NF-κB signaling regulates cell-autonomous regulation of CXCL10 in breast cancer 4T1 cells

Herpes simplex virus spreads rapidly in human foreskin, partly driven by chemokine-induced redistribution of Nectin-1 on keratinocytes

HSV infects keratinocytes in the epidermis of skin via nectin-1. We established a human foreskin explant infection model to investigate HSV entry and spread. HSV1 entry could only be achieved by the topical application of virus via high density microarray projections (HD-MAPs) to the epidermis, which penetrated beyond one third of its thickness, simulating in vivo microtrauma. Rapid lateral spread of HSV1 to a mean of 13 keratinocytes wide occurred after 24 hours and free virus particles were observed between keratinocytes, consistent with an intercellular route of spread. Nectin-1 staining was markedly decreased in foci of infection in the epidermis and in the human keratinocyte HaCaT cell line. Nectin-1 was redistributed, at the protein level, in adjacent uninfected cells surrounding infection, inducible by CCL3, IL-8 (or CXCL8), and possibly CXCL10 and IL-6, thus facilitating spread. These findings provide the first insights into HSV1 entry and spread in human inner foreskin in situ.

The role of CXCL10 as a biomarker for immunological response among patients with leprosy: a systematic literature review

Introduction

Involvement of a chemokine known as C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 or CXCL10 in the immunopathology of leprosy has emerged as a possible immunological marker for leprosy diagnosis and needed to be investigate further. The purpose of this systematic review is to assess CXCL10's potential utility as a leprosy diagnostic tool and evaluation of therapy.

Methods

This systematic review is based on Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020. A thorough search was carried out to find relevant studies only in English and limited in humans published up until September 2023 using PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library database with keywords based on medical subject headings (MeSH) and no exclusion criteria. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was utilized for quality assessment, while the Risk of Bias Assessment tool for Non-randomized Studies (RoBANS) was utilized for assessing the risk of bias. Additionally, a narrative synthesis was conducted to provide a comprehensive review of the results.

Results

We collected a total of 115 studies using defined keywords and 82 studies were eliminated after titles and abstracts were screened. We assessed the eligibility of the remaining 26 reports in full text and excluded four studies due to inappropriate study design and two studies with incomplete outcome data. There were twenty included studies in total with total of 2.525 samples. The included studies received NOS quality evaluation scores ranging from 6 to 8. The majority of items in the risk bias assessment, using RoBANS, across all included studies yielded low scores. However, certain items related to the selection of participants and confounding variables showed variations. Most of studies indicate that CXCL10 may be a helpful immunological marker for leprosy diagnosis, particularly in leprosy reactions as stated in seven studies. The results are better when paired with other immunological markers. Its effectiveness in field-friendly diagnostic tools makes it one of the potential biomarkers used in diagnosing leprosy patients. Additionally, CXCL10 may be utilized to assess the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) in leprosy patients as stated in three studies.

Conclusion

The results presented in this systematic review supports the importance of CXCL10 in leprosy diagnosis, particularly in leprosy responses and in tracking the efficacy of MDT therapy. Using CXCL10 in clinical settings might help with leprosy early diagnosis. Yet the findings are heterogenous, thus more investigation is required to determine the roles of CXCL10 in leprosy while taking into account for additional confounding variables.

A review of the pleiotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXC chemokine receptor 3 ligands in the synovial microenvironment

Chemokines are pivotal players in instigation and perpetuation of synovitis through leukocytes egress from the blood circulation into the inflamed articulation. Multitudinous literature addressing the involvement of the dual-function interferon (IFN)-inducible chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 in diseases characterized by chronic inflammatory arthritis emphasizes the need for detangling their etiopathological relevance. Through interaction with their mutual receptor CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3), the chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 exert their hallmark function of coordinating directional trafficking of CD4+ TH1 cells, CD8+ T cells, NK cells and NKT cells towards inflammatory niches. Among other (patho)physiological processes including infection, cancer, and angiostasis, IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands have been implicated in autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the abundant presence of IFN-induced CXCR3 ligands in bodily fluids of patients with inflammatory arthritis, the outcomes of their selective depletion in rodent models, and the attempts at developing candidate drugs targeting the CXCR3 chemokine system. We further propose that the involvement of the CXCR3 binding chemokines in synovitis and joint remodeling encompasses more than solely the directional ingress of CXCR3-expressing leukocytes. The pleotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands in the synovial niche reiteratively illustrate the extensive complexity of the CXCR3 chemokine network, which is based on the intercommunion of IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands with distinct CXCR3 isoforms, enzymes, cytokines, and infiltrated and resident cells present in the inflamed joints.

EGFR-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors Induced Activation of the Autocrine CXCL10/CXCR3 Pathway through Crosstalk between the Tumor and the Microenvironment in EGFR-Mutant Lung Cancer

CXCL10 is a cytokine that is elevated during EGFR-TKI treatment in the tumor microenvironment of lung cancer. Here, we report an original study that the impact of the CXCL10/CXCR3 pathway on EGFR-TKI resistance in EGFR-mutant lung cancer through a cytokine array analysis during in vitro coculture with tumor cells and activated PBMCs treated with EGFR-TKI, as well as the serial analysis of CXCL10 in EGFR-mutant lung cancer transgenic mice during EGFR-TKI treatment. In EGFR-mutant tumor cells cocultured with activated PBMCs, EGFR-TKI treatment increased CXCL10 in the supernatant; this activated CXCR3 in the tumor cells to induce the phosphorylation of Src and the NF-κB subunit, p65, and the expression of HIF-1α. CXCL10 siRNA treatment of EGFR-mutant tumor cells also decreased CXCL10 in the supernatant from coculturing with activated PBMCs, suggesting that the effects of CXCL10 occur via autocrine and paracrine pathways. Importantly, elevated CXCL10/CXCR3 signaling was recapitulated in a transgenic lung cancer mouse model. Our results show that increased CXCL10 levels during early EGFR-TKI treatment stimulate oncogenic signaling of persistent tumor cells to contribute to EGFR-TKI resistance via autocrine and paracrine pathways.

Chemokines network in bone metastasis: Vital regulators of seeding and soiling

Chemokines are well equipped with chemo-attractive signals that can regulate cancer cell trafficking to specific organ sites. Currently, updated concepts have revealed the diverse role of chemokines in the biology of cancer initiation and progression. Genomic instabilities and alterations drive tumor heterogeneity, providing more options for the selection and metastatic progression to cancer cells. Tumor heterogeneity and acquired drug resistance are the main obstacles in managing cancer therapy and the primary root cause of metastasis. Studies emphasize that multiple chemokine/receptor axis are involved in cancer cell-mediated organ-specific distant metastasis. One of the persuasive mechanisms for heterogeneity and subsequent events is sturdily interlinked with the crosstalk between chemokines and their receptors on cancer cells and tissue-specific microenvironment. Among different metastatic niches, skeletal metastasis is frequently observed in the late stages of prostate, breast, and lung cancer and significantly reduces the survival of cancer patients. Therefore, it is crucial to elucidate the role of chemokines and their receptors in metastasis and bone remodeling. Here, we review the potential chemokine/receptor axis in tumorigenesis, tumor heterogeneity, metastasis, and vicious cycle in bone microenvironment.

The Involvement of Insulin-Like Growth Factor 2 Messenger Ribonucleic Acid-Binding Protein 2 in the Regulation of the Expression of Breast Cancer-Related Genes

Aim

This study investigated the role and mechanism of insulin-like growth factor 2-IGF2BP2 in breast cancer.

Methods

IGF2BP2 is overexpressed in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. Thus, RNA sequencing was used to analyze the differentially expressed genes, Cell Counting Kit-8 was used to detect cell proliferation, and a Transwell assay was used to assess cell invasion. Following on from the RNA sequencing results, Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 2 (IFIT2), chemokine C-C motif ligand 20 (CCL20), chemokine C-C motif ligand 5 (CCL5), and chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 10 (CXCL10) regulated by IGF2BP2 were subjected to real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction verification.

Results

After IGF2BP2 overexpression, 67 genes were up-regulated, and 87 genes were down-regulated. The gene with the most significant up-regulation was homeobox protein 1 (PROX1), and the gene with the most significant down-regulation was Acidic β-crystallin 4 (CRYBA4). The most enriched gene ontology (GO) terms of up-regulated differentially expressed genes are protein binding and cell membrane and of down-regulated differentially expressed genes they are ion binding, cytoplasm, and response to virus. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis showed that the up-regulated differential genes were mainly enriched in protein processing, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the regulation of actin cytoskeleton, while down-regulated differential genes were mainly enriched in rheumatoid arthritis, chemokine signaling pathways, toll-like receptor signaling pathways, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathways, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, and Notch signaling pathways. IGF2BP2 overexpression significantly promoted the proliferation and invasion of breast cancer cells (P < 0.01). Compared with the control group, the IGF2BP2 overexpression group had significantly increased expressions of IFIT2, CCL20, and CXCL10 (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

IGF2BP2 may promote the invasion and proliferation of human breast cancer cells by up-regulating breast cancer-related genes, such as IFIT2, CCL20, and CXCL10.

A Novel lncRNA Mediates the Delayed Tooth Eruption of Cleidocranial Dysplasia

Delayed eruption of permanent teeth is a common symptom of cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD). Previous studies have focused on the anomaly of osteogenesis resulting from mutations in the Runt-related transcription factor-2 gene (RUNX2). However, deficiencies in osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption, and the epigenetic regulation mediated by long non-coding (lnc)RNAs in CCD remain to be elucidated. Here, a novel osteoclast-specific lncRNA (OC-lncRNA) was identified during the osteoclast differentiation of RAW 264.7 cells transfected with a RUNX2 mutation expression cassette. We further confirmed that OC-lncRNA positively regulated osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. The OC-lncRNA promoted the expression of CXC chemokine receptor type 3 (CXCR3) by competitively binding to microRNA (miR)-221-5p. The CXCR3–CXC-motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) interaction and nuclear factor-κB constituted a positive feedback that positively regulated osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. These results demonstrate that OC-lncRNA-mediated osteoclast dysfunction via the OC-lncRNA–miR-221-5p–CXCR3 axis, which is involved in the process of delayed tooth eruption of CCD.

Stromal Co-Cultivation for Modeling Breast Cancer Dormancy in the Bone Marrow

Cancers metastasize to the bone marrow before primary tumors can be detected. Bone marrow micrometastases are resistant to therapy, and while they are able to remain dormant for decades, they recur steadily and result in incurable metastatic disease. The bone marrow microenvironment maintains the dormancy and chemoresistance of micrometastases through interactions with multiple cell types and through structural and soluble factors. Modeling dormancy in vitro can identify the mechanisms of these interactions. Modeling also identifies mechanisms able to disrupt these interactions or define novel interactions that promote the reawakening of dormant cells. The in vitro modeling of the interactions of cancer cells with various bone marrow elements can generate hypotheses on the mechanisms that control dormancy, treatment resistance and reawakening in vivo. These hypotheses can guide in vivo murine experiments that have high probabilities of succeeding in order to verify in vitro findings while minimizing the use of animals in experiments. This review outlines the existing data on predominant stromal cell types and their use in 2D co-cultures with cancer cells.

Role of chemokines in breast cancer

Chemokines belong to a family of chemoattractant cytokines and are well known to have an essential role in various cancer aetiologies. Multiplesubsets of immune cells are recruited and enrolled into the tumor microenvironment through interactions between chemokines and their specific receptors. These populations and their interactions have a distinct impact on tumor growth, progression, and treatment outcomes. While it is clear that many chemokines and their cognate receptors can be detected in breast and other cancers, the role of each chemokine and receptor has yet to be determined. This review focuses on the main chemokines that play a crucial role in the tumor microenvironment, emphasizing breast cancer. We have also discussed the techniques used to identify the chemokines and their future implication in the early diagnosis of cancer. In-depth knowledge of chemokines and their role in breast cancer progression can provide specific targets for breast cancer biotherapy.

CHMP2A regulates tumor sensitivity to natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity

Natural killer (NK) cells are known to mediate killing of various cancer types, but tumor cells can develop resistance mechanisms to escape NK cell-mediated killing. Here, we use a "two cell type" whole genome CRISPR-Cas9 screening system to discover key regulators of tumor sensitivity and resistance to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity in human glioblastoma stem cells (GSC). We identify CHMP2A as a regulator of GSC resistance to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity and we confirm these findings in a head and neck squamous cells carcinoma (HNSCC) model. We show that deletion of CHMP2A activates NF-κB in tumor cells to mediate increased chemokine secretion that promotes NK cell migration towards tumor cells. In the HNSCC model we demonstrate that CHMP2A mediates tumor resistance to NK cells via secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that express MICA/B and TRAIL. These secreted ligands induce apoptosis of NK cells to inhibit their antitumor activity. To confirm these in vitro studies, we demonstrate that deletion of CHMP2A in CAL27 HNSCC cells leads to increased NK cell-mediated killing in a xenograft immunodeficient mouse model. These findings illustrate a mechanism of tumor immune escape through EVs secretion and identify inhibition of CHMP2A and related targets as opportunities to improve NK cell-mediated immunotherapy.

HMBOX1 attenuates LPS-induced periodontal ligament stem cell injury by inhibiting CXCL10 expression through the NF-κB signaling pathway

Homeobox containing 1 (HMBOX1) is a member of the homeobox transcription factor family that has been reported to serve an important role in numerous biological processes. The present study aimed to determine the role of HMBOX1 in the pathogenesis of periodontitis. Human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs) were treated with liposaccharide (LPS) and transfected with a HMBOX1 overexpression (Ov-HMBOX1) plasmid or small interfering (si)-C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) plasmids. The effects of Ov-HMBOX1 on cell proliferation, inflammation and apoptosis were subsequently investigated using Cell Counting Kit-8, ELISA for analysis of IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β levels, TUNEL and western blotting assays for analysis of Bcl-2, Bax, cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-3 levels, respectively. Furthermore, the potential effects of HMBOX1 on the mRNA and protein levels of CXCL10 and the NF-κB signaling pathway were investigated by using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. Finally, the physiological processes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hPDLSCs overexpressing HMBOX1 were assessed following treatment with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), a NF-κB agonist. The results revealed that Ov-HMBOX1 transfection promoted proliferation whilst alleviating inflammation and apoptosis in LPS-induced hPDLSCs. Ov-HMBOX1 reduced the expression of CXCL10 by suppressing the NF-κB signaling pathway. PMA treatment inhibited the proliferation of LPS-induced hPDLSCs transfected with Ov-HMBOX1, which was reversed by transfection with si-CXCL10. In conclusion, results of the present study provided evidence that HMBOX1 can attenuate LPS-induced hPDLSC injury by downregulating CXCL10 expression via the NF-κB signaling pathway, which may provide a novel insight into the development of potentially novel treatment strategies for periodontitis.

Rg1 exerts protective effect in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model via inhibiting CXCL10-mediated glial response

Myelin damage and abnormal remyelination processes lead to central nervous system dysfunction. Glial activation-induced microenvironment changes are characteristic features of the diseases with myelin abnormalities. We previously showed that ginsenoside Rg1, a main component of ginseng, ameliorated MPTP-mediated myelin damage in mice, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study we investigated the effects of Rg1 and mechanisms in cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination mouse model. Mice were treated with CPZ solution (300 mg· kg^-1· d^-1, ig) for 5 weeks; from week 2, the mice received Rg1 (5, 10, and 20 mg· kg^-1· d^-1, ig) for 4 weeks. We showed that Rg1 administration dose-dependently alleviated bradykinesia and improved CPZ-disrupted motor coordination ability in CPZ-treated mice. Furthermore, Rg1 administration significantly decreased demyelination and axonal injury in pathological assays. We further revealed that the neuroprotective effects of Rg1 were associated with inhibiting CXCL10-mediated modulation of glial response, which was mediated by NF-κB nuclear translocation and CXCL10 promoter activation. In microglial cell line BV-2, we demonstrated that the effects of Rg1 on pro-inflammatory and migratory phenotypes of microglia were related to CXCL10, while Rg1-induced phagocytosis of microglia was not directly related to CXCL10. In CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model, injection of AAV-CXCL10 shRNA into mouse lateral ventricles 3 weeks prior CPZ treatment occluded the beneficial effects of Rg1 administration in behavioral and pathological assays. In conclusion, CXCL10 mediates the protective role of Rg1 in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model. This study provides new insight into potential disease-modifying therapies for myelin abnormalities.

DACH1 inhibits breast cancer cell invasion and metastasis by down-regulating the transcription of matrix metalloproteinase 9

Human Dachshund homolog 1 (DACH1) is usually defined as a tumor suppressor, which plays an influential role in tumor growth and metastasis in a variety of cancer cells. However, the underlying mechanisms in these process are not yet fully clarified. In this study, DACH1 inhibited the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer cells by decreasing MMP9 expression. Mechanistically, DACH1 represses the transcriptional level of MMP9 by interacting with p65 and c-Jun at the NF-κB and AP-1 binding sites in MMP9 promoter respectively, and the association of DACH1 and p65 promote the recruitment of HDAC1 to the NF-κB binding site in MMP9 promoter, resulting in the reduction of the acetylation level and the transcriptional activity of p65. Accordingly, the level of MMP9 was decreased. In conclusion, we found a new mechanism that DACH1 could inhibit the metastasis of breast cancer cells by inhibiting the expression of MMP9.

Contribution of CXCR3-mediated signaling in the metastatic cascade of solid malignancies

Metastasis is a significant cause of the mortality resulting from solid malignancies. The process of metastasis is complex and is regulated by numerous cancer cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors. CXCR3 is a chemokine receptor that is frequently expressed by cancer cells, endothelial cells and immune cells. CXCR3A signaling in cancer cells tends to promote the invasive and migratory phenotype of cancer cells. Indirectly, CXCR3 modulates the anti-tumor immune response resulting in variable effects that can permit or inhibit metastatic progression. Finally, the activity of CXCR3B in endothelial cells is generally angiostatic, which limits the access of cancer cells to key conduits to secondary sites. However, the interaction of these activities within a tumor and the presence of opposing CXCR3 splice variants clouds the picture of the role of CXCR3 in metastasis. Consequently, thorough analysis of the contributions of CXCR3 to cancer metastasis is necessary. This review is an in-depth examination of the involvement of CXCR3 in the metastatic process of solid malignancies.

Chemokine signaling in cancer-stroma communications

Cancer is a multi-faceted disease in which spontaneous mutation(s) in a cell leads to the growth and development of a malignant new organ that if left undisturbed will grow in size and lead to eventual death of the organism. During this process, multiple cell types are continuously releasing signaling molecules into the microenvironment, which results in a tangled web of communication that both attracts new cell types into and reshapes the tumor microenvironment as a whole. One prominent class of molecules, chemokines, bind to specific receptors and trigger directional, chemotactic movement in the receiving cell. Chemokines and their receptors have been demonstrated to be expressed by almost all cell types in the tumor microenvironment, including epithelial, immune, mesenchymal, endothelial, and other stromal cells. This results in chemokines playing multifaceted roles in facilitating context-dependent intercellular communications. Recent research has started to shed light on these ligands and receptors in a cancer-specific context, including cell-type specificity and drug targetability. In this review, we summarize the latest research with regards to chemokines in facilitating communication between different cell types in the tumor microenvironment.

Bone Metastatic Breast Cancer: Advances in Cell Signaling and Autophagy Related Mechanisms

Bone metastasis is a frequent complication of breast cancer with nearly 70% of metastatic breast cancer patients developing bone metastasis during the course of their disease. The bone represents a dynamic microenvironment which provides a fertile soil for disseminated tumor cells, however, the mechanisms which regulate the interactions between a metastatic tumor and the bone microenvironment remain poorly understood. Recent studies indicate that during the metastatic process a bidirectional relationship between metastatic tumor cells and the bone microenvironment begins to develop. Metastatic cells display aberrant expression of genes typically reserved for skeletal development and alter the activity of resident cells within the bone microenvironment to promote tumor development, resulting in the severe bone loss. While transcriptional regulation of the metastatic process has been well established, recent findings from our and other research groups highlight the role of the autophagy and secretory pathways in interactions between resident and tumor cells during bone metastatic tumor growth. These reports show high levels of autophagy-related markers, regulatory factors of the autophagy pathway, and autophagy-mediated secretion of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP's), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP), as well as WNT5A in bone metastatic breast cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the recently elucidated mechanisms and their crosstalk with signaling pathways, and potential therapeutic targets for bone metastatic disease.

Systemic CXCL10 is a predictive biomarker of vitiligo lesional skin infiltration, PUVA, NB-UVB and corticosteroid treatment response and outcome

Vitiligo is an acquired pigmentary skin disorder that currently lacks standardized treatment and validated biomarkers to objectively evaluate disease state or therapeutic response. Although prior studies have linked vitiligo autoimmunity with CXCL10/CXCL9-mediated recruitment of leukocytes to the skin, only limited clinical data are available regarding CXCL10 as vitiligo biomarker. To evaluate the utility of systemic CXCL10 as a predictor of disease progression and treatment response on a large cohort of vitiligo patients. CXCL10 levels in lesional, perilesional, and unaffected skin of vitiligo patient (n = 30) and in the serum (n = 51) were measured by quantitative ELISA. CXCL10 expression, recruitment of leukocytes, and inflammatory infiltrates were evaluated by histochemical (n = 32) and immunofluorescence (n = 10) staining. Rigorous cross-sectional and longitudinal biostatistical analysis were employed to correlate CXCL10 levels with disease variables, treatment response, and outcome. We demonstrated that elevated CXCL10 level (2 pg/mm² and higher) in lesional skin correlates with increased leukocytic infiltrate, disease duration (< 2 year), and its higher level in the serum (50 pg/ml and higher). Changes in CXCL10 serum levels in patients treated with psoralen plus UVA (PUVA) phototherapy, narrowband UVB (NB-UVB) phototherapy, and systemic steroids (SS) correlated with changes in the intralesional CXCL10 levels in repigmented skin. NB-UVB and SS regimens provided most consistent CXCL10 mean change, suggesting that these regimens are most effective in harnessing CXCR3-mediated inflammatory response. Serum CXCL10 is a useful vitiligo biomarker, which predicts lesional skin leukocytic infiltration, and vitiligo treatment response and outcome.

The calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) promotes Rab27B expression and activity to control secretion in breast cancer cells

Chemotactic and angiogenic factors secreted within the tumor microenvironment eventually facilitate the metastatic dissemination of cancer cells. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) activates secretory pathways in breast cancer cells via a mechanism driven by vesicular trafficking of this receptor. However, it remains to be elucidated how endosomal proteins in secretory vesicles are controlled by CaSR. In the present study, we demonstrate that CaSR promotes expression of Rab27B and activates this secretory small GTPase via PI3K, PKA, mTOR and MADD, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, also known as DENN/Rab3GEP. Active Rab27B leads secretion of various cytokines and chemokines, including IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8, IP-10 and RANTES. Expression of Rab27B is stimulated by CaSR in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast epithelial cancer cells, but not in non-cancerous MCF-10A cells. This regulatory mechanism also occurs in HeLa and PC3 cells. Our findings provide insightful information regarding how CaSR activates a Rab27B-dependent mechanism to control secretion of factors known to intervene in paracrine communication circuits within the tumor microenvironment.

Unveiling functional heterogeneity in breast cancer multicellular tumor spheroids through single-cell RNA-seq

Heterogeneity is an intrinsic characteristic of cancer. Even in isogenic tumors, cell populations exhibit differential cellular programs that overall supply malignancy and decrease treatment efficiency. In this study, we investigated the functional relationship among cell subtypes and how this interdependency can promote tumor development in a cancer cell line. To do so, we performed single-cell RNA-seq of MCF7 Multicellular Tumor Spheroids as a tumor model. Analysis of single-cell transcriptomes at two-time points of the spheroid growth, allowed us to dissect their functional relationship. As a result, three major robust cellular clusters, with a non-redundant complementary composition, were found. Meanwhile, one cluster promotes proliferation, others mainly activate mechanisms to invade other tissues and serve as a reservoir population conserved over time. Our results provide evidence to see cancer as a systemic unit that has cell populations with task stratification with the ultimate goal of preserving the hallmarks in tumors.

Chemokines in bone-metastatic breast cancer: Therapeutic opportunities

Due to non-response to chemotherapy, incomplete surgical resection, and resistance to checkpoint inhibitors, breast cancer with bone metastasis is notoriously difficult to cure. Therefore, the development of novel, efficient strategies to tackle bone metastasis of breast cancer is urgently needed. Chemokines, which induce directed migration of immune cells and act as guide molecules between diverse cells and tissues, are small proteins indispensable in immunity. These complex chemokine networks play pro-tumor roles or anti-tumor roles when produced by breast cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, chemokines have diverse roles when secreted by various immune cells in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer, which can be roughly divided into immunosuppressive effects and immunostimulatory effects. Recently, targeting chemokine networks has been shown to have potential for use in treatment of metastatic malignancies, including bone-metastatic breast cancer. In this review, we focus on the role of chemokines networks in the biology of breast cancer and metastasis to the bone. We also discuss the therapeutic opportunities and future prospects of targeting chemokine networks, in combination with other current standard therapies, for the treatment of bone-metastatic breast cancer.

Investigating the Causal Effect of Brain Expression of CCL2, NFKB1, MAPK14, TNFRSF1A, CXCL10 Genes on Multiple Sclerosis: A Two-Sample Mendelian Randomization Approach

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) exhibits considerable heterogeneity in phenotypic expression, course, prognosis and response to therapy. This suggests this disease involves multiple, as yet poorly understood, causal mechanisms. In this work we assessed the possible causal link between gene expression level of five selected genes related to the pro-inflammatory NF-κB signaling pathway (i.e., CCL2, NFKB1, MAPK14, TNFRSF1A, CXCL10) in ten different brain tissues (i.e., cerebellum, frontal cortex, hippocampus, medulla, occipital cortex, putamen, substantia nigra, thalamus, temporal cortex and intralobular white matter) and MS. We adopted a two-stage Mendelian Randomization (MR) approach for the estimation of the causal effects of interest, based on summary-level data from 20 multiplex Sardinian families and data provided by the United Kingdom Brain Expression Consortium (UKBEC). Through Radial-MR and Cochrane's Q statistics we identified and removed genetic variants which are most likely to be invalid instruments. To estimate the total causal effect, univariable MR was carried out separately for each gene and brain region. We used Inverse-Variance Weighted estimator (IVW) as main analysis and MR-Egger Regression estimator (MR-ER) and Weighted Median Estimator (WME) as sensitivity analysis. As these genes belong to the same pathway and thus they can be closely related, we also estimated their direct causal effects by applying IVW and MR-ER within a multivariable MR (MVMR) approach using set of genetic instruments specific and common (composite) to each multiple exposures represented by the expression of the candidate genes. Univariate MR analysis showed a significant positive total causal effect for CCL2 and NFKB1 respectively in medulla and cerebellum. MVMR showed a direct positive causal effect for NFKB1 and TNFRSF1A, and a direct negative causal effect for CCL2 in cerebellum; while in medulla we observed a direct positive causal effect for CCL2. Since in general we observed a different magnitude for the gene specific causal effect we hypothesize that in cerebellum and medulla the effect of each gene expression is direct but also mediated by the others. These results confirm the importance of the involvement of NF-κB signaling pathway in brain tissue for the development of the disease and improve our understanding in the pathogenesis of MS.

Chemokines and chemokine receptors: A new strategy for breast cancer therapy

Chemokines and chemokine receptors not only participate in the development of tissue differentiation, hematopoiesis, inflammation, and immune regulation but also play an important role in the process of tumor development. The role of chemokines and chemokine receptors in tumors has been emphasized in recent years. More and more studies have shown that chemokines and chemokine receptors are closely related to the occurrence, angiogenesis, metastasis, drug resistance, and immunity of breast cancer. Here, we review recent progression on the roles of chemokines and chemokine receptors in breast cancer, and discuss the possible mechanism in breast cancer that might facilitate the development of new therapies by targeting chemokines as well as chemokine receptors. Chemokines and chemokine receptors play an important role in the occurrence and development of breast cancer. In-depth study of chemokines and chemokine receptors can provide intervention targets for breast cancer biotherapy. The regulation of chemokines and chemokine receptors may become a new strategy for breast cancer therapy.

NF-κB c-Rel Dictates the Inflammatory Threshold by Acting as a Transcriptional Repressor

NF-κB/Rel family of transcription factors plays a central role in initiation and resolution of inflammatory responses. Here, we identified a function of the NF-κB subunit c-Rel as a transcriptional repressor of inflammatory genes. Genetic deletion of c-Rel substantially potentiates the expression of several TNF-α-induced RelA-dependent mediators of inflammation. v-Rel, the viral homologue of c-Rel, but not RelB, also possesses this repressive function. Mechanistically, we found that c-Rel selectively binds to the co-repressor HDAC1 and competitively binds to the DNA mediating HDAC1 recruitment to the promoters of inflammatory genes. A specific point mutation at tyrosine25 in c-Rel's DNA-binding domain, for which a missense single nucleotide variation (Y25H) exists in humans, completely abrogated its ability to bind DNA and repress TNF-α-induced, RelA-mediated transcription. Our findings reveal that the transactivator NF-κB subunit c-Rel also plays a role as a transcriptional repressor in the maintenance of inflammatory homeostasis.

Intratumoral delivery of CCL25 enhances immunotherapy against triple-negative breast cancer by recruiting CCR9+ T cells

CCR9⁺ T cells have an increased potential to be activated and therefore may mediate strong antitumor responses. Here, we found, however, that CCL25, the only chemokine for CCR9⁺ cells, is not expressed in human or murine triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs), raising a hypothesis that intratumoral delivery of CCL25 may enhance antitumor immunotherapy in TNBCs. We first determined whether this approach can enhance CD47-targeted immunotherapy using a tumor acidity-responsive nanoparticle delivery system (NP-siCD47/CCL25) to sequentially release CCL25 protein and CD47 small interfering RNA in tumor. NP-siCD47/CCL25 significantly increased infiltration of CCR9⁺CD8⁺ T cells and down-regulated CD47 expression in tumor, resulting in inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis through a T cell-dependent immunity. Furthermore, the antitumor effect of NP-siCD47/CCL25 was synergistically enhanced when used in combination with programmed cell death protein-1/programmed death ligand-1 blockades. This study offers a strategy to enhance immunotherapy by promoting CCR9⁺CD8⁺ T cell tumor infiltration.

The Proteomic Effects of Pulsed Focused Ultrasound on Tumor Microenvironments of Murine Melanoma and Breast Cancer Models

Non-ablative pulsed focused ultrasound (pFUS) targets non-thermal forces that activate local molecular and cellular immune responses. Optimal parameters to stimulate immunotherapeutic tumor microenvironments (TME) and responses in different tumor types remain uninvestigated. Flank B16 murine melanoma and 4T1 breast tumors received 1 MHz pFUS at 1-8 MPa peak negative pressures (PNP) and were analyzed 24 hr post-sonication. Necrosis or hemorrhage were unaltered in both tumors, but pFUS induced DNA strand breaks in tumor cells at PNP ≥6 MPa. pFUS at >4 MPa suppressed anti-inflammatory cytokines in B16 tumors. pFUS to 4T1 tumors decreased anti-inflammatory cytokines and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and cell adhesion molecules. pFUS at 6 MPa increased calreticulin and alterations in check-point proteins along with tumoral and splenic immune cell changes that could be consistent with a shift towards an anti-TME. pFUS-induced TME alterations shows promise in generating anti-tumor immune responses, but non-uniform responses between tumor types require additional investigation to assess pFUS as a suitable anti-tumor therapy.

The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer

In 2014, the International Agency for Research on Cancer judged Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) to be a probable human carcinogen. BK polyomavirus (BKPyV, a distant cousin of MCPyV) was ruled a possible carcinogen. In this review, we argue that it has recently become reasonable to view both of these viruses as known human carcinogens. In particular, several complementary lines of evidence support a causal role for BKPyV in the development of bladder carcinomas affecting organ transplant patients. The expansion of inexpensive deep sequencing has opened new approaches to investigating the important question of whether BKPyV causes urinary tract cancers in the general population.

The Effects of Adipocytes on the Regulation of Breast Cancer in the Tumor Microenvironment: An Update

Obesity is a global pandemic and it is well evident that obesity is associated with the development of many disorders including many cancer types. Breast cancer is one of that associated with a high mortality rate. Adipocytes, a major cellular component in adipose tissue, are dysfunctional during obesity and also known to promote breast cancer development both in vitro and in vivo. Dysfunctional adipocytes can release metabolic substrates, adipokines, and cytokines, which promote proliferation, progression, invasion, and migration of breast cancer cells. The secretion of adipocytes can alter gene expression profile, induce inflammation and hypoxia, as well as inhibit apoptosis. It is known that excessive free fatty acids, cholesterol, triglycerides, hormones, leptin, interleukins, and chemokines upregulate breast cancer development. Interestingly, adiponectin is the only adipokine that has anti-tumor properties. Moreover, adipocytes are also related to chemotherapeutic resistance, resulting in the poorer outcome of treatment and advanced stages in breast cancer. Evaluation of the adipocyte secretion levels in the circulation can be useful for prognosis and evaluation of the effectiveness of cancer therapy in the patients. Therefore, understanding about functions of adipocytes as well as obesity in breast cancer may reveal novel targets that support the development of new anti-tumor therapy. In this systemic review, we summarize and update the effects of secreted factors by adipocytes on the regulation of breast cancer in the tumor microenvironment.

Pulmonary fibroblasts-secreted CXCL10 polarizes alveolar macrophages under pro-inflammatory stimuli

BACKGROUND

During acute lung injury, lung fibroblasts produce chemokines that assist the activation and migration of resident macrophages. The interactions between pulmonary fibroblasts and alveolar macrophages demonstrate the early event in the recruitment of immune cells, and the production of chemokines appear to be central mediators of the initiation and progression of inflammatory responses. In this study, the aim was to investigate the signaling pathway leading to CXCL10 secretion and the effects of CXCL10 released by activated fibroblasts on regulating macrophage polarization in a pro-inflammatory microenvironment.

METHODS

The expression of chemokines CCL2, CCL5, CXCL10, and CXCL12, and the phosphorylation of signaling molecules STAT3, FAK, GSK3αβ and PKCδ were investigated by real time-PCR, ELISA, or Western blot on TNFα- or IL-1β-activated MRC-5 pulmonary fibroblasts. By collecting conditioned medium from TNFα-activated fibroblasts, the expression of iNOS and arginase I on MH-S alveolar macrophages were examined by real-time PCR. Surface markers CD86 and CD206 expressions on alveolar macrophages were also evaluated by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

We found that CXCL10 production was significantly elevated on MRC-5 fibroblasts under TNFα- or IL-1β treatment. In addition, we revealed that TNFα and IL-1β initiated phosphorylation of STAT3, FAK, GSK3αβ and PKCδ signaling cascade, leading to the elevation of CXCL10 expression. Moreover, conditioned medium collected from TNFα-activated MRC-5 fibroblasts increased iNOS and CD86 expressions and decreased arginase I and CD206 expressions on MH-S alveolar macrophages, and neutralization of CXCL10 abolished these observed phenomena.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that CXCL10 is crucial in activated fibroblasts-promoted M1 phenotype polarization of alveolar macrophages. In this regard, targeting fibroblasts-released CXCL10 may be promising as anti-inflammatory therapy against acute lung injury.

Identification of Potential Candidate Genes of Oral Cancer in Response to Chronic Infection With Porphyromonas gingivalis Using Bioinformatical Analyses

Recent investigations revealed the relationship between chronic periodontitis, Porphyromonas gingivalis and cancer. However, host genes that change in response to chronic infection with P. gingivalis and may contribute to oral cancer have remained largely unknown. In the present study, we aimed to comprehensively analyze microarray data obtained from the chronic infection model of immortalized oral epithelial cells that were persistently exposed to P. gingivalis for 15 weeks. Using protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), we identified hub genes, major biological processes, upstream regulators and genes potentially involved in tumor initiation and progression. We also validated gene expression and demonstrated genetic alteration of hub genes from clinical samples of head and neck cancer. Overall, we utilized bioinformatical methods to identify IL6, STAT1, LYN, BDNF, C3, CD274, PDCD1LG2, and CXCL10 as potential candidate genes that might facilitate the prevention and treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), the most common type of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).

Methylene-Blue-Encapsulated Liposomes as Photodynamic Therapy Nano Agents for Breast Cancer Cells

Methylene blue (MB) is a widely used dye and photodynamic therapy (PDT) agent that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) after light exposure, triggering apoptosis. However, it is hard for the dye to penetrate through the cell membrane, leading to poor cellular uptake; thus, drug carriers, which could enhance the cellular uptake, are a suitable solution. In addition, the defective vessels resulting from fast vessel outgrowth leads to an enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, which gives nanoscale drug carriers a promising potential. In this study, we applied poly(12-(methacryloyloxy)dodecyl phosphorylcholine), a zwitterionic polymer-lipid, to self-assemble into liposomes and encapsulate MB (MB-liposome). Its properties of high stability and fast intracellular uptake were confirmed, and the higher in vitro ROS generation ability of MB-liposomes than that of free MB was also verified. For in vivo tests, we examined the toxicity in mice via tail vein injection. With the features found, MB-liposome has the potential of being an effective PDT nano agent for cancer therapy.

Methamphetamine and its immune-modulating effects

The recreational use of methamphetamine (METH, or ice) is a global burden. It pervades and plagues contemporary society; it has been estimated that there are up to 35 million users worldwide. METH is a highly addictive psychotropic compound which acts on the central nervous system, and chronic use can induce psychotic behavior. METH has the capacity to modulate immune cells, giving the drug long-term effects which may manifest as neuropsychiatric disorders, and that increase susceptibility to communicable diseases, such as HIV. In addition, changes to the cytokine balance have been associated with compromise of the blood-brain barrier, resulting to alterations to brain plasticity, creating lasting neurotoxicity. Immune-related signaling pathways are key to further evaluating how METH impacts host immunity through these neurological and peripheral modifications. Combining this knowledge with current data on inflammatory responses will improve understanding of how the adaptive and innate immunity responds to METH, how this can activate premature-ageing processes and how METH exacerbates disturbances that lead to non-communicable age-related diseases, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, depression and dementia.

Functions of the CXC ligand family in the pancreatic tumor microenvironment

Therapeutic resistance is the major contributor to the poor prognosis of and low survival from pancreatic cancer (PC). Cancer progression is a complex process reliant on interactions between the tumor and the tumor microenvironment (TME). Members of the CXCL family of chemokines are present in the pancreatic TME and seem to play a vital role in regulating PC progression. As pancreatic tumors interact with the TME and with PC stem cells (CSCs), determining the roles of specific members of the CXCL family is vital to the development of improved therapies. This review highlights the roles of selected CXCLs in the interactions between pancreatic tumor and its stroma, and in CSC phenotypes, which can be used to identify potential treatment targets.

Data on the expression of CXCR3 ligands and pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages and CD4+ T cells after stimuli of CXCR3 ligands

C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) is a G protein-coupled receptor for three ligands which are C-X-C motif chemokine 9 (CXCL9), CXCL10, and CXCL11 [1]. Previously we have reported that CXCL10 promotes pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, and forms positive feedback loop [2], [3]. In the present study, we described mRNA expression of CXCL9 and CXCL11 under CXCL10 stimuli in the presence or absence of CXCR3 antagonist, JN-2 in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) and CD4⁺ T cells. In addition, we examined pro-inflammatory cytokine expression under CXCL9 or CXCL11 stimuli in BMMs and CD4⁺ T cells.

α-catenin SUMOylation increases IκBα stability and inhibits breast cancer progression

α-catenin has been demonstrated to suppress several different types of cancers. Here we demonstrate that α-catenin is modified by SUMO protein, which covalently binds α-catenin at the carboxy terminus at lysine 870. Substitution of lysine 870 with arginine completely abolishes α-catenin SUMOylation. This modification can be removed by SENP1. However, α-catenin SUMOylation does not affect its stability and subcellular localization. In addition, we observed that the SUMOylation-deficient α-catenin mutant has a reduced interaction with IκBα which prevents subsequent ubiquitination of IκBα, and therefore a reduced suppression of expression of the NF-κB target genes TNF-α, IL-8, VEGF, and uPA. In addition, the α-catenin SUMOylation mutant shows impaired suppression of tumor growth. These results demonstrate that SUMOylation at lysine 870 of α-catenin plays a key role in the suppression of the NF-κB pathway, which inhibits breast cancer tumor growth and migration.

α-Tocopheryl Succinate Inhibits Osteolytic Bone Metastasis of Breast Cancer by Suppressing Migration of Cancer Cells and Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-κB Ligand Expression of Osteoblasts

Background

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers affecting women and has a high incidence of bone metastasis, causing osteolytic lesions. The elevated expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) in cancer activates osteoclasts, leading to bone destruction. We previously reported that α-tocopheryl succinate (αTP-suc) inhibited interleukin-1-induced RANKL expression in osteoblasts. Here, we examined the effect of αTP-suc on osteolytic bone metastasis in breast cancer.

Methods

To examine the effect of αTP-suc on the metastatic capacity of breast cancer, MDA-MB-231-FL cells were injected into the left cardiac ventricle of BALB/c nude mice along with intraperitoneal injection of αTP-suc. The mice were then analyzed by bioluminescence imaging. To investigate the effect of αTP-suc on osteolysis, 4T1 cells were directly injected into the femur of BALB/c mice along with intraperitoneal injection of αTP-suc. Microcomputed tomography analysis and histomorphometric analysis of the femora were performed.

Results

αTP-suc inhibited cell migration and cell growth of 4T1 cells. In line with these results, bone metastasis of MDA-MB-231-FL cells was reduced in mice injected with αTP-suc. In addition, αTP-suc decreased osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting 4T1-induced RANKL expression in osteoblasts. Consistent with these results, 4T1-induced bone destruction was ameliorated by αTP-suc, with in vivo analysis showing reduced tumor burden and osteoclast numbers.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that αTP-suc may be efficiently utilized to prevent and treat osteolytic bone metastasis of breast cancer with dual effects.

Pathogenic roles of CXCL10 signaling through CXCR3 and TLR4 in macrophages and T cells: relevance for arthritis

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by uncontrolled joint inflammation and destruction of bone and cartilage. We previously reported that C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10; also called IP-10) has important roles in joint inflammation and bone destruction in arthritis. However, the specific mechanisms by which CXCL10 regulates the recruitment of inflammatory cells and the production of osteoclastogenic cytokines in RA progression are not fully understood.

METHODS

Bone marrow-derived macrophages and CD4⁺ T cells were isolated from wild-type (WT), Cxcl10 ^-/-, and Cxcr3 ^-/- mice. CXCL10-induced migration was performed using a Boyden chamber, and CXCL10-stimulated production of osteoclastogenic cytokines was measured by quantitative real-time PCR and ELISA. Collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) was induced by administration of collagen type II antibodies and lipopolysaccharide to the mice. Clinical scores were analyzed and hind paws were collected for high-resolution micro-CT, and histomorphometry. Serum was used to assess bone turnover and levels of osteoclastogenic cytokines.

RESULTS

CXCL10 increased the migration of inflammatory cells through C-X-C chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3)-mediated, but not toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated, ERK activation. Interestingly, both receptors CXCR3 and TLR4 were simultaneously required for CXCL10-stimulated production of osteoclastogenic cytokines in CD4⁺ T cells. Furthermore, calcineurin-dependent NFATc1 activation was essential for CXCL10-induced RANKL expression. In vivo, F4/80⁺ macrophages and CD4⁺ T cells robustly infiltrated into synovium of WT mice with CAIA but were significantly reduced in both Cxcl10 ^-/- and Cxcr3 ^-/- mice. Serum concentrations of osteoclastogenic cytokines and bone destruction were also reduced in the knockout mice, leading to attenuated progression of arthritis.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the importance of CXCL10 signaling in the pathogenesis of RA and provide previously unidentified details of the mechanisms by which CXCL10 promotes the development of arthritis.