Lung epithelial cells are essential effectors of inducible resistance to pneumonia

Extra-pulmonary control of respiratory defense

Pneumonia persists as a public health crisis, representing the leading cause of death due to infection. Whether respiratory tract infections progress to pneumonia and its sequelae such as acute respiratory distress syndrome and sepsis depends on numerous underlying conditions related to both the causative agent and host. Regarding the former, pneumonia burden remains staggeringly high, despite the effectiveness of pathogen-targeting strategies such as vaccines and antibiotics. This demands a greater understanding of host features that collaborate to promote immune resistance and tissue resilience in the infected lung. Such features inside the pulmonary compartment have drawn much attention, where major advances have been made related to resident and recruited immune activity. By comparison, extra-pulmonary processes guiding pneumonia susceptibility are relatively elusive, constituting the focus of this review. Here we will highlight examples of when, how, and why tissues outside of the lungs dispatch signals that modulate local immunity in the airspaces. Topics include the liver, gut, bone marrow, brain and more, all of which contribute in direct and indirect ways to pneumonia outcome. When tuned appropriately, it has become clear that these responses can serve protective roles, and this will be considered distinctly from what would otherwise be aberrant responses characteristic of pneumonia-induced organ injury and sepsis. Further advances in this area may reveal novel targetable areas for clinical intervention that are not confined to the intra-pulmonary space.

The aging lung: microenvironment, mechanisms, and diseases

With the development of global social economy and the deepening of the aging population, diseases related to aging have received increasing attention. The pathogenesis of many respiratory diseases remains unclear, and lung aging is an independent risk factor for respiratory diseases. The aging mechanism of the lung may be involved in the occurrence and development of respiratory diseases. Aging-induced immune, oxidative stress, inflammation, and telomere changes can directly induce and promote the occurrence and development of lung aging. Meanwhile, the occurrence of lung aging also further aggravates the immune stress and inflammatory response of respiratory diseases; the two mutually affect each other and promote the development of respiratory diseases. Explaining the mechanism and treatment direction of these respiratory diseases from the perspective of lung aging will be a new idea and research field. This review summarizes the changes in pulmonary microenvironment, metabolic mechanisms, and the progression of respiratory diseases associated with aging.

Damage sensing through TLR9 Promotes Viral Clearance and Recovery During Influenza Infection

Host response aimed at eliminating the infecting pathogen, as well as the pathogen itself, can cause tissue injury. Tissue injury leads to the release of a myriad of cellular components including mitochondrial DNA, which the host senses through pattern recognition receptors. How the sensing of tissue injury by the host shapes the anti-pathogen response remains poorly understood. In this study, we utilized mice that are deficient in toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9), which binds to unmethylated CpG DNA sequences such as those present in bacterial and mitochondrial DNA. To avoid direct pathogen sensing by TLR9, we utilized the influenza virus, which lacks ligands for TLR9, to determine how damage sensing by TLR9 contributes to anti-influenza immunity. Our data show that TLR9-mediated sensing of tissue damage promotes an inflammatory response during early infection, driven by the myeloid cells and associated cytokine responses. Along with the diminished inflammatory response, the absence of damage sensing through TLR9 led to impaired viral clearance manifested as a higher and prolonged influenza burden in the lung. The absence of TLR9 led to extensive infection of myeloid cells including monocytes and macrophages rendering them highly inflammatory, despite having a low initial inflammatory response. The persistent inflammation driven by infected myeloid cells led to persistent lung injury and impaired recovery in influenza-infected TLR9-/- mice. Further, we show elevated circulating TLR9 ligands in the plasma samples of patients with influenza, demonstrating its clinical relevance. Overall, over data show an essential role of damage sensing through TLR9 in promoting anti-influenza immunity.

Effect of epithelial-specific MyD88 signaling pathway on airway inflammatory response to organic dust exposure

The Toll-like receptor (TLR) adaptor protein MyD88 is integral to airway inflammatory response to microbial-enriched organic dust extract (ODE) exposures. ODE-induced airway neutrophil influx and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines was essentially abrogated in global MyD88-deficient mice, yet these mice demonstrate an increase in airway epithelial cell mucin expression. To further elucidate the role of MyD88-dependent responses specific to lung airway epithelial cells in response to ODE in vivo, the surfactant protein C protein (SPC) Cre+ embryologic expressing airway epithelial cells floxed for MyD88 to disrupt MyD88 signaling were utilized. The inducible club cell secretory protein (CCSP) Cre+, MyD88 floxed, were also developed. Using an established protocol, mice were intranasally instilled with ODE or saline once or daily up to 3 weeks. Mice with MyD88-deficient SPC+ lung epithelial cells exhibited decreased neutrophil influx following ODE exposure once and repetitively for 1 week without modulation of classic pro-inflammatory mediators including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and neutrophil chemoattractants. This protective response was lost after 3 weeks of repetitive exposure. ODE-induced Muc5ac mucin expression at 1 week was also reduced in MyD88-deficient SPC+ cells. Acute ODE-induced IL-33 was reduced in MyD88-deficient SPC+ cells whereas serum IgE levels were increased at one week. In contrast, mice with inducible MyD88-deficient CCSP+ airway epithelial cells demonstrated no significant difference in experimental indices following ODE exposure. Collectively, these findings suggest that MyD88-dependent signaling targeted to all airway epithelial cells plays an important role in mediating neutrophil influx and mucin production in response to acute organic dust exposures.

Antimicrobial mitochondrial reactive oxygen species induction by lung epithelial immunometabolic modulation

Pneumonia is a worldwide threat, making discovery of novel means to combat lower respiratory tract infection an urgent need. Manipulating the lungs' intrinsic host defenses by therapeutic delivery of certain pathogen-associated molecular patterns protects mice against pneumonia in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent manner. Here we show that antimicrobial ROS are induced from lung epithelial cells by interactions of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) with mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1). The ODN-VDAC1 interaction alters cellular ATP/ADP/AMP localization, increases delivery of electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC), increases mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), differentially modulates ETC complex activities and consequently results in leak of electrons from ETC complex III and superoxide formation. The ODN-induced mitochondrial ROS yield protective antibacterial effects. Together, these studies identify a therapeutic metabolic manipulation strategy to broadly protect against pneumonia without reliance on antibiotics.

Redox-Dependent Activation of Lung Epithelial STAT3 Is Required for Inducible Protection against Bacterial Pneumonia

The lung epithelium is dynamic, capable of considerable structural and functional plasticity in response to pathogen challenges. Our laboratory has demonstrated that an inhaled combination of a Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/6 agonist and a TLR9 agonist (Pam2ODN) results in robust protection against otherwise lethal pneumonias. We have previously shown that intact epithelial TLR signaling and generation of multisource epithelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) are required for inducible protection. Further investigating the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon of inducible resistance, reverse-phase protein array analysis demonstrated robust STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) phosphorylation following treatment of lung epithelial cells. We show here that Pam2ODN-induced STAT3 phosphorylation is IL-6-independent. We further found that therapeutic epithelial STAT3 activation is required for inducible protection against Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Additional studies showed that inhibiting epithelial dual oxidases or scavenging ROS significantly reduced the Pam2ODN induction of STAT3 phosphorylation, suggesting a proximal role for ROS in inducible STAT3 activation. Dissecting these mechanisms, we analyzed the contributions of redox-sensitive kinases and found that Pam2ODN activated epithelial growth factor receptor in an ROS-dependent manner that is required for therapeutically inducible STAT3 activation. Taken together, we demonstrate that epithelial STAT3 is imperative for Pam2ODN's function and describe a novel redox-based mechanism for its activation. These key mechanistic insights may facilitate strategies to leverage inducible epithelial resistance to protect susceptible patients during periods of peak vulnerability.

Advances in immune response to pulmonary infection: Nonspecificity, specificity and memory

The lung immune response consists of various cells involved in both innate and adaptive immune processes. Innate immunity participates in immune resistance in a nonspecific manner, whereas adaptive immunity effectively eliminates pathogens through specific recognition. It was previously believed that adaptive immune memory plays a leading role during secondary infections; however, innate immunity is also involved in immune memory. Trained immunity refers to the long-term functional reprogramming of innate immune cells caused by the first infection, which alters the immune response during the second challenge. Tissue resilience limits the tissue damage caused by infection by controlling excessive inflammation and promoting tissue repair. In this review, we summarize the impact of host immunity on the pathophysiological processes of pulmonary infections and discuss the latest progress in this regard. In addition to the factors influencing pathogenic microorganisms, we emphasize the importance of the host response.

Toll-like receptors 2, 4, and 9 modulate promoting effect of COPD-like airway inflammation on K-ras-driven lung cancer through activation of the MyD88/NF-ĸB pathway in the airway epithelium

Introduction

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are an extensive group of proteins involved in host defense processes that express themselves upon the increased production of endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) due to the constant contact that airway epithelium may have with pathogenic foreign antigens. We have previously shown that COPD-like airway inflammation induced by exposure to an aerosolized lysate of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) promotes tumorigenesis in a K-ras mutant mouse model of lung cancer, CCSPCre/LSL-K-rasG12D (CC-LR) mouse.

Methods

In the present study, we have dissected the role of TLRs in this process by knocking out TLR2, 4, and 9 and analyzing how these deletions affect the promoting effect of COPD-like airway inflammation on K-ras-driven lung adenocarcinoma.

Results

We found that knockout of TLR 2, 4, or 9 results in a lower tumor burden, reduced angiogenesis, and tumor cell proliferation, accompanied by increased tumor cell apoptosis and reprogramming of the tumor microenvironment to one that is antitumorigenic. Additionally, knocking out of downstream signaling pathways, MyD88/NF-κB in the airway epithelial cells further recapitulated this initial finding.

Discussion

Our study expands the current knowledge of the roles that TLR signaling plays in lung cancer, which we hope, can pave the way for more reliable and efficacious prevention and treatment modalities for lung cancer.

Antimicrobial mitochondrial reactive oxygen species induction by lung epithelial metabolic reprogramming

Pneumonia is a worldwide threat, making discovery of novel means to combat lower respiratory tract infections an urgent need. We have previously shown that manipulating the lungs' intrinsic host defenses by therapeutic delivery of a unique dyad of pathogen-associated molecular patterns protects mice against pneumonia in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent manner. Here we show that antimicrobial ROS are induced from lung epithelial cells by interactions of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) with mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) without dependence on Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). The ODN-VDAC1 interaction alters cellular ATP/ADP/AMP localization, increases delivery of electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC), enhances mitochondrial membrane potential (Δ Ψm ), and differentially modulates ETC complex activities. These combined effects promote leak of electrons from ETC complex III, resulting in superoxide formation. The ODN-induced mitochondrial ROS yield protective antibacterial effects. Together, these studies identify a therapeutic metabolic manipulation strategy that has the potential to broadly protect patients against pneumonia during periods of peak vulnerability without reliance on currently available antibiotics.

Author Summary

Pneumonia is a major cause of death worldwide. Increasing antibiotic resistance and expanding immunocompromised populations continue to enhance the clinical urgency to find new strategies to prevent and treat pneumonia. We have identified a novel inhaled therapeutic that stimulates lung epithelial defenses to protect mice against pneumonia in a manner that depends on production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we report that the induction of protective ROS from lung epithelial mitochondria occurs following the interaction of one component of the treatment, an oligodeoxynucleotide, with the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel 1. This interaction alters energy transfer between the mitochondria and the cytosol, resulting in metabolic reprogramming that drives more electrons into the electron transport chain, then causes electrons to leak from the electron transport chain to form protective ROS. While antioxidant therapies are endorsed in many other disease states, we present here an example of therapeutic induction of ROS that is associated with broad protection against pneumonia without reliance on administration of antibiotics.

Epithelial immunomodulation by aerosolized Toll-like receptor agonists prevents allergic inflammation in airway mucosa in mice

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory disease associated with eosinophilic infiltration, increased mucus production, airway hyperresponsiveness, and airway remodeling. Epidemiologic data reveal that the prevalence of allergic sensitization and associated diseases has increased in the twentieth century. This has been hypothesized to be partly due to reduced contact with microbial organisms (the hygiene hypothesis) in industrialized society. Airway epithelial cells, once considered a static physical barrier between the body and the external world, are now widely recognized as immunologically active cells that can initiate, maintain, and restrain inflammatory responses, such as those that mediate allergic disease. Airway epithelial cells can sense allergens via expression of myriad Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and other pattern-recognition receptors. We sought to determine whether the innate immune response stimulated by a combination of Pam2CSK4 ("Pam2", TLR2/6 ligand) and a class C oligodeoxynucleotide ODN362 ("ODN", TLR9 ligand), when delivered together by aerosol ("Pam2ODN"), can modulate the allergic immune response to allergens. Treatment with Pam2ODN 7 days before sensitization to House Dust Mite (HDM) extract resulted in a strong reduction in eosinophilic and lymphocytic inflammation. This Pam2ODN immunomodulatory effect was also seen using Ovalbumin (OVA) and A. oryzae (Ao) mouse models. The immunomodulatory effect was observed as much as 30 days before sensitization to HDM, but ineffective just 2 days after sensitization, suggesting that Pam2ODN immunomodulation lowers the allergic responsiveness of the lung, and reduces the likelihood of inappropriate sensitization to aeroallergens. Furthermore, Pam2 and ODN cooperated synergistically suggesting that this treatment is superior to any single agonist in the setting of allergen immunotherapy.

Review of the British Thoracic Society Winter Meeting 2021, 24-26 November 2021

The Winter Meeting of the British Thoracic Society (BTS) is a platform for the latest clinical and scientific research in respiratory medicine. This review summarises the key symposia and presentations from the BTS Winter Meeting 2021 held online due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Lung Infection Subverts Lymphocytic Responses through IL-23 and IL-22 Post-Transcriptional Regulation

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.a) is a pathogen causing significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in hospital patients undergoing ventilation and in individuals with cystic fibrosis. Although we and others have investigated mechanisms used by P.a to subvert innate immunity, relatively less is known about the potential strategies used by this bacterium to fight the adaptive immune system and, in particular, T cells. Here, using RAG KO (devoid of ‘classical’ αβ and γδ TCR T lymphocytes) and double RAG γC KO mice (devoid of T, NK and ILC cells), we demonstrate that the lymphocytic compartment is important to combat P.a (PAO1 strain). Indeed, we show that PAO1 load was increased in double RAG γC KO mice. In addition, we show that PAO1 down-regulates IL-23 and IL-22 protein accumulation in the lungs of infected mice while up-regulating their RNA production, thereby pointing towards a specific post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism not affecting other inflammatory mediators. Finally, we demonstrate that an adenovirus-mediated over-expression of IL-1, IL-23 and IL-7 induced lung neutrophil and lymphocytic influx and rescued mice against P.a-induced lethality in all WT, RAG γC KO and RAG γC KO RAG-deficient mice, suggesting that this regimen might be of value in ‘locally immunosuppressed’ individuals such as cystic fibrosis patients.

OBIF: an omics-based interaction framework to reveal molecular drivers of synergy

Bioactive molecule library screening may empirically identify effective combination therapies, but molecular mechanisms underlying favorable drug–drug interactions often remain unclear, precluding further rational design. In the absence of an accepted systems theory to interrogate synergistic responses, we introduce Omics-Based Interaction Framework (OBIF) to reveal molecular drivers of synergy through integration of statistical and biological interactions in synergistic biological responses. OBIF performs full factorial analysis of feature expression data from single versus dual exposures to identify molecular clusters that reveal synergy-mediating pathways, functions and regulators. As a practical demonstration, OBIF analyzed transcriptomic and proteomic data of a dyad of immunostimulatory molecules that induces synergistic protection against influenza A and revealed unanticipated NF-κB/AP-1 cooperation that is required for antiviral protection. To demonstrate generalizability, OBIF analyzed data from a diverse array of Omics platforms and experimental conditions, successfully identifying the molecular clusters driving their synergistic responses. Hence, unlike existing synergy quantification and prediction methods, OBIF is a phenotype-driven systems model that supports multiplatform interrogation of synergy mechanisms.

IL-6-elafin genetically modified macrophages as a lung immunotherapeutic strategy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.a) infections are a major public health issue in ventilator-associated pneumoniae, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. P.a is multidrug resistant, and there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutic approaches. Here, we evaluated the effect of direct pulmonary transplantation of gene-modified (elafin and interleukin [IL]-6) syngeneic macrophages in a mouse model of acute P.a infection. Wild-type (WT) or Elafin-transgenic (eTg) alveolar macrophages (AMs) or bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were recovered from bronchoalveolar lavage or generated from WT or eTg mouse bone marrow. Cells were modified with adenovirus IL-6 (Ad-IL-6), characterized in vitro, and transferred by oropharyngeal instillation in the lungs of naive mice. The protective effect was assessed during P.a acute infection (survival studies, mechanistic studies of the inflammatory response). We show that a single bolus of genetically modified syngeneic AMs or BMDMs provided protection in our P.a-induced model. Mechanistically, Elafin-modified AMs had an IL-6-IL-10-IL-4R-IL-22-antimicrobial molecular signature that, in synergy with IL-6, enhanced epithelial cell proliferation and tissue repair in the alveolar unit. We believe that this innovative cell therapy strategy could be of value in acute bacterial infections in the lung.

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae infection impedes Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization and persistence in mouse respiratory tract

Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) experience lifelong respiratory infections which are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. These infections are polymicrobial in nature, and the predominant bacterial species undergo a predictable series of changes as patients age. Young patients have populations dominated by opportunists that are typically found within the microbiome of the human nasopharynx, such as nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi); these are eventually supplanted and the population within the CF lung is later dominated by pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa). In this study, we investigated how initial colonization with NTHi impacts colonization and persistence of Pa in the respiratory tract. Analysis of polymicrobial biofilms in vitro by confocal microscopy revealed that NTHi promoted greater levels of Pa biofilm volume and diffusion. However, sequential respiratory infection of mice with NTHi followed by Pa resulted in significantly lower Pa as compared to infection with Pa alone. Coinfected mice also had reduced airway tissue damage and lower levels of inflammatory cytokines as compared with Pa infected mice. Similar results were observed after instillation of heat-inactivated NTHi bacteria or purified NTHi lipooligosaccharide (LOS) endotoxin prior to Pa introduction. Based on these results, we conclude that NTHi significantly reduces susceptibility to subsequent Pa infection, most likely due to priming of host innate immunity rather than a direct competitive interaction between species. These findings have potential significance with regard to therapeutic management of early life infections in patients with CF.

Host-directed therapy in foals can enhance functional innate immunity and reduce severity of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by the intracellular bacterium Rhodococcus equi is an important cause of disease and death in immunocompromised hosts, especially foals. Antibiotics are the standard of care for treating R. equi pneumonia in foals, and adjunctive therapies are needed. We tested whether nebulization with TLR agonists (PUL-042) in foals would improve innate immunity and reduce the severity and duration of pneumonia following R. equi infection. Neonatal foals (n = 48) were nebulized with either PUL-042 or vehicle, and their lung cells infected ex vivo. PUL-042 increased inflammatory cytokines in BAL fluid and alveolar macrophages after ex vivo infection with R. equi. Then, the in vivo effects of PUL-042 on clinical signs of pneumonia were examined in 22 additional foals after intrabronchial challenge with R. equi. Foals infected and nebulized with PUL-042 or vehicle alone had a shorter duration of clinical signs of pneumonia and smaller pulmonary lesions when compared to non-nebulized foals. Our results demonstrate that host-directed therapy can enhance neonatal immune responses against respiratory pathogens and reduce the duration and severity of R. equi pneumonia.

Airway Epithelial Innate Immunity

Besides providing an essential protective barrier, airway epithelial cells directly sense pathogens and respond defensively. This is a frontline component of the innate immune system with specificity for different pathogen classes. It occurs in the context of numerous interactions with leukocytes, but here we focus on intrinsic epithelial mechanisms. Type 1 immune responses are directed primarily at intracellular pathogens, particularly viruses. Prominent stimuli include microbial nucleic acids and interferons released from neighboring epithelial cells. Epithelial responses revolve around changes in the expression of interferon-sensitive genes (ISGs) that interfere with viral replication, as well as the further induction of interferons that signal in autocrine and paracrine manners. Type 2 immune responses are directed primarily at helminths and fungi. Prominent pathogen stimuli include proteases and chitin, and important responses include mucin hypersecretion and chitinase release. Type 3 immune responses are directed primarily at extracellular microbial pathogens, including bacteria and fungi, as well as viruses during their extracellular phase of infection. Prominent microbial stimuli include bacterial wall components, such as lipopeptides and endotoxin, as well as microbial nucleic acids. Key responses are the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). For all three types of response, paracrine signaling to neighboring epithelial cells induces resistance to infection over a wide field. Often, the epithelial effector molecules themselves also have signaling properties, in addition to the release of inflammatory cytokines that boost local innate immunity. Together, these epithelial mechanisms provide a powerful first line of pathogen defense, recruit leukocytes, and instruct adaptive immune responses.

Immune Modulation to Improve Survival of Viral Pneumonia in Mice

Viral pneumonias remain global health threats, as exemplified in the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, requiring novel treatment strategies both early and late in the disease process. We have reported that mice treated before or soon after infection with a combination of inhaled Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/6 and 9 agonists (Pam2-ODN) are broadly protected against microbial pathogens including respiratory viruses, but the mechanisms remain incompletely understood. The objective of this study was to validate strategies for immune modulation in a preclinical model of viral pneumonia and determine their mechanisms. Mice were challenged with the Sendai paramyxovirus in the presence or absence of Pam2-ODN treatment. Virus burden and host immune responses were assessed to elucidate Pam2-ODN mechanisms of action and to identify additional opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Enhanced survival of Sendai virus pneumonia with Pam2-ODN treatment was associated with reductions in lung virus burden and with virus inactivation before internalization. We noted that mortality in sham-treated mice corresponded with CD8+ T-cell lung inflammation on days 11-12 after virus challenge, after the viral burden had declined. Pam2-ODN blocked this injurious inflammation by minimizing virus burden. As an alternative intervention, depleting CD8+ T cells 8 days after viral challenge also decreased mortality. Stimulation of local innate immunity within the lungs by TLR agonists early in disease or suppression of adaptive immunity by systemic CD8+ T-cell depletion late in disease improves outcomes of viral pneumonia in mice. These data reveal opportunities for targeted immunomodulation to protect susceptible human subjects.

Inducible epithelial resistance against acute Sendai virus infection prevents chronic asthma-like lung disease in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Respiratory viral infections play central roles in the initiation, exacerbation and progression of asthma in humans. An acute paramyxoviral infection in mice can cause a chronic lung disease that resembles human asthma. We sought to determine whether reduction of Sendai virus lung burden in mice by stimulating innate immunity with aerosolized Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists could attenuate the severity of chronic asthma-like lung disease.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Mice were treated by aerosol with 1-μM oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) M362, an agonist of the TLR9 homodimer, and 4-μM Pam2CSK4 (Pam2), an agonist of the TLR2/6 heterodimer, within a few days before or after Sendai virus challenge.

KEY RESULTS

Treatment with ODN/Pam2 caused ~75% reduction in lung Sendai virus burden 5 days after challenge. The reduction in acute lung virus burden was associated with marked reductions 49 days after viral challenge in eosinophilic and lymphocytic lung inflammation, airway mucous metaplasia, lumenal mucus occlusion and hyperresponsiveness to methacholine. Mechanistically, ODN/Pam2 treatment attenuated the chronic asthma phenotype by suppressing IL-33 production by type 2 pneumocytes, both by reducing the severity of acute infection and by down-regulating Type 2 (allergic) inflammation.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These data suggest that treatment of susceptible human hosts with aerosolized ODN and Pam2 at the time of a respiratory viral infection might attenuate the severity of the acute infection and reduce initiation, exacerbation and progression of asthma.

MyD88 regulates a prolonged adaptation response to environmental dust exposure-induced lung disease

BACKGROUND

Environmental organic dust exposures enriched in Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists can reduce allergic asthma development but are associated with occupational asthma and chronic bronchitis. The TLR adaptor protein myeloid differentiation factor88 (MyD88) is fundamental in regulating acute inflammatory responses to organic dust extract (ODE), yet its role in repetitive exposures is unknown and could inform future strategies.

METHODS

Wild-type (WT) and MyD88 knockout (KO) mice were exposed intranasally to ODE or saline daily for 3 weeks (repetitive exposure). Repetitively exposed animals were also subsequently rested with no treatments for 4 weeks followed by single rechallenge with saline/ODE.

RESULTS

Repetitive ODE exposure induced neutrophil influx and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines were profoundly reduced in MyD88 KO mice. In comparison, ODE-induced cellular aggregates, B cells, mast cell infiltrates and serum IgE levels remained elevated in KO mice and mucous cell metaplasia was increased. Expression of ODE-induced tight junction protein(s) was also MyD88-dependent. Following recovery and then rechallenge with ODE, inflammatory mediators, but not neutrophil influx, was reduced in WT mice pretreated with ODE coincident with increased expression of IL-33 and IL-10, suggesting an adaptation response. Repetitively exposed MyD88 KO mice lacked inflammatory responsiveness upon ODE rechallenge.

CONCLUSIONS

MyD88 is essential in mediating the classic airway inflammatory response to repetitive ODE, but targeting MyD88 does not reduce mucous cell metaplasia, lymphocyte influx, or IgE responsiveness. TLR-enriched dust exposures induce a prolonged adaptation response that is largely MyD88-independent. These findings demonstrate the complex role of MyD88-dependent signaling during acute vs. chronic organic dust exposures.

Serum amyloid A exhibits pH dependent antibacterial action and contributes to host defense against Staphylococcus aureus cutaneous infection

Serum amyloid A (SAA), one of the major highly conserved acute-phase proteins in most mammals, is predominantly produced by hepatocytes and also by a variety of cells in extrahepatic tissues. It is well-known that the expression of SAA is sharply increased in bacterial infections. However, the exact physiological function of SAA during bacterial infection remains unclear. Herein, we showed that SAA expression significantly increased in abscesses of Staphylococcus aureus cutaneous infected mice, which exert direct antibacterial effects by binding to the bacterial cell surface and disrupting the cell membrane in acidic conditions. Mechanically, SAA disrupts anionic liposomes by spontaneously forming small vesicles or micelles under acidic conditions. Especially, the N-terminal region of SAA is necessary for membrane disruption and bactericidal activity. Furthermore, we found that mice deficient in SAA1/2 were more susceptible to infection by S. aureus In addition, the expression of SAA in infected skin was regulated by interleukin-6. Taken together, these findings support a key role of the SAA in host defense and may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for cutaneous bacterial infection.

Aging and Lung Disease

People worldwide are living longer, and it is estimated that by 2050, the proportion of the world's population over 60 years of age will nearly double. Natural lung aging is associated with molecular and physiological changes that cause alterations in lung function, diminished pulmonary remodeling and regenerative capacity, and increased susceptibility to acute and chronic lung diseases. As the aging population rapidly grows, it is essential to examine how alterations in cellular function and cell-to-cell interactions of pulmonary resident cells and systemic immune cells contribute to a higher risk of increased susceptibility to infection and development of chronic diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. This review provides an overview of physiological, structural, and cellular changes in the aging lung and immune system that facilitate the development and progression of disease.

Lipocalin-2 is dispensable in inflammation-induced sickness and depression-like behavior

RATIONALE

While the relationship between inflammation and depression is well-established, the molecular mechanisms mediating this relationship remain unclear. RNA sequencing analysis comparing brains of vehicle- and lipopolysaccharide-treated mice revealed LCN2 among the most dysregulated genes. As LCN2 is known to be an important regulator of the immune response to bacterial infection, we investigated its role in the behavioral response to lipopolysaccharide.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the role of LCN2 in modulating behavior following lipopolysaccharide administration using wild type (WT) and lcn2-/- mice.

METHODS

Using a within-subjects design, mice were treated with 0.33 mg/kg liposaccharide (LPS) and vehicle. Primary outcome measures included body weight, food consumption, voluntary wheel running, sucrose preference, and the tail suspension test. To evaluate the inflammatory response, 1 week later, mice were re-administered either vehicle or LPS and terminated at 6 h.

RESULTS

While lcn2-/- mice had increased baseline food consumption and body weight, they showed a pattern of reduced food consumption and weight loss similar to WT mice in response to LPS. WT and lcn2-/- mice both recovered voluntary activity on the fourth day following LPS. LPS induced equivalent reductions in sucrose preference and TST immobility in the WT and lcn2-/- mice. Finally, there were no significant effects of genotype on inflammatory markers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate that lcn2 is dispensable for sterile inflammation-induced sickness and depression-like behavior. Specifically, lcn2-/- mice displayed sickness and immobility in the tail suspension test comparable to that of WT mice both in terms of intensity and duration.

Future Research Directions in Pneumonia. NHLBI Working Group Report

Pneumonia is a complex pulmonary disease in need of new clinical approaches. Although triggered by a pathogen, pneumonia often results from dysregulations of host defense that likely precede infection. The coordinated activities of immune resistance and tissue resilience then dictate whether and how pneumonia progresses or resolves. Inadequate or inappropriate host responses lead to more severe outcomes such as acute respiratory distress syndrome and to organ dysfunction beyond the lungs and over extended time frames after pathogen clearance, some of which increase the risk for subsequent pneumonia. Improved understanding of such host responses will guide the development of novel approaches for preventing and curing pneumonia and for mitigating the subsequent pulmonary and extrapulmonary complications of pneumonia. The NHLBI assembled a working group of extramural investigators to prioritize avenues of host-directed pneumonia research that should yield novel approaches for interrupting the cycle of unhealthy decline caused by pneumonia. This report summarizes the working group's specific recommendations in the areas of pneumonia susceptibility, host response, and consequences. Overarching goals include the development of more host-focused clinical approaches for preventing and treating pneumonia, the generation of predictive tools (for pneumonia occurrence, severity, and outcome), and the elucidation of mechanisms mediating immune resistance and tissue resilience in the lung. Specific areas of research are highlighted as especially promising for making advances against pneumonia.

Personalizing the Management of Pneumonia

Pneumonia is a highly prevalent disease with considerable morbidity and mortality. However, diagnosis and therapy still rely on antiquated methods, leading to the vast overuse of antimicrobials, which carries risks for both society and the individual. Furthermore, outcomes in severe pneumonia remain poor. Genomic techniques have the potential to transform the management of pneumonia through deep characterization of pathogens as well as the host response to infection. This characterization will enable the delivery of selective antimicrobials and immunomodulatory therapy that will help to offset the disorder associated with overexuberant immune responses.

Inducible lung epithelial resistance requires multisource reactive oxygen species generation to protect against bacterial infections

Pneumonia remains a global health threat, in part due to expanding categories of susceptible individuals and increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistant pathogens. However, therapeutic stimulation of the lungs’ mucosal defenses by inhaled exposure to a synergistic combination of Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists known as Pam2-ODN promotes mouse survival of pneumonia caused by a wide array of pathogens. This inducible resistance to pneumonia relies on intact lung epithelial TLR signaling, and inducible protection against viral pathogens has recently been shown to require increased production of epithelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) from multiple epithelial ROS generators. To determine whether similar mechanisms contribute to inducible antibacterial responses, the current work investigates the role of ROS in therapeutically-stimulated protection against Pseudomonas aerugnosa challenges. Inhaled Pam2-ODN treatment one day before infection prevented hemorrhagic lung cytotoxicity and mouse death in a manner that correlated with reduction in bacterial burden. The bacterial killing effect of Pam2-ODN was recapitulated in isolated mouse and human lung epithelial cells, and the protection correlated with inducible epithelial generation of ROS. Scavenging or targeted blockade of ROS production from either dual oxidase or mitochondrial sources resulted in near complete loss of Pam2-ODN-induced bacterial killing, whereas deficiency of induced antimicrobial peptides had little effect. These findings support a central role for multisource epithelial ROS in inducible resistance against a bacterial pathogen and provide mechanistic insights into means to protect vulnerable patients against lethal infections.

MyD88 controls airway epithelial Muc5ac expression during TLR activation conditions from agricultural organic dust exposure

Inflammation from airborne microbes can overwhelm compensatory mucociliary clearance mechanisms, leading to mucous cell metaplasia. Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation via myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling is central to pathogen responses. We have previously shown that agricultural organic dust extract (ODE), with abundant microbial component diversity, activates TLR-induced airway inflammation. With the use of an established model, C57BL/6J wild-type (WT) and global MyD88 knockout (KO) mice were treated with intranasal inhalation of ODE or saline, daily for 1 wk. ODE primarily increased mucin (Muc)5ac levels relative to Muc5b. Compared with ODE-challenged WT mice, ODE-challenged, MyD88-deficient mice demonstrated significantly increased Muc5ac immunostaining, protein levels by immunoblot, and expression by quantitative PCR. The enhanced Muc5ac levels in MyD88-deficient mice were not explained by differences in the differentiation program of airway secretory cells in naïve mice. Increased Muc5ac levels in MyD88-deficient mice were also not explained by augmented inflammation, IL-17A, or neutrophil elastase levels. Furthermore, the enhanced airway mucins in the MyD88-deficient mice were not due to defective secretion, as the mucin secretory capacity of MyD88-KO mice remained intact. Finally, ODE-induced Muc5ac levels were enhanced in MyD88-deficient airway epithelial cells in vitro. In conclusion, MyD88 deficiency enhances airway mucous cell metaplasia under environments with high TLR activation.

Integrative Physiology of Pneumonia

Pneumonia is a type of acute lower respiratory infection that is common and severe. The outcome of lower respiratory infection is determined by the degrees to which immunity is protective and inflammation is damaging. Intercellular and interorgan signaling networks coordinate these actions to fight infection and protect the tissue. Cells residing in the lung initiate and steer these responses, with additional immunity effectors recruited from the bloodstream. Responses of extrapulmonary tissues, including the liver, bone marrow, and others, are essential to resistance and resilience. Responses in the lung and extrapulmonary organs can also be counterproductive and drive acute and chronic comorbidities after respiratory infection. This review discusses cell-specific and organ-specific roles in the integrated physiological response to acute lung infection, and the mechanisms by which intercellular and interorgan signaling contribute to host defense and healthy respiratory physiology or to acute lung injury, chronic pulmonary disease, and adverse extrapulmonary sequelae. Pneumonia should no longer be perceived as simply an acute infection of the lung. Pneumonia susceptibility reflects ongoing and poorly understood chronic conditions, and pneumonia results in diverse and often persistent deleterious consequences for multiple physiological systems.

Surviving Deadly Lung Infections: Innate Host Tolerance Mechanisms in the Pulmonary System

Much research on infectious diseases focuses on clearing the pathogen through the use of antimicrobial drugs, the immune response, or a combination of both. Rapid clearance of pathogens allows for a quick return to a healthy state and increased survival. Pathogen-targeted approaches to combating infection have inherent limitations, including their pathogen-specific nature, the potential for antimicrobial resistance, and poor vaccine efficacy, among others. Another way to survive an infection is to tolerate the alterations to homeostasis that occur during a disease state through a process called host tolerance or resilience, which is independent from pathogen burden. Alterations in homeostasis during infection are numerous and include tissue damage, increased inflammation, metabolic changes, temperature changes, and changes in respiration. Given its importance and sensitivity, the lung is a good system for understanding host tolerance to infectious disease. Pneumonia is the leading cause of death for children under five worldwide. One reason for this is because when the pulmonary system is altered dramatically it greatly impacts the overall health and survival of a patient. Targeting host pathways involved in maintenance of pulmonary host tolerance during infection could provide an alternative therapeutic avenue that may be broadly applicable across a variety of pathologies. In this review, we will summarize recent findings on tolerance to host lung infection. We will focus on the involvement of innate immune responses in tolerance and how an initial viral lung infection may alter tolerance mechanisms in leukocytic, epithelial, and endothelial compartments to a subsequent bacterial infection. By understanding tolerance mechanisms in the lung we can better address treatment options for deadly pulmonary infections.

Inducible Lung Epithelial Resistance Requires Multisource Reactive Oxygen Species Generation To Protect against Viral Infections

Viral pneumonias cause profound worldwide morbidity, necessitating novel strategies to prevent and treat these potentially lethal infections. Stimulation of intrinsic lung defenses via inhalation of synergistically acting Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists protects mice broadly against pneumonia, including otherwise-lethal viral infections, providing a potential opportunity to mitigate infectious threats. As intact lung epithelial TLR signaling is required for the inducible resistance and as these cells are the principal targets of many respiratory viruses, the capacity of lung epithelial cells to be therapeutically manipulated to function as autonomous antiviral effectors was investigated. Our work revealed that mouse and human lung epithelial cells could be stimulated to generate robust antiviral responses that both reduce viral burden and enhance survival of isolated cells and intact animals. The antiviral protection required concurrent induction of epithelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) from both mitochondrial and dual oxidase sources, although neither type I interferon enrichment nor type I interferon signaling was required for the inducible protection. Taken together, these findings establish the sufficiency of lung epithelial cells to generate therapeutically inducible antiviral responses, reveal novel antiviral roles for ROS, provide mechanistic insights into inducible resistance, and may provide an opportunity to protect patients from viral pneumonia during periods of peak vulnerability.IMPORTANCE Viruses are the most commonly identified causes of pneumonia and inflict unacceptable morbidity, despite currently available therapies. While lung epithelial cells are principal targets of respiratory viruses, they have also been recently shown to contribute importantly to therapeutically inducible antimicrobial responses. This work finds that lung cells can be stimulated to protect themselves against viral challenges, even in the absence of leukocytes, both reducing viral burden and improving survival. Further, it was found that the protection occurs via unexpected induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from spatially segregated sources without reliance on type I interferon signaling. Coordinated multisource ROS generation has not previously been described against viruses, nor has ROS generation been reported for epithelial cells against any pathogen. Thus, these findings extend the potential clinical applications for the strategy of inducible resistance to protect vulnerable people against viral infections and also provide new insights into the capacity of lung cells to protect against infections via novel ROS-dependent mechanisms.

Lung epithelial cells: therapeutically inducible effectors of antimicrobial defense

Lung epithelial cells are increasingly recognized to be active effectors of microbial defense, contributing to both innate and adaptive immune function in the lower respiratory tract. As immune sentinels, lung epithelial cells detect diverse pathogens through an ample repertoire of membrane-bound, endosomal, and cytosolic pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). The highly plastic epithelial barrier responds to detected threats via modulation of paracellular flux, intercellular communications, mucin production, and periciliary fluid composition. Epithelial PRR stimulation also induces production of cytokines that recruit and sculpt leukocyte-mediated responses, and promotes epithelial generation of antimicrobial effector molecules that are directly microbicidal. The epithelium can alternately enhance tolerance to pathogens, preventing tissue damage through PRR-induced inhibitory signals, opsonization of pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and attenuation of injurious leukocyte responses. The inducibility of these protective responses has prompted attempts to therapeutically harness epithelial defense mechanisms to protect against pneumonias. Recent reports describe successful strategies for manipulation of epithelial defenses to protect against a wide range of respiratory pathogens. The lung epithelium is capable of both significant antimicrobial responses that reduce pathogen burdens and tolerance mechanisms that attenuate immunopathology. This manuscript reviews inducible lung epithelial defense mechanisms that offer opportunities for therapeutic manipulation to protect vulnerable populations against pneumonia.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Mediates Dormant Neutrophil Recruitment following Sterile Lung Injury and Protects against Subsequent Bacterial Pneumonia in Mice

Sterile lung injury is an important clinical problem that complicates the course of severely ill patients. Interruption of blood flow, namely ischemia-reperfusion (IR), initiates a sterile inflammatory response in the lung that is believed to be maladaptive. The rationale for this study was to elucidate the molecular basis for lung IR inflammation and whether it is maladaptive or beneficial. Using a mouse model of lung IR, we demonstrate that sequential blocking of inflammasomes [specifically, NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3)], inflammatory caspases, and interleukin (IL)-1β, all resulted in an attenuated inflammatory response. IL-1β production appeared to predominantly originate in conjunction with alveolar type 2 epithelial cells. Lung IR injury recruited unactivated or dormant neutrophils producing less reactive oxygen species thereby challenging the notion that recruited neutrophils are terminally activated. However, lung IR inflammation was able to limit or reduce the bacterial burden from subsequent experimentally induced pneumonia. Notably, inflammasome-deficient mice were unable to alter this bacterial burden following IR. Thus, we conclude that the NLRP3 inflammasome, through IL-1β production, regulates lung IR inflammation, which includes recruitment of dormant neutrophils. The sterile IR inflammatory response appears to serve an important function in inducing resistance to subsequent bacterial pneumonia and may constitute a critical part of early host responses to infection in trauma.

Combined aerosolized Toll-like receptor ligands are an effective therapeutic agent against influenza pneumonia when co-administered with oseltamivir

Influenza pneumonia remains a common and debilitating viral infection despite vaccination programs and antiviral agents developed for prophylaxis and treatment. The neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir is frequently prescribed for established influenza A virus infections, but the emergence of neuraminidase inhibitor resistant viruses, a brief therapeutic window and competing diagnoses complicate its use. PUL-042 is a clinical stage, aerosol drug comprised of synthetic ligands for Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/6 and TLR 9. This host-targeted, innate immune stimulant broadly protects against bacterial, fungal and viral pneumonias, including those caused by influenza, when given prophylactically to animals. This study evaluated the therapeutic antiviral effects of PUL-042 against established influenza A pneumonia, when given alone or in combination with oseltamivir. Mice were treated with PUL-042 aerosol, oseltamivir or both at varying time points before or after challenge with influenza pneumonia. Treating established, otherwise lethal influenza A pneumonia (>1 LD₁₀₀) with multiple inhaled doses of PUL-042 aerosol plus oral oseltamivir resulted in greater mouse survival than treatment with either drug alone. Single agent PUL-042 also protected mice against established infections following challenges with lower viral inocula (approximately 1 LD₂₀). Aerosolized oseltamivir further enhanced survival when co-delivered with PUL-042 aerosol. The prophylactic and therapeutic benefits of PUL-042 were similar against multiple strains of influenza virus. In vitro influenza challenge of human HBEC3kt lung epithelial cells revealed PUL-042-induced protection against infection that was comparable to that observed in vivo. These studies offer new insights into means to protect susceptible populations against influenza A pneumonia.

Chronic lung inflammation primes humoral immunity and augments antipneumococcal resistance

Airway epithelial cells (AECs) display remarkable plasticity in response to infectious stimuli and their functional adaptations are critical for antimicrobial immunity. However, the roles of AECs and humoral mediators to host defense in non-communicable lung inflammation remain elusive. We dissected pulmonary defense against Streptococcus pneumoniae in hosts with pre-existing inflammatory conditions (SPC-HAxTCR-HA mice). Lung tissue transcriptomics and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) proteomics revealed an induction of humoral defense mechanisms in inflamed lungs. Accordingly, besides antibacterial proteins and complement components being overrepresented in inflamed lungs, elevated polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR)-expression in AECs correlated with increased secretory immunoglobulin (SIg) transport. Consequently, opsonization assays revealed augmented pneumococcal coverage by SIgs present in the BALF of SPC-HAxTCR-HA mice, which was associated with enhanced antipneumococcal resistance. These findings emphasize the immunologic potential of AECs as well as their central role in providing antibacterial protection and put forward pIgR as potential target for therapeutic manipulation in infection-prone individuals.

Epithelial Cell-Derived Secreted and Transmembrane 1a Signals to Activated Neutrophils during Pneumococcal Pneumonia

Airway epithelial cell responses are critical to the outcome of lung infection. In this study, we aimed to identify unique contributions of epithelial cells during lung infection. To differentiate genes induced selectively in epithelial cells during pneumonia, we compared genome-wide expression profiles from three sorted cell populations: epithelial cells from uninfected mouse lungs, epithelial cells from mouse lungs with pneumococcal pneumonia, and nonepithelial cells from those same infected lungs. Of 1,166 transcripts that were more abundant in epithelial cells from infected lungs compared with nonepithelial cells from the same lungs or from epithelial cells of uninfected lungs, 32 genes were identified as highly expressed secreted products. Especially strong signals included two related secreted and transmembrane (Sectm) 1 genes, Sectm1a and Sectm1b. Refinement of sorting strategies suggested that both Sectm1 products were induced predominantly in conducting airway epithelial cells. Sectm1 was induced during the early stages of pneumococcal pneumonia, and mutation of NF-κB RelA in epithelial cells did not diminish its expression. Instead, type I IFN signaling was necessary and sufficient for Sectm1 induction in lung epithelial cells, mediated by signal transducer and activator of transcription 1. For target cells, Sectm1a bound to myeloid cells preferentially, in particular Ly6G(bright)CD11b(bright) neutrophils in the infected lung. In contrast, Sectm1a did not bind to neutrophils from uninfected lungs. Sectm1a increased expression of the neutrophil-attracting chemokine CXCL2 by neutrophils from the infected lung. We propose that Sectm1a is an epithelial product that sustains a positive feedback loop amplifying neutrophilic inflammation during pneumococcal pneumonia.

Bacterial Pneumonia in Patients with Cancer: Novel Risk Factors and Management

Bacterial pneumonias exact unacceptable morbidity on patients with cancer. Although the risk is often most pronounced among patients with treatment-induced cytopenias, the numerous contributors to life-threatening pneumonias in cancer populations range from derangements of lung architecture and swallow function to complex immune defects associated with cytotoxic therapies and graft-versus-host disease. These structural and immunologic abnormalities often make the diagnosis of pneumonia challenging in patients with cancer and impact the composition and duration of therapy. This article addresses host factors that contribute to pneumonia susceptibility, summarizes diagnostic recommendations, and reviews current guidelines for management of bacterial pneumonia in patients with cancer.

Fungal Pneumonia in Patients with Hematologic Malignancy and Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Fungal pneumonias cause unacceptable morbidity among patients with hematologic malignancies (HM) and recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The high incidence of fungal pneumonias in HM/HSCT populations arises from their frequently severe, complex, and persistent immune dysfunction caused by the underlying disease and its treatment. The cytopenias, treatment toxicities, and other immune derangements that make patients susceptible to fungal pneumonia frequently complicate its diagnosis and increase the intensity and duration of antifungal therapy. This article addresses the host factors that contribute to susceptibility, summarizes diagnostic recommendations, and reviews current guidelines for management of fungal pneumonia in patients with HM/HSCT.

Proximal Ligation Assay (PLA) on Lung Tissue and Cultured Macrophages to Demonstrate Protein-protein Interaction

In this protocol, we describe proximal ligation assay (PLA), an antibody-based detection method for protein-protein interaction. This method relies on specific binding of individual primary antibodies to the two putative interacting proteins. The primary antibodies need to have different hosts. The secondary antibodies against the two hosts have complementary oligonucleotide moieties attached to them. If the two antigens are in close proximity (presumably interacting with each other), the complementary oligonucleotides can anneal and fluorescent nucleotides can be incorporated in a single DNA polymerization step. Under a microscope, these reactions appear as punctate fluorescent spots, indicating successful PLA reaction and suggesting protein-protein interaction between the two antigens.

Viral Pneumonia in Patients with Hematologic Malignancy or Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Viral pneumonias in patients with hematologic malignancies and recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation cause significant morbidity and mortality. Advances in diagnostic techniques have enabled rapid identification of respiratory viral pathogens from upper and lower respiratory tract samples. Lymphopenia, myeloablative and T-cell depleting chemotherapy, graft-versus-host disease, and other factors increase the risk of developing life-threatening viral pneumonia. Chest imaging is often nonspecific but may aid in diagnoses. Bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage is recommended in those at high risk for viral pneumonia who have new infiltrates on chest imaging.

Streptococcus pneumoniae disrupts pulmonary immune defence via elastase release following pneumolysin-dependent neutrophil lysis

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of bacterial pneumonia and is the principal cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Previous studies suggested that excessive activation of neutrophils results in the release of neutrophil elastase, which contributes to lung injury in severe pneumonia. Although both pneumococcal virulence factors and neutrophil elastase contribute to the development and progression of pneumonia, there are no studies analysing relationships between these factors. Here, we showed that pneumolysin, a pneumococcal pore-forming toxin, induced cell lysis in primary isolated human neutrophils, leading to the release of neutrophil elastase. Pneumolysin exerted minimal cytotoxicity against alveolar epithelial cells and macrophages, whereas neutrophil elastase induced detachment of alveolar epithelial cells and impaired phagocytic activity in macrophages. Additionally, activation of neutrophil elastase did not exert bactericidal activity against S. pneumoniae in vitro. P2X₇ receptor, which belongs to a family of purinergic receptors, was involved in pneumolysin-induced cell lysis. These findings suggested that infiltrated neutrophils are the primary target cells of pneumolysin, and that S. pneumoniae exploits neutrophil-elastase leakage to induce the disruption of pulmonary immune defences, thereby causing lung injury.

Lung epithelium and myeloid cells cooperate to clear acute pneumococcal infection

The Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae causes life-threatening infections, especially among immunocompromised patients. The host's immune system senses S. pneumoniae via different families of pattern recognition receptors, in particular the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family that promotes immune cell activation. Yet, while single TLRs are dispensable for initiating inflammatory responses against S. pneumoniae, the central TLR adapter protein myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is of vital importance, as MyD88-deficient mice succumb rapidly to infection. Since MyD88 is ubiquitously expressed in hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells, the extent to which MyD88 signaling is required in different cell types to control S. pneumoniae is unknown. Therefore, we used novel conditional knockin mice to investigate the necessity of MyD88 signaling in distinct lung-resident myeloid and epithelial cells for the initiation of a protective immune response against S. pneumoniae. Here, we show that MyD88 signaling in lysozyme M (LysM)- and CD11c-expressing myeloid cells, as well as in pulmonary epithelial cells, is critical to restore inflammatory cytokine and antimicrobial peptide production, leading to efficient neutrophil recruitment and enhanced bacterial clearance. Overall, we show a novel synergistic requirement of compartment-specific MyD88 signaling in S. pneumoniae immunity.

Inducible epithelial resistance protects mice against leukemia-associated pneumonia

Despite widespread infection prevention efforts, pneumonia remains the leading cause of death among patients with acute leukemia, due to complex disease- and treatment-dependent immune defects. We have reported that a single inhaled treatment with a synergistic combination of Toll-like receptor 2/6 (TLR 2/6) and TLR9 agonists (Pam2-ODN) induces protective mucosal defenses in mice against a broad range of pathogens. As Pam2-ODN-induced protection persists despite depletion of several leukocyte populations, we tested whether it could prevent pneumonia in a mouse model of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remission induction therapy. Pam2-ODN prevented death due to pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Aspergillus fumigatus when mice were heavily engrafted with leukemia cells, had severe chemotherapy-induced neutropenia or both. Pam2-ODN also extended survival of pneumonia in NSG mice engrafted with primary human AML cells. Protection was associated with rapid pathogen killing in the lungs at the time of infection and with reduced pathogen burdens at distant sites at the end of observation. Pathogen killing was inducible directly from isolated lung epithelial cells and was not abrogated by the presence of leukemia cells or cytotoxic agents. Pam2-ODN had no discernible effect on replication rate, total tumor population, or killing by chemotherapy of mouse or human leukemia cells, either in vitro or in vivo. Taken together, we report that therapeutic stimulation of lung epithelial defenses robustly protects against otherwise lethal pneumonias despite the profound immune dysfunction associated with acute leukemia and its treatment. These findings may suggest an opportunity to protect this population during periods of peak vulnerability.

Histoplasma capsulatum-Induced Cytokine Secretion in Lung Epithelial Cells Is Dependent on Host Integrins, Src-Family Kinase Activation, and Membrane Raft Recruitment

Histoplasma capsulatum var. capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus that causes histoplasmosis, a human systemic mycosis with worldwide distribution. In the present work, we demonstrate that H. capsulatum yeasts are able to induce cytokine secretion by the human lung epithelial cell line A549 in integrin- and Src-family kinase (SFK)-dependent manners. This conclusion is supported by small interfering RNA (siRNA) directed to α3 and α5 integrins, and PP2, an inhibitor of SFK activation. siRNA and PP2 reduced IL-6 and IL-8 secretion in H. capsulatum-infected A549 cell cultures. In addition, α3 and α5 integrins from A549 cells were capable of associating with H. capsulatum yeasts, and this fungus promotes recruitment of these integrins and SFKs to A549 cell membrane rafts. Corroborating this finding, membrane raft disruption with the cholesterol-chelator methyl-β-cyclodextrin reduced the levels of integrins and SFKs in these cell membrane domains. Finally, pretreatment of A549 cells with the cholesterol-binding compound, and also a membrane raft disruptor, filipin, significantly reduced IL-6 and IL-8 levels in A549-H.capsulatum cultures. Taken together, these results indicate that H. capsulatum yeasts induce secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 in human lung epithelial cells by interacting with α3 and α5 integrins, recruiting these integrins to membrane rafts, and promoting SFK activation.

Acanthamoeba infection in lungs of mice expressed by toll-like receptors (TLR2 and TLR4)

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a key role in the innate immune responses to a variety of pathogens including parasites. TLRs are among the most highly conserved in the evolution of the receptor family, localized mainly on cells of the immune system and on other cells such as lung cells. The aim of this study was to determine for the first time the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in the lung of Acanthamoeba spp. infected mice using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. The Acanthamoeba spp. were isolated from a patient with Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) (strain Ac 55) and from environmental samples of water from Malta Lake (Poznań, Poland - strain Ac 43). We observed a significantly increased level of expression of TLR2 as well as TLR4 mRNA from 2 to 30 days post Acanthamoeba infection (dpi) in the lungs of mice infected with Ac55 (KP120880) and Ac43 (KP120879) strains. According to our observations, increased TLR2 and TLR4 expression in the pneumocytes, interstitial cells and epithelial cells of the bronchial tree may suggest an important role of these receptors in protective immunity against Acanthamoeba infection in the lung. Moreover, increased levels of TLR2 and TLR4 mRNA expression in infected Acanthamoeba mice may suggest the involvement of these TLRs in the recognition of this amoeba pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP).

A Toll-Like Receptor 5 Agonist Improves the Efficacy of Antibiotics in Treatment of Primary and Influenza Virus-Associated Pneumococcal Mouse Infections

Prophylactic intranasal administration of the Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) agonist flagellin protects mice against respiratory pathogenic bacteria. We hypothesized that TLR5-mediated stimulation of lung immunity might improve the therapeutic index of antibiotics for the treatment of Streptococcus pneumoniae respiratory infections in mice. Intranasal administration of flagellin was combined with either oral administration of amoxicillin or intraperitoneal injection of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole to treat S. pneumoniae-infected animals. Compared with standalone treatments, the combination of antibiotic and flagellin resulted in a lower bacterial load in the lungs and greater protection against S. pneumoniae dissemination and was associated with an early increase in neutrophil infiltration in the airways. The antibiotic-flagellin combination treatment was, however, not associated with any exacerbation of inflammation. Moreover, combination treatment was more efficacious than standalone antibiotic treatments in the context of post-influenza virus pneumococcal infection. Lastly, TLR5 signaling was shown to be mandatory for the efficacy of the combined antibacterial therapy. This report is the first to show that combining antibiotic treatment with the stimulation of mucosal innate immunity is a potent antibacterial strategy against pneumonia.