1
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Erdelyan CNG, Kandeil A, Signore AV, Jones MEB, Vogel P, Andreev K, Bøe CA, Gjerset B, Alkie TN, Yason C, Hisanaga T, Sullivan D, Lung O, Bourque L, Ayilara I, Pama L, Jeevan T, Franks J, Jones JC, Seiler JP, Miller L, Mubareka S, Webby RJ, Berhane Y. Multiple transatlantic incursions of highly pathogenic avian influenza clade 2.3.4.4b A(H5N5) virus into North America and spillover to mammals. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114479. [PMID: 39003741 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses have spread at an unprecedented scale, leading to mass mortalities in birds and mammals. In 2023, a transatlantic incursion of HPAI A(H5N5) viruses into North America was detected, followed shortly thereafter by a mammalian detection. As these A(H5N5) viruses were similar to contemporary viruses described in Eurasia, the transatlantic spread of A(H5N5) viruses was most likely facilitated by pelagic seabirds. Some of the Canadian A(H5N5) viruses from birds and mammals possessed the PB2-E627K substitution known to facilitate adaptation to mammals. Ferrets inoculated with A(H5N5) viruses showed rapid, severe disease onset, with some evidence of direct contact transmission. However, these viruses have maintained receptor binding traits of avian influenza viruses and were susceptible to oseltamivir and zanamivir. Understanding the factors influencing the virulence and transmission of A(H5N5) in migratory birds and mammals is critical to minimize impacts on wildlife and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmed Kandeil
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Anthony V Signore
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Megan E B Jones
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Atlantic Region, Charlottetown, PEI C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Peter Vogel
- Comparative Pathology Core, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Konstantin Andreev
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | | | | | - Tamiru N Alkie
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Carmencita Yason
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Tamiko Hisanaga
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Daniel Sullivan
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Oliver Lung
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2M5, Canada
| | - Laura Bourque
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Atlantic Region, Charlottetown, PEI C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Ifeoluwa Ayilara
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Lemarie Pama
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Trushar Jeevan
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - John Franks
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Jeremy C Jones
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Jon P Seiler
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Lance Miller
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Samira Mubareka
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Pathology and Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
| | - Yohannes Berhane
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada; Department of Animal Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada.
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2
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Gadzhiev A, Petherbridge G, Sharshov K, Sobolev I, Alekseev A, Gulyaeva M, Litvinov K, Boltunov I, Teymurov A, Zhigalin A, Daudova M, Shestopalov A. Pinnipeds and avian influenza: a global timeline and review of research on the impact of highly pathogenic avian influenza on pinniped populations with particular reference to the endangered Caspian seal ( Pusa caspica). Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1325977. [PMID: 39071164 PMCID: PMC11273096 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1325977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
This study reviews chronologically the international scientific and health management literature and resources relating to impacts of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses on pinnipeds in order to reinforce strategies for the conservation of the endangered Caspian seal (Pusa caspica), currently under threat from the HPAI H5N1 subtype transmitted from infected avifauna which share its haul-out habitats. Many cases of mass pinniped deaths globally have occurred from HPAI spill-overs, and are attributed to infected sympatric aquatic avifauna. As the seasonal migrations of Caspian seals provide occasions for contact with viruses from infected migratory aquatic birds in many locations around the Caspian Sea, this poses a great challenge to seal conservation. These are thus critical locations for the surveillance of highly pathogenic influenza A viruses, whose future reassortments may present a pandemic threat to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alimurad Gadzhiev
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Guy Petherbridge
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
- Caspian Centre for Nature Conservation, International Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Association of Universities and Research Centers of Caspian Region States, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Kirill Sharshov
- Research Institute of Virology, Federal Research Centre for Fundamental and Translational Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Ivan Sobolev
- Research Institute of Virology, Federal Research Centre for Fundamental and Translational Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Alexander Alekseev
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
- Research Institute of Virology, Federal Research Centre for Fundamental and Translational Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Marina Gulyaeva
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Kirill Litvinov
- Laboratory of Ecological and Biological Research, Astrakhan State Nature Biosphere Reserve, Astrakhan, Russia
| | - Ivan Boltunov
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Abdulgamid Teymurov
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Alexander Zhigalin
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Madina Daudova
- Institute of Ecology and Sustainable Development, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Alexander Shestopalov
- Research Institute of Virology, Federal Research Centre for Fundamental and Translational Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
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3
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Murawski A, Fabrizio T, Ossiboff R, Kackos C, Jeevan T, Jones JC, Kandeil A, Walker D, Turner JCM, Patton C, Govorkova EA, Hauck H, Mickey S, Barbeau B, Bommineni YR, Torchetti M, Lantz K, Kercher L, Allison AB, Vogel P, Walsh M, Webby RJ. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus in a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in Florida. Commun Biol 2024; 7:476. [PMID: 38637646 PMCID: PMC11026403 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06173-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Since late 2021, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of A/goose/Guangdong/1/1996 (H5N1) lineage have caused widespread mortality in wild birds and poultry in the United States. Concomitant with the spread of HPAI viruses in birds are increasing numbers of mammalian infections, including wild and captive mesocarnivores and carnivores with central nervous system involvement. Here we report HPAI, A(H5N1) of clade 2.3.4.4b, in a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) from Florida, United States. Pathological findings include neuronal necrosis and inflammation of the brain and meninges, and quantitative real time RT-PCR reveal the brain carried the highest viral load. Virus isolated from the brain contains a S246N neuraminidase substitution which leads to reduced inhibition by neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir. The increased prevalence of A(H5N1) viruses in atypical avian hosts and its cross-species transmission into mammalian species highlights the public health importance of continued disease surveillance and biosecurity protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Murawski
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Thomas Fabrizio
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Robert Ossiboff
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Christina Kackos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Trushar Jeevan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Jeremy C Jones
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Ahmed Kandeil
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - David Walker
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Jasmine C M Turner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Christopher Patton
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Elena A Govorkova
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Helena Hauck
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Suzanna Mickey
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Brittany Barbeau
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Y Reddy Bommineni
- Bronson Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, 2700 N John Young Parkway, Kissimmee, FL, 34745-8006, USA
| | - Mia Torchetti
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Kristina Lantz
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Lisa Kercher
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Andrew B Allison
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Peter Vogel
- Comparative Pathology Core, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Michael Walsh
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA.
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4
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Rouse NM, Burek-Huntington K. Cook Inlet beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas with valvular endocarditis, encephalitis, rhabdomyolysis, heavy parasitism and fungal dermatitis. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2023; 155:1-6. [PMID: 37470355 DOI: 10.3354/dao03736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
This is a case report of a Cook Inlet beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas found dead stranded on September 28, 2020 in Turnagain Arm, Alaska. This subadult male had valvular endocarditis, encephalitis, rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuric nephropathy, severe parasitism and fungal dermatitis. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was detected in the heart lesion, eye and external swabs. The level of infection and parasitism in this individual is markedly higher than what has been found in other Cook Inlet belugas, suggesting immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie M Rouse
- Alaska Veterinary Pathology Services, Eagle River, AK 99577, USA
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5
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Barratclough A, Ferguson SH, Lydersen C, Thomas PO, Kovacs KM. A Review of Circumpolar Arctic Marine Mammal Health-A Call to Action in a Time of Rapid Environmental Change. Pathogens 2023; 12:937. [PMID: 37513784 PMCID: PMC10385039 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The impacts of climate change on the health of marine mammals are increasingly being recognised. Given the rapid rate of environmental change in the Arctic, the potential ramifications on the health of marine mammals in this region are a particular concern. There are eleven endemic Arctic marine mammal species (AMMs) comprising three cetaceans, seven pinnipeds, and the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). All of these species are dependent on sea ice for survival, particularly those requiring ice for breeding. As air and water temperatures increase, additional species previously non-resident in Arctic waters are extending their ranges northward, leading to greater species overlaps and a concomitant increased risk of disease transmission. In this study, we review the literature documenting disease presence in Arctic marine mammals to understand the current causes of morbidity and mortality in these species and forecast future disease issues. Our review highlights potential pathogen occurrence in a changing Arctic environment, discussing surveillance methods for 35 specific pathogens, identifying risk factors associated with these diseases, as well as making recommendations for future monitoring for emerging pathogens. Several of the pathogens discussed have the potential to cause unusual mortality events in AMMs. Brucella, morbillivirus, influenza A virus, and Toxoplasma gondii are all of concern, particularly with the relative naivety of the immune systems of endemic Arctic species. There is a clear need for increased surveillance to understand baseline disease levels and address the gravity of the predicted impacts of climate change on marine mammal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Barratclough
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, San Diego, CA 92106, USA
| | - Steven H. Ferguson
- Arctic Aquatic Research Division, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada;
| | - Christian Lydersen
- Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway; (C.L.); (K.M.K.)
| | - Peter O. Thomas
- Marine Mammal Commission, 4340 East-West Highway, Room 700, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA;
| | - Kit M. Kovacs
- Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway; (C.L.); (K.M.K.)
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6
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Puryear W, Sawatzki K, Hill N, Foss A, Stone JJ, Doughty L, Walk D, Gilbert K, Murray M, Cox E, Patel P, Mertz Z, Ellis S, Taylor J, Fauquier D, Smith A, DiGiovanni RA, van de Guchte A, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Khalil Z, van Bakel H, Torchetti MK, Lantz K, Lenoch JB, Runstadler J. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus Outbreak in New England Seals, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2023; 29:786-791. [PMID: 36958010 PMCID: PMC10045683 DOI: 10.3201/eid2904.221538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the spillover of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) into marine mammals in the northeastern United States, coincident with H5N1 in sympatric wild birds. Our data indicate monitoring both wild coastal birds and marine mammals will be critical to determine pandemic potential of influenza A viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nichola Hill
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Alexa Foss
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Jonathon J. Stone
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Lynda Doughty
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Dominique Walk
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Katie Gilbert
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Maureen Murray
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Elena Cox
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Priya Patel
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Zak Mertz
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Stephanie Ellis
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Jennifer Taylor
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Deborah Fauquier
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Ainsley Smith
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Robert A. DiGiovanni
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Adriana van de Guchte
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Ana Silvia Gonzalez-Reiche
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Zain Khalil
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Mia K. Torchetti
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Kristina Lantz
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Julianna B. Lenoch
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
| | - Jonathan Runstadler
- Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA (W. Puryear, K. Sawatzki, A. Foss, J.J. Stone, M. Murray, E. Cox, J. Runstadler)
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (N. Hill)
- Marine Mammals of Maine, Brunswick, Maine, USA (L. Doughty, D. Walk, K. Gilbert)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Barnstable, Massachusetts, USA (P. Patel, Z. Mertz)
- New England Wildlife Centers, Weymouth, Massachusetts, USA (Z. Mertz)
- Wild Care, Inc., Eastham, Massachusetts, USA (S. Ellis, J. Taylor)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA (D. Fauquier)
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, Gloucester, Massachusetts, USA (A. Smith)
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, USA (R.A. DiGiovanni Jr.)
- Mount Sinai Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA (A. van de Guchte, A.S. Gonzalez-Reiche, Z. Khalil, H. van Bakel)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, Iowa, USA (M.K. Torchetti, K. Lantz)
- US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA (J.B. Lenoch)
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7
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Plancarte M, Kovalenko G, Baldassano J, Ramírez AL, Carrillo S, Duignan PJ, Goodfellow I, Bortz E, Dutta J, van Bakel H, Coffey LL. Human influenza A virus H1N1 in marine mammals in California, 2019. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0283049. [PMID: 36996074 PMCID: PMC10062622 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0283049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
From 2011-2018, we conducted surveillance in marine mammals along the California coast for influenza A virus (IAV), frequently detecting anti-influenza antibodies and intermittently detecting IAV. In spring 2019, this pattern changed. Despite no change in surveillance intensity, we detected IAV RNA in 10 samples in March and April, mostly in nasal and rectal swabs from northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris). Although virus isolation was unsuccessful, IAV sequenced from one northern elephant seal nasal swab showed close genetic identity with pandemic H1N1 IAV subclade 6B.1A.1 that was concurrently circulating in humans in the 2018/19 influenza season. This represents the first report of human A(H1N1)pdm09 IAV in northern elephant seals since 2010, suggesting IAV continues to spill over from humans to pinnipeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Plancarte
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Ganna Kovalenko
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Julie Baldassano
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Ana L. Ramírez
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Selina Carrillo
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Pádraig J. Duignan
- The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, California, United States of America
| | - Ian Goodfellow
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Bortz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Jayeeta Dutta
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Lark L. Coffey
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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8
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Screening for Influenza and Morbillivirus in Seals and Porpoises in the Baltic and North Sea. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030357. [PMID: 36986279 PMCID: PMC10054458 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Historically, the seals and harbour porpoises of the Baltic Sea and North Sea have been subjected to hunting, chemical pollutants and repeated mass mortalities, leading to significant population fluctuations. Despite the conservation implications and the zoonotic potential associated with viral disease outbreaks in wildlife, limited information is available on the circulation of viral pathogens in Baltic Sea seals and harbour porpoises. Here, we investigated the presence of the influenza A virus (IAV), the phocine distemper virus (PDV) and the cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) in tracheal swabs and lung tissue samples from 99 harbour seals, 126 grey seals, 73 ringed seals and 78 harbour porpoises collected in the Baltic Sea and North Sea between 2002–2019. Despite screening 376 marine mammals collected over nearly two decades, we only detected one case of PDV and two cases of IAV linked to the documented viral outbreaks in seals in 2002 and 2014, respectively. Although we find no evidence of PDV and IAV during intermediate years, reports of isolated cases of PDV in North Sea harbour seals and IAV (H5N8) in Baltic and North Sea grey seals suggest introductions of those pathogens within the sampling period. Thus, to aid future monitoring efforts we highlight the need for a standardized and continuous sample collection of swabs, tissue and blood samples across Baltic Sea countries.
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9
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Gigliotti AK, Bowen WD, Hammill MO, Puryear WB, Runstadler J, Wenzel FW, Cammen KM. Sequence diversity and differences at the highly duplicated MHC-I gene reflect viral susceptibility in sympatric pinniped species. J Hered 2022; 113:525-537. [PMID: 35690352 PMCID: PMC9584807 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esac030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences in disease susceptibility among species can result from rapid host-pathogen coevolution and differences in host species ecology that affect the strength and direction of natural selection. Among two sympatric pinniped species that differ in sociality and putative disease exposure, we investigate observed differences in susceptibility through an analysis of a highly variable, duplicated gene family involved in the vertebrate immune response. Using high-throughput amplicon sequencing, we characterize diversity at the two exons that encode the peptide binding region of the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) gene in harbor (N = 60) and gray (N = 90) seal populations from the Northwest Atlantic. Across species, we identified 106 full-length exon 2 and 103 exon 3 sequence variants and a minimum of 11 duplicated MHC-I loci. The sequence variants clustered in 15 supertypes defined by the physiochemical properties of the peptide binding region, including a putatively novel Northwest Atlantic MHC-I diversity sublineage. Trans-species polymorphisms, dN/dS ratios, and evidence of gene conversion among supertypes are consistent with balancing selection acting on this gene. High functional redundancy suggests particularly strong selection among gray seals at the novel Northwest Atlantic MHC-I diversity sublineage. At exon 2, harbor seals had a significantly greater number of variants per individual than gray seals, but fewer supertypes. Supertype richness and private supertypes are hypothesized to contribute to observed differences in disease resistance between species, as consistently, across the North Atlantic and many disease outbreaks, gray seals appear to be more resistant to respiratory viruses than harbor seals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - W Don Bowen
- Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, NS, Canada
| | - Michael O Hammill
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Maurice Lamontagne Institute, Mont-Joli, QC, Canada
| | - Wendy B Puryear
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Jonathan Runstadler
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Frederick W Wenzel
- Protected Species Branch, NOAA, NMFS, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA
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10
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Shin DL, Siebert U, Haas L, Valentin-Weigand P, Herrler G, Wu NH. Primary harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) airway epithelial cells show high susceptibility to infection by a seal-derived influenza A virus (H5N8). Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e2378-e2388. [PMID: 35504691 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of the H5N8 subtype have been circulating in Europe and Asia since 2016, causing huge economic losses to the poultry industry. A new wave of H5Nx infections has begun in 2020. The viruses mainly infect wild birds and waterfowl; from there they spread to poultry and cause disease. Previous studies have shown that the H5N8 viruses have seldom spread to mammals; however, reports in early 2021 indicate that humans may be infected, and some incident reports indicate that H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4B virus may be transmitted to wild mammals, such as red foxes and seals. In order to get more information on how the H5N8 virus affects seals and other marine animals, here, we used primary cultures to analyze the cell tropism of the H5N8 virus, which was isolated from an infected gray seal (H5N8/Seal-2016). Primary tracheal epithelial cells were readily infected by H5N8/Seal -2016 virus; in contrast, the commonly used primary seal kidney cells required the presence of exogenous trypsin to initiate virus infection. When applied to an ex vivo precision-cut lung slice model, compared with recombinant human H3N2 virus or H9N2 LPAI virus, the H5N8/Seal-2016 virus replicated to a high titer and caused a strong detrimental effect; with these characteristics, the virus was superior to a human H3N2 virus and to an H9N2 LPAI virus. By using well-differentiated air-liquid interface cultures, we have observed that ALI cultures of canines, ferrets, and harbor seals are more sensitive to H5N8/Seal-2016 virus than are human or porcine ALI cultures, which cannot be fully explained by sialic acid distribution. Our results indicate that the airway epithelium of carnivores may be the main target of H5N8 viruses. Consideration should be given to an increased monitoring of the distribution of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in wild animals. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai-Lun Shin
- Institute of Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ludwig Haas
- Institute of Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Peter Valentin-Weigand
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Georg Herrler
- Institute of Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nai-Huei Wu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
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11
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Puryear W, Sawatzki K, Bogomolni A, Hill N, Foss A, Stokholm I, Olsen MT, Nielsen O, Waltzek T, Goldstein T, Subramaniam K, Rodrigues TCS, Belaganahalli M, Doughty L, Becker L, Stokes A, Niemeyer M, Tuttle A, Romano T, Linhares MB, Fauquier D, Runstadler J. Longitudinal analysis of pinnipeds in the northwest Atlantic provides insights on endemic circulation of phocine distemper virus. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211841. [PMID: 34753354 PMCID: PMC8580419 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phocine distemper virus (PDV) is a morbillivirus that circulates within pinnipeds in the North Atlantic. PDV has caused two known unusual mortality events (UMEs) in western Europe (1988, 2002), and two UMEs in the northwest Atlantic (2006, 2018). Infrequent cross-species transmission and waning immunity are believed to contribute to periodic outbreaks with high mortality in western Europe. The viral ecology of PDV in the northwest Atlantic is less well defined and outbreaks have exhibited lower mortality than those in western Europe. This study sought to understand the molecular and ecological processes underlying PDV infection in eastern North America. We provide phylogenetic evidence that PDV was introduced into northwest Atlantic pinnipeds by a single lineage and is now endemic in local populations. Serological and viral screening of pinniped surveillance samples from 2006 onward suggest there is continued circulation of PDV outside of UMEs among multiple species with and without clinical signs. We report six full genome sequences and nine partial sequences derived from harbour and grey seals in the northwest Atlantic from 2011 through 2018, including a possible regional variant. Work presented here provides a framework towards greater understanding of how recovering populations and shifting species may impact disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy Puryear
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Kaitlin Sawatzki
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Andrea Bogomolni
- Department of Marine Science, Safety and Environmental Protection, Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Buzzards Bay, MA, USA
| | - Nichola Hill
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Alexa Foss
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Iben Stokholm
- Evolutionary Genomics Section, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Tange Olsen
- Evolutionary Genomics Section, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ole Nielsen
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Thomas Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center and Department of Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kuttichantran Subramaniam
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Thais Carneiro Santos Rodrigues
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Manjunatha Belaganahalli
- Institute of Animal Health and Veterinary Biologicals Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries sciences University Hebbal, Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Lisa Becker
- National Marine Life Center, Buzzards Bay, MA, USA
| | | | - Misty Niemeyer
- International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Deborah Fauquier
- Office of Protected Resources, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan Runstadler
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
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12
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ANTIBODIES AGAINST INFLUENZA VIRUS TYPES A AND B IN CANADIAN SEALS. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:808-819. [PMID: 34410421 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-20-00175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Influenza viruses have been reported from marine mammals worldwide, particularly in pinnipeds, and have caused mass mortalities of seals in North America and Europe. Because influenza viruses in marine mammals can be zoonotic, our objective was to examine Canadian phocids for exposure to influenza A and B viruses in order to understand health risks to wild populations as well as to humans who consume or handle these animals. Blood was collected from 394 seals in eastern Canada from 1994 to 2005. Sera were screened for exposure to influenza viruses in three resident species of seals: harbour, Phoca vitulina (n=66); grey, Halichoerus grypus (n=82); ringed, Phoca hispida (n=2); and two migrant species: harp, Pagophilus groenlandica (n=206) and hooded, Cystophora cristata (n=38). Included were samples from captive grey (n=1) and harbour seals (n=8) at two aquaria. Sera were prescreened using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and antibodies against influenza A virus were confirmed using a commercial competitive ELISA (IDEXX Europe B.V.). A subset of influenza A virus positive sera was used to determine common virus subtypes recognized by sera using reference strains. All positive sera in the indirect ELISA reacted with influenza A virus subtypes H3, H4, and H10 using a hemagglutination inhibition assay. Sera from harbour, grey, harp, and hooded seals had antibodies against influenza A and influenza B viruses (some cross-reactivity occurred). Overall, 33% (128/385) of wild seals were seropositive to influenza viruses, with the highest seroprevalence in harp (42%) followed by harbour (33%), grey (23%), and hooded (11%) seals. Antibodies were detected in both sexes and most age classes of wild seals. Two of eight captive harbour seals were seropositive to influenza B virus and four had cross-reactions to influenza A and B viruses. This study reports antibodies against influenza A and B viruses in four seal species from the same geographic area in eastern Canada.
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Respiratory Tract Explant Infection Dynamics of Influenza A Virus in California Sea Lions, Northern Elephant Seals, and Rhesus Macaques. J Virol 2021; 95:e0040321. [PMID: 34037419 PMCID: PMC8312873 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00403-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
To understand susceptibility of wild California sea lions and Northern elephant seals to influenza A virus (IAV), we developed an ex vivo respiratory explant model and used it to compare infection kinetics for multiple IAV subtypes. We first established the approach using explants from colonized rhesus macaques, a model for human IAV. Trachea, bronchi, and lungs from 11 California sea lions, 2 Northern elephant seals, and 10 rhesus macaques were inoculated within 24 h postmortem with 6 strains representing 4 IAV subtypes. Explants from the 3 species showed similar IAV infection kinetics, with peak viral titers 48 to 72 h post-inoculation that increased by 2 to 4 log10 PFU/explant relative to the inoculum. Immunohistochemistry localized IAV infection to apical epithelial cells. These results demonstrate that respiratory tissue explants from wild marine mammals support IAV infection. In the absence of the ability to perform experimental infections of marine mammals, this ex vivo culture of respiratory tissues mirrors the in vivo environment and serves as a tool to study IAV susceptibility, host range, and tissue tropism. IMPORTANCE Although influenza A virus can infect marine mammals, a dearth of marine mammal cell lines and ethical and logistical challenges prohibiting experimental infections of living marine mammals mean that little is known about IAV infection kinetics in these species. We circumvented these limitations by adapting a respiratory tract explant model first to establish the approach with rhesus macaques and then for use with explants from wild marine mammals euthanized for nonrespiratory medical conditions. We observed that multiple strains representing 4 IAV subtypes infected trachea, bronchi, and lungs of macaques and marine mammals with variable peak titers and kinetics. This ex vivo model can define infection dynamics for IAV in marine mammals. Further, use of explants from animals euthanized for other reasons reduces use of animals in research.
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Wyżewski Z, Świtlik W, Mielcarska MB, Gregorczyk-Zboroch KP. The Role of Bcl-xL Protein in Viral Infections. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041956. [PMID: 33669408 PMCID: PMC7920434 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bcl-xL represents a family of proteins responsible for the regulation of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Due to its anti-apoptotic activity, Bcl-xL co-determines the viability of various virally infected cells. Their survival may determine the effectiveness of viral replication and spread, dynamics of systemic infection, and viral pathogenesis. In this paper, we have reviewed the role of Bcl-xL in the context of host infection by eight different RNA and DNA viruses: hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza A virus (IAV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1), Maraba virus (MRBV), Schmallenberg virus (SBV) and coronavirus (CoV). We have described an influence of viral infection on the intracellular level of Bcl-xL and discussed the impact of Bcl-xL-dependent cell survival control on infection-accompanying pathogenic events such as tissue damage or oncogenesis. We have also presented anti-viral treatment strategies based on the pharmacological regulation of Bcl-xL expression or activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbigniew Wyżewski
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, 01-815 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48 728-208-338
| | - Weronika Świtlik
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Matylda Barbara Mielcarska
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (M.B.M.); (K.P.G.-Z.)
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15
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Shin DL, Siebert U, Lakemeyer J, Grilo M, Pawliczka I, Wu NH, Valentin-Weigand P, Haas L, Herrler G. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N8) Virus in Gray Seals, Baltic Sea. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 25:2295-2298. [PMID: 31742519 PMCID: PMC6874272 DOI: 10.3201/eid2512.181472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We detected a highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N8) virus in lung samples of 2 gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) stranded on the Baltic coast of Poland in 2016 and 2017. This virus, clade 2.3.4.4 B, was closely related to avian H5N8 viruses circulating in Europe at the time.
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16
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Sonne C, Lakemeyer J, Desforges JP, Eulaers I, Persson S, Stokholm I, Galatius A, Gross S, Gonnsen K, Lehnert K, Andersen-Ranberg EU, Tange Olsen M, Dietz R, Siebert U. A review of pathogens in selected Baltic Sea indicator species. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105565. [PMID: 32070804 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Here we review the state-of-the-art of pathogens in select marine and terrestrial key species of the Baltic Sea, i.e. ringed seal (Pusa hispida), harbour seal (Phoca vitulina), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), common eider (Somateria mollissima), pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus) and white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). This review is the first to merge and present available information and baseline data for the FP7 BONUS BaltHealth project: Baltic Sea multilevel health impacts on key species of anthropogenic hazardous substances. Understanding the spread, prevalence and effects of wildlife pathogens is important for the understanding of animal and ecosystem health, ecosystem function and services, as well as human exposure to zoonotic diseases. This review summarises the occurrence of parasites, viruses and bacteria over the past six decades, including severe outbreaks of Phocine Distemper Virus (PDV), the seroprevalence of Influenza A and the recent increase in seal parasites. We show that Baltic high trophic key species are exposed to multiple bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases. Parasites, such as C. semerme and P. truncatum present in the colon and liver Baltic grey seals, respectively, and anisakid nematodes require particular monitoring due to their effects on animal health. In addition, distribution of existing viral and bacterial pathogens, along with the emergence and spread of new pathogens, need to be monitored in order to assess the health status of key Baltic species. Relevant bacteria are Streptococcus spp., Brucella spp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Mycoplasma spp. and Leptospira interrogans; relevant viruses are influenza virus, distemper virus, pox virus and herpes virus. This is of special importance as some of the occurring pathogens are zoonotic and thus also pose a potential risk for human health. Marine mammal handlers, as well as civilians that by chance encounter marine mammals, need to be aware of this risk. It is therefore important to continue the monitoring of diseases affecting key Baltic species in order to assess their relationship to population dynamics and their potential threat to humans. These infectious agents are valuable indicators of host ecology and can act as bioindicators of distribution, migration, diet and behaviour of marine mammals and birds, as well as of climate change and changes in food web dynamics. In addition, infectious diseases are linked to pollutant exposure, overexploitation, immune suppression and subsequent inflammatory disease. Ultimately, these diseases affect the health of the entire ecosystem and, consequently, ecosystem function and services. As global warming is continuously increasing, the impact of global change on infectious disease patterns is important to monitor in Baltic key species in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Jan Lakemeyer
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany.
| | - Jean-Pierre Desforges
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Sara Persson
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Iben Stokholm
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany; Evolutionary Genomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5-7, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Anders Galatius
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Stephanie Gross
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany.
| | - Katharina Gonnsen
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany.
| | - Kristina Lehnert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany.
| | - Emilie U Andersen-Ranberg
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark; Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health, Dyrlægevej 16, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Morten Tange Olsen
- Evolutionary Genomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5-7, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Rune Dietz
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstrasse 6, 25761 Buesum, Germany.
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Wood SA, Murray KT, Josephson E, Gilbert J. Rates of increase in gray seal ( Halichoerus grypus atlantica) pupping at recolonized sites in the United States, 1988-2019. J Mammal 2020; 101:121-128. [PMID: 32099265 PMCID: PMC7035213 DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyz184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Gray seals were historically distributed along the northeastern coast of the United States, but bounties and lack of protection reduced numbers and they were rarely observed for most of the 20th century. Once protections were enacted, the population started to rebound. Here, we describe the recolonization and recovery of gray seals in the United States, focusing on the re-establishment of pupping sites. We fit individual generalized linear models to various time series (1988–2019) to estimate rates of increase in observed pup counts at four of the more data-rich sites. Annual rate of increase at individual sites ranged from −0.2% (95% CI: −2.3–1.9%) to 26.3% (95% CI: 21.6–31.4%). The increase in sites and number of pups born in the United States is driven by population growth and immigration from Canadian colonies and is part of a larger recovery of the Northwest Atlantic population. Wildlife protection, a healthy source population, habitat availability, and species traits that allow for dispersal and high productivity were all important factors in this recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie A Wood
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Biology Department, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - James Gilbert
- University of Maine, Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Conservation Biology, Orono, ME, USA
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18
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Abstract
Influenza A infection has been detected in marine mammals going back to 1975, with additional unconfirmed outbreaks as far back as 1931. Over the past forty years, infectious virus has been recovered on ten separate occasions from both pinnipeds (harbor seal, elephant seal, and Caspian seal) and cetaceans (striped whale and pilot whale). Recovered viruses have spanned a range of subtypes (H1, H3, H4, H7, H10, and H13) and, in all but H1N1, show strong evidence for deriving directly from avian sources. To date, there have been five unusual mortality events directly attributed to influenza A virus; these have primarily occurred in harbor seals in the Northeastern United States, with the most recent occurring in harbor seals in the North Sea.There are numerous additional reports wherein influenza A virus has indirectly been identified in marine mammals; these include serosurveillance efforts that have detected influenza A- and B-specific antibodies in marine mammals spanning the globe and the detection of viral RNA in both active and opportunistic surveillance in the Northwest Atlantic. For viral detection and recovery, nasal, rectal, and conjunctival swabs have been employed in pinnipeds, while blowhole, nasal, and rectal swabs have been employed in cetaceans. In the case of deceased animals, virus has also been detected in tissue. Surveillance has historically been somewhat limited, relying largely upon opportunistic sampling of stranded or bycaught animals and primarily occurring in response to a mortality event. A handful of active surveillance projects have shown that influenza may be more endemic in marine mammals than previously appreciated, though live virus is difficult to recover. Surveillance efforts are hindered by permitting and logistical challenges, the absence of reagents and methodology optimized for nonavian wild hosts, and low concentration of virus recovered from asymptomatic animals. Despite these challenges, a growing body of evidence suggests that marine mammals are an important wild reservoir of influenza and may contribute to mammalian adaptation of avian variants.
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19
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Venkatesh D, Bianco C, Núñez A, Collins R, Thorpe D, Reid SM, Brookes SM, Essen S, McGinn N, Seekings J, Cooper J, Brown IH, Lewis NS. Detection of H3N8 influenza A virus with multiple mammalian-adaptive mutations in a rescued Grey seal ( Halichoerus grypus) pup. Virus Evol 2020; 6:veaa016. [PMID: 32211197 PMCID: PMC7079721 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veaa016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza A viruses (IAVs) in different species of seals display a spectrum of pathogenicity, from sub-clinical infection to mass mortality events. Here we present an investigation of avian IAV infection in a 3- to 4-month-old Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) pup, rescued from St Michael's Mount, Cornwall in 2017. The pup underwent medical treatment but died after two weeks; post-mortem examination and histology indicated sepsis as the cause of death. IAV NP antigen was detected by immunohistochemistry in the nasal mucosa, and sensitive real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays detected trace amounts of viral RNA within the lower respiratory tract, suggesting that the infection may have been cleared naturally. IAV prevalence among Grey seals may therefore be underestimated. Moreover, contact with humans during the rescue raised concerns about potential zoonotic risk. Nucleotide sequencing revealed the virus to be of subtype H3N8. Combining a GISAID database BLAST search and time-scaled phylogenetic analyses, we inferred that the seal virus originated from an unsampled, locally circulating (in Northern Europe) viruses, likely from wild Anseriformes. From examining the protein alignments, we found several residue changes in the seal virus that did not occur in the bird viruses, including D701N in the PB2 segment, a rare mutation, and a hallmark of mammalian adaptation of bird viruses. IAVs of H3N8 subtype have been noted for their particular ability to cross the species barrier and cause productive infections, including historical records suggesting that they may have caused the 1889 pandemic. Therefore, infections such as the one we report here may be of interest to pandemic surveillance and risk and help us better understand the determinants and drivers of mammalian adaptation in influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Venkatesh
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Scienes, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Carlo Bianco
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
- Diagnostic & Consultant Avian Pathology, Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Lasswade), Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Rachael Collins
- Starcross Veterinary Investigation Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Staplake Mount, Starcross, Devon, EX6 8PE, UK
| | - Darryl Thorpe
- British Divers Marine Life Rescue, Lime House, Regency Close, Uckfield, East Sussex TN22 1DS, UK
| | - Scott M Reid
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Steve Essen
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
- OIE/FAO/EURL International Reference Laboratory for avian influenza, swine influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Natalie McGinn
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
- OIE/FAO/EURL International Reference Laboratory for avian influenza, swine influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - James Seekings
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
- OIE/FAO/EURL International Reference Laboratory for avian influenza, swine influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Jayne Cooper
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ian H Brown
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK
- OIE/FAO/EURL International Reference Laboratory for avian influenza, swine influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Nicola S Lewis
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Scienes, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
- OIE/FAO/EURL International Reference Laboratory for avian influenza, swine influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) - Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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Hernandez K, Bogomolni A, Moxley J, Waring G, DiGiovanni R, Hammill M, Johnston D, Sette L, Polito M. Seasonal variability and individual consistency in gray seal (Halichoerus grypus) isotopic niches. CAN J ZOOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2019-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Although it is often assumed that individuals in generalist populations are equivalent, recent research indicates that individual dietary specialization can be common in marine predators. Gray seals (Halichoerus grypus (Fabricius, 1791)) were considered locally extinct in United States waters by 1958 but have since recolonized the region. Although considered generalists, less is known about gray seal foraging ecology in the United States. To address this, we used carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analyses to investigate the foraging niches of adult gray seals in Massachusetts, USA. We examined skin, fur, and blood components to investigate seasonal variability and individual consistency in foraging niches, and serially sampled vibrissae to quantify the degree of individual foraging specialization in this population. Our results suggest that seals shift from coastal foraging habitats before molt to offshore habitats after molt, with a coincident shift from higher to lower trophic-level prey. Adult gray seals also exhibited individual consistency in foraging niches independent of population-level shifts and reflect a generalist population composed of individual foraging specialists. These findings serve as a baseline for subsequent research on gray seals in United States waters that could help to determine the mechanisms which promote individual specialization in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- K.M. Hernandez
- Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - A.L. Bogomolni
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole Road, MS#50, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - J.H. Moxley
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - G.T. Waring
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - R.A. DiGiovanni
- Riverhead Foundation for Marine Research and Preservation, 467 East Main Street, Riverhead, NY 11901, USA
| | - M.O. Hammill
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Mont-Joli, QC G5H 3Z4, Canada
| | - D.W. Johnston
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - L. Sette
- Center for Coastal Studies, 5 Holway Avenue, Provincetown, MA 02657, USA
| | - M.J. Polito
- Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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21
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Wasik BR, de Wit E, Munster V, Lloyd-Smith JO, Martinez-Sobrido L, Parrish CR. Onward transmission of viruses: how do viruses emerge to cause epidemics after spillover? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20190017. [PMID: 31401954 PMCID: PMC6711314 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The critical step in the emergence of a new epidemic or pandemic viral pathogen occurs after it infects the initial spillover host and then is successfully transmitted onwards, causing an outbreak chain of transmission within that new host population. Crossing these choke points sets a pathogen on the pathway to epidemic emergence. While many viruses spill over to infect new or alternative hosts, only a few accomplish this transition—and the reasons for the success of those pathogens are still unclear. Here, we consider this issue related to the emergence of animal viruses, where factors involved likely include the ability to efficiently infect the new animal host, the demographic features of the initial population that favour onward transmission, the level of shedding and degree of susceptibility of individuals of that population, along with pathogen evolution favouring increased replication and more efficient transmission among the new host individuals. A related form of emergence involves mutations that increased spread or virulence of an already-known virus within its usual host. In all of these cases, emergence may be due to altered viral properties, changes in the size or structure of the host populations, ease of transport, climate change or, in the case of arboviruses, to the expansion of the arthropod vectors. Here, we focus on three examples of viruses that have gained efficient onward transmission after spillover: influenza A viruses that are respiratory transmitted, HIV, a retrovirus, that is mostly blood or mucosal transmitted, and canine parvovirus that is faecal:oral transmitted. We describe our current understanding of the changes in the viruses that allowed them to overcome the barriers that prevented efficient replication and spread in their new hosts. We also briefly outline how we could gain a better understanding of the mechanisms and variability in order to better anticipate these events in the future. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Dynamic and integrative approaches to understanding pathogen spillover’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Wasik
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Emmie de Wit
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
| | - Vincent Munster
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
| | - James O Lloyd-Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 9095-7239, USA.,Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Colin R Parrish
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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22
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van Beest FM, Mews S, Elkenkamp S, Schuhmann P, Tsolak D, Wobbe T, Bartolino V, Bastardie F, Dietz R, von Dorrien C, Galatius A, Karlsson O, McConnell B, Nabe-Nielsen J, Olsen MT, Teilmann J, Langrock R. Classifying grey seal behaviour in relation to environmental variability and commercial fishing activity - a multivariate hidden Markov model. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5642. [PMID: 30948786 PMCID: PMC6449369 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42109-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Classifying movement behaviour of marine predators in relation to anthropogenic activity and environmental conditions is important to guide marine conservation. We studied the relationship between grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) behaviour and environmental variability in the southwestern Baltic Sea where seal-fishery conflicts are increasing. We used multiple environmental covariates and proximity to active fishing nets within a multivariate hidden Markov model (HMM) to quantify changes in movement behaviour of grey seals while at sea. Dive depth, dive duration, surface duration, horizontal displacement, and turning angle were used to identify travelling, resting and foraging states. The likelihood of seals foraging increased in deeper, colder, more saline waters, which are sites with increased primary productivity and possibly prey densities. Proximity to active fishing net also had a pronounced effect on state occupancy. The probability of seals foraging was highest <5 km from active fishing nets (51%) and decreased as distance to nets increased. However, seals used sites <5 km from active fishing nets only 3% of their time at sea highlighting an important temporal dimension in seal-fishery interactions. By coupling high-resolution oceanographic, fisheries, and grey seal movement data, our study provides a scientific basis for designing management strategies that satisfy ecological and socioeconomic demands on marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floris M van Beest
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Sina Mews
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Svenja Elkenkamp
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Patrick Schuhmann
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Dorian Tsolak
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Till Wobbe
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Valerio Bartolino
- Department of Aquatic Resources, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lysekil, SE-45321, Sweden
| | - Francois Bastardie
- National Institute for Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Kgs. Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark
| | - Rune Dietz
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Christian von Dorrien
- Thünen Institute of Baltic Sea Fisheries, Alter Hafen Süd 2, D-18069, Rostock, Germany
| | - Anders Galatius
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Olle Karlsson
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, SE-104 05, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bernie McConnell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - Jacob Nabe-Nielsen
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Morten Tange Olsen
- Evolutionary Genomics Section, Natural History Museum of Denmark, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5-7, DK-1350, Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Roland Langrock
- Department of Business Administration and Economics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
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23
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Cummings CO, Hill NJ, Puryear WB, Rogers B, Mukherjee J, Leibler JH, Rosenbaum MH, Runstadler JA. Evidence of Influenza A in Wild Norway Rats ( Rattus norvegicus) in Boston, Massachusetts. Front Ecol Evol 2019; 7:36. [PMID: 34660611 PMCID: PMC8519512 DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is known to circulate among human and animal reservoirs, yet there are few studies that address the potential for urban rodents to carry and shed IAV. Rodents are often used as influenza models in the lab, but the few field studies that have looked for evidence of IAV in rodents have done so primarily in rural areas following outbreaks of IAV in poultry. This study sought to assess the prevalence of IAV recovered from wild Norway rats in a dense urban location (Boston). To do this, we sampled the oronasal cavity, paws, and lungs of Norway rats trapped by the City of Boston's Inspectional Services from December 2016 to September 2018. All samples were screened by real-time, reverse transcriptase PCR targeting the conserved IAV matrix segment. A total of 163 rats were trapped, 18 of which (11.04%) were RT-PCR positive for IAV in either oronasal swabs (9), paw swabs (9), both (2), or lung homogenates (2). A generalized linear model indicated that month and geographic location were correlated with IAV-positive PCR status of rats. A seasonal trend in IAV-PCR status was observed with the highest prevalence occurring in the winter months (December-January) followed by a decline over the course of the year, reaching its lowest prevalence in September. Sex and weight of rats were not significantly associated with IAV-PCR status, suggesting that rodent demography is not a primary driver of infection. This pilot study provides evidence of the need to further investigate the role that wild rats may play as reservoirs or mechanical vectors for IAV circulation in urban environments across seasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles O. Cummings
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Nichola J. Hill
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Wendy B. Puryear
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Benjamin Rogers
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Jean Mukherjee
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Jessica H. Leibler
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Marieke H. Rosenbaum
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Jonathan A. Runstadler
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
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24
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Goertz CEC, Reichmuth C, Thometz NM, Ziel H, Boveng P. Comparative Health Assessments of Alaskan Ice Seals. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:4. [PMID: 30792982 PMCID: PMC6375287 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bearded (Erignathus barbatus), ringed (Pusa hispida), spotted (Phoca largha), and ribbon (Histriophoca fasciata) seals rely on seasonal sea-ice in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Many aspects of the biology and physiology of these seals are poorly known, and species-typical health parameters are not available for all species. Such information has proven difficult to obtain due to the challenges of studying Arctic seals in the wild and their minimal historic representation in aquaria. Here, we combine diagnostic information gathered between 2000 and 2017 from free-ranging seals, seals in short-term rehabilitation, and seals living in long-term human care to evaluate and compare key health parameters. For individuals in apparent good health, hematology, and blood chemistry values are reported by the source group for 10 bearded, 13 ringed, 73 spotted, and 81 ribbon seals from Alaskan waters. For a smaller set of individuals handled during veterinary or necropsy procedures, the presence of parasites and pathogens is described, as well as exposure to a variety of infectious diseases known to affect marine mammals and/or humans, with positive titers observed for Brucella, Leptospira, avian influenza, herpesvirus PhHV-1, and morbillivirus. These data provide initial baseline parameters for hematology, serum chemistries, and other species-level indicators of health that can be used to assess the condition of individual seals, inform monitoring and management efforts, and guide directed research efforts for Alaskan populations of ice-associated seals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Colleen Reichmuth
- Alaska SeaLife Center, Seward, AK, United States.,Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States
| | - Nicole M Thometz
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States.,Department of Biology, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Heather Ziel
- Polar Ecosystems Program, Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Peter Boveng
- Polar Ecosystems Program, Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA, United States
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25
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Cammen KM, Rasher DB, Steneck RS. Predator recovery, shifting baselines, and the adaptive management challenges they create. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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26
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SURVEY OF ARCTIC ALASKAN WILDLIFE FOR INFLUENZA A ANTIBODIES: LIMITED EVIDENCE FOR EXPOSURE OF MAMMALS. J Wildl Dis 2018; 55:387-398. [PMID: 30289331 DOI: 10.7589/2018-05-128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are maintained in wild waterbirds and have the potential to infect a broad range of species, including wild mammals. The Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska supports a diverse suite of species, including waterfowl that are common hosts of IAVs. Mammals co-occur with geese and other migratory waterbirds during the summer breeding season, providing a plausible mechanism for interclass transmission of IAVs. To estimate IAV seroprevalence and identify the subtypes to which geese, loons, Arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus), caribou ( Rangifer tarandus), and polar bears ( Ursus maritimus) are potentially exposed, we used a blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) and a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay to screen for antibodies to IAVs in samples collected during spring and summer of 2012-16. Apparent IAV seroprevalence using the bELISA was 50.3% in geese (range by species: 46-52.8%), 9% in loons (range by species: 3-20%), and 0.4% in Arctic foxes. We found no evidence for exposure to IAVs in polar bears or caribou by either assay. Among geese, we estimated detection probability from replicate bELISA analyses to be 0.92 and also found good concordance (>85%) between results from bELISA and HI assays, which identified antibodies reactive to H1, H6, and H9 subtype IAVs. In contrast, the HI assay detected antibodies in only one of seven loon samples that were positive by bELISA; that sample had low titers to both H4 and H5 IAV subtypes. Our results provide evidence that a relatively high proportion of waterbirds breeding on the Arctic Coastal Plain are exposed to IAVs, although it is unknown whether such exposure occurs locally or on staging or wintering grounds. In contrast, seroprevalence of IAVs in concomitant Arctic mammals is apparently low.
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27
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Novel Flu Viruses in Bats and Cattle: "Pushing the Envelope" of Influenza Infection. Vet Sci 2018; 5:vetsci5030071. [PMID: 30082582 PMCID: PMC6165133 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5030071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza viruses are among the major infectious disease threats of animal and human health. This review examines the recent discovery of novel influenza viruses in bats and cattle, the evolving complexity of influenza virus host range including the ability to cross species barriers and geographic boundaries, and implications to animal and human health.
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28
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Surveillance for highly pathogenic influenza A viruses in California during 2014-2015 provides insights into viral evolutionary pathways and the spatiotemporal extent of viruses in the Pacific Americas Flyway. Emerg Microbes Infect 2017; 6:e80. [PMID: 28874792 PMCID: PMC5625317 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2017.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We used surveillance data collected in California before, concurrent with, and subsequent to an outbreak of highly pathogenic (HP) clade 2.3.4.4 influenza A viruses (IAVs) in 2014–2015 to (i) evaluate IAV prevalence in waterfowl, (ii) assess the evidence for spill-over infections in marine mammals and (iii) genetically characterize low-pathogenic (LP) and HP IAVs to refine inference on the spatiotemporal extent of HP genome constellations and to evaluate possible evolutionary pathways. We screened samples from 1496 waterfowl and 1142 marine mammals collected from April 2014 to August 2015 and detected IAV RNA in 159 samples collected from birds (n=157) and pinnipeds (n=2). HP IAV RNA was identified in three samples originating from American wigeon (Anas americana). Genetic sequence data were generated for a clade 2.3.4.4 HP IAV-positive diagnostic sample and 57 LP IAV isolates. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the HP IAV was a reassortant H5N8 virus with gene segments closely related to LP IAVs detected in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) sampled in California and other IAVs detected in wild birds sampled within the Pacific Americas Flyway. In addition, our analysis provided support for common ancestry between LP IAVs recovered from waterfowl sampled in California and gene segments of reassortant HP H5N1 IAVs detected in British Columbia, Canada and Washington, USA. Our investigation provides evidence that waterfowl are likely to have played a role in the evolution of reassortant HP IAVs in the Pacific Americas Flyway during 2014–2015, whereas we did not find support for spill-over infections in potential pinniped hosts.
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29
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Serologic Detection of Subtype-specific Antibodies to Influenza A Viruses in Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). J Wildl Dis 2017; 53:906-910. [PMID: 28513329 DOI: 10.7589/2017-01-011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
There are approximately 3,000 southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) in the nearshore environment along the California coast, US, and the species is classified as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act. We tested sera from 661 necropsied southern sea otters sampled from 1997 to 2015 to determine overall exposure to influenza A viruses (IAVs) and to identify subtype-specific antibody responses. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), antibodies to IAV nucleoproteins were detected in 160 (24.2%) otters, with seropositive animals found in every year except 2008. When the ELISA-positive samples were tested by virus microneutralization, antibody responses were detected to avian-origin hemagglutinin subtypes H1, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H9, and H11. Strong antibody responses to pandemic H1N1 (pdmH1N1) were also detected, indicating that epizootic transmission of pdmH1N1 occurred among the southern sea otter population after the emergence of this human-origin virus in 2009. We conclude that southern sea otters are susceptible to infection with avian and human-origin IAV and that exposure to a wide array of subtypes likely occurs during a given otter's 10- to 15-yr life span. Important unanswered questions include what effect, if any, IAV infection has on sea otter health, and how these animals become infected in their nearshore environment.
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30
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Avian and human influenza virus compatible sialic acid receptors in little brown bats. Sci Rep 2017; 7:660. [PMID: 28386114 PMCID: PMC5429623 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00793-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) continue to threaten animal and human health globally. Bats are asymptomatic reservoirs for many zoonotic viruses. Recent reports of two novel IAVs in fruit bats and serological evidence of avian influenza virus (AIV) H9 infection in frugivorous bats raise questions about the role of bats in IAV epidemiology. IAVs bind to sialic acid (SA) receptors on host cells, and it is widely believed that hosts expressing both SA α2,3-Gal and SA α2,6-Gal receptors could facilitate genetic reassortment of avian and human IAVs. We found abundant co-expression of both avian (SA α2,3-Gal) and human (SA α2,6-Gal) type SA receptors in little brown bats (LBBs) that were compatible with avian and human IAV binding. This first ever study of IAV receptors in a bat species suggest that LBBs, a widely-distributed bat species in North America, could potentially be co-infected with avian and human IAVs, facilitating the emergence of zoonotic strains.
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