosol or directly within mitochondria. Notably, specific anchor proteins target PKA to mitochondria whereas enzymes necessary for generation and degradation of cAMP are found directly in these organelles. Mitochondrial PKA targets proteins localized in different compartments of mitochondria, and related to various functions. Alterations of mitochondrial cAMP-PKA signaling affect the development of several physiopathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. It is however difficult to discriminate between the effects of cAMP-PKA signaling triggered from cytosol or directly in mitochondria. The specific roles of PKA localized in different mitochondrial compartments are also not completely understood. The aim of this work is to review the role of cAMP-PKA signaling in mitochondrial (patho)physiology.

OPA1: How much do we know to approach therapy?

OPA1 is a GTPase that controls several functions, such as mitochondrial dynamics and energetics, mtDNA maintenance and cristae integrity. In the last years, there have been described other cellular pathways and mechanisms involving OPA1 directly or through its interaction. All this new information, by implementing our knowledge on OPA1 is instrumental to elucidating the pathogenic mechanisms of OPA1 mutations. Indeed, these are associated with dominant optic atrophy (DOA), one of the most common inherited optic neuropathies, and with an increasing number of heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we overview all recent findings on OPA1 protein functions, on its dysfunction and related clinical phenotypes, focusing on the current therapeutic options and future perspectives to treat DOA and the other associated neurological disorders due to OPA1 mutations.

Ezrin-anchored PKA phosphorylates serine 369 and 373 on connexin 43 to enhance gap junction assembly, communication, and cell fusion

A limited number of human cells can fuse to form multinucleated syncytia. In the differentiation of human placenta, mononuclear cytotrophoblasts fuse to form an endocrinologically active, non-proliferative, multinucleated syncytium. This syncytium covers the placenta and manages the exchange of nutrients and gases between maternal and fetal circulation. We recently reported protein kinase A (PKA) to be part of a macromolecular signaling complex with ezrin and gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx43) that provides cAMP-mediated control of gap junction communication. Here, we examined the associated phosphorylation events. Inhibition of PKA activity resulted in decreased Cx43 phosphorylation, which was associated with reduced trophoblast fusion and differentiation. In vitro studies using peptide arrays, together with mass spectrometry, pointed to serine 369 and 373 of Cx43 as the major PKA phosphorylation sites that increases gap junction assembly at the plasmalemma. A combination of knockdown and reconstitution experiments and gap-fluorescence loss in photobleaching assays with mutant Cx43 containing single or double phosphoserine-mimicking amino acid substitutions in putative PKA phosphorylation sites demonstrated that phosphorylation of S369 and S373 mediated gap junction communication, trophoblast differentiation, and cell fusion.

Eight human OPA1 isoforms, long and short: What are they for?

OPA1 is a dynamin-related GTPase that controls mitochondrial dynamics, cristae integrity, energetics and mtDNA maintenance. The exceptional complexity of this protein is determined by the presence, in humans, of eight different isoforms that, in turn, are proteolytically cleaved into combinations of membrane-anchored long forms and soluble short forms. Recent advances highlight how each OPA1 isoform is able to fulfill "essential" mitochondrial functions, whereas only some variants carry out "specialized" features. Long forms determine fusion, long or short forms alone build cristae, whereas long and short forms together tune mitochondrial morphology. These findings offer novel challenging therapeutic potential to gene therapy.

The Molecular Basis for Specificity at the Level of the Protein Kinase a Catalytic Subunit

Assembly of multi enzyme complexes at subcellular localizations by anchoring- and scaffolding proteins represents a pivotal mechanism for achieving spatiotemporal regulation of cellular signaling after hormone receptor targeting [for review, see (1)]. In the 3' 5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) dependent protein kinase (PKA) signaling pathway it is generally accepted that specificity is secured at several levels. This includes at the first level stimulation of receptors coupled to heterotrimeric G proteins which through stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC) forms the second messenger cAMP. Cyclic AMP has several receptors including PKA. PKA is a tetrameric holoenzyme consisting of a regulatory (R) subunit dimer and two catalytic (C) subunits. The R subunit is the receptor for cAMP and compartmentalizes cAMP signals through binding to cell and tissue-specifically expressed A kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). The current dogma tells that in the presence of cAMP, PKA dissociates into an R subunit dimer and two C subunits which are free to phosphorylate relevant substrates in the cytosol and nucleus. The release of the C subunit has raised the question how specificity of the cAMP and PKA signaling pathway is maintained when the C subunit no longer is attached to the R subunit-AKAP complex. An increasing body of evidence points toward a regulatory role of the cAMP and PKA signaling pathway by targeting the C subunits to various C subunit binding proteins in the cytosol and nucleus. Moreover, recent identification of isoform specific amino acid sequences, motifs and three dimensional structures have together provided new insight into how PKA at the level of the C subunit may act in a highly isoform-specific fashion. Here we discuss recent understanding of specificity of the cAMP and PKA signaling pathway based on C subunit subcellular targeting as well as evolution of the C subunit structure that may contribute to the dynamic regulation of C subunit activity.

Mitochondrial Dynamics at the Interface of Immune Cell Metabolism and Function

Immune cell differentiation and function are crucially dependent on specific metabolic programs dictated by mitochondria, including the generation of ATP from the oxidation of nutrients and supplying precursors for the synthesis of macromolecules and post-translational modifications. The many processes that occur in mitochondria are intimately linked to their morphology that is shaped by opposing fusion and fission events. Exciting evidence is now emerging that demonstrates reciprocal crosstalk between mitochondrial dynamics and metabolism. Metabolic cues can control the mitochondrial fission and fusion machinery to acquire specific morphologies that shape their activity. We review the dynamic properties of mitochondria and discuss how these organelles interlace with immune cell metabolism and function.