Protein delivery into eukaryotic cells by type III secretion machines

Identification of homologs of the Chlamydia trachomatis effector CteG reveals a family of Chlamydiaceae type III secreted proteins that can be delivered into host cells

Chlamydiae are a large group of obligate endosymbionts of eukaryotes that includes the Chlamydiaceae family, comprising several animal pathogens. Among Chlamydiaceae, Chlamydia trachomatis causes widespread ocular and urogenital infections in humans. Like many bacterial pathogens, all Chlamydiae manipulate host cells by injecting them with type III secretion effector proteins. We previously characterized the C. trachomatis effector CteG, which localizes at the host cell Golgi and plasma membrane during distinct phases of the chlamydial infectious cycle. Here, we show that CteG is a Chlamydiaceae-specific effector with over 60 homologs phylogenetically categorized into two distinct clades (CteG I and CteG II) and exhibiting several inparalogs and outparalogs. Notably, cteG I homologs are syntenic to C. trachomatis cteG, whereas cteG II homologs are syntenic among themselves but not with C. trachomatis cteG. This indicates a complex evolution of cteG homologs, which is unique among C. trachomatis effectors, marked by numerous events of gene duplication and loss. Despite relatively modest sequence conservation, nearly all tested CteG I and CteG II proteins were identified as type III secretion substrates using Yersinia as a heterologous bacterial host. Moreover, most of the type III secreted CteG I and CteG II homologs were delivered by C. trachomatis into host cells, where they localized at the Golgi region and cell periphery. Overall, this provided insights into the evolution of bacterial effectors and revealed a Chlamydiaceae family of type III secreted proteins that underwent substantial divergence during evolution while conserving the capacity to localize at specific host cell compartments.

Edwardsiella tarda Attenuates Virulence upon Oxytetracycline Resistance

The relationship between antibiotic resistance and bacterial virulence has not yet been fully explored. Here, we use Edwardsiella tarda as the research model to investigate the proteomic change upon oxytetracycline resistance (LTB4-ROTC). Compared to oxytetracycline-sensitive E. tarda (LTB4-S), LTB4-ROTC has 234 differentially expressed proteins, of which the abundance of 84 proteins is downregulated and 15 proteins are enriched to the Type III secretion system, Type VI secretion system, and flagellum pathways. Functional analysis confirms virulent phenotypes, including autoaggregation, biofilm formation, hemolysis, swimming, and swarming, are impaired in LTB4-ROTC. Furthermore, the in vivo bacterial challenge in both tilapia and zebrafish infection models suggests that the virulence of LTB4-ROTC is attenuated. Analysis of immune gene expression shows that LTB4-ROTC induces a stronger immune response in the spleen but a weaker response in the head kidney than that induced by LTB4-S, suggesting it's a potential vaccine candidate. Zebrafish and tilapia were challenged with a sublethal dose of LTB4-ROTC as a live vaccine followed by LTB4-S challenge. The relative percentage of survival of zebrafish is 60% and that of tilapia is 75% after vaccination. Thus, our study suggests that bacteria that acquire antibiotic resistance may attenuate virulence, which can be explored as a potential live vaccine to tackle bacterial infection in aquaculture.

ATG9B regulates bacterial internalization via actin rearrangement

Invasive bacterial pathogens are internalized by host cells through endocytosis, which is regulated by a cascade of actin rearrangement signals triggered by host cell receptors or bacterial proteins delivered into host cells. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate actin rearrangement to promote bacterial invasion are not fully understood. Here, we show that the autophagy-related (ATG) protein ATG9B regulates the internalization of various bacteria by controlling actin rearrangement. ATG knockout screening and knockdown experiments in HeLa cells identified ATG9B as a critical factor for bacterial internalization. In particular, cells with ATG9B knockdown exhibited an accumulation of actin filaments and phosphorylated LIM kinase and cofilin, suggesting that ATG9B is involved in actin depolymerization. Furthermore, the kinase activity of Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1 was found to regulate ATG9B localization and actin remodeling. These findings revealed a newly discovered function of ATG proteins in bacterial infection rather than autophagy-mediated immunity.

The analysis of complete genome sequence and comparative genomics of Vibrio parahaemolyticus LF1113 in Hainan

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a Gram-negative, halophilic and polymorphic coccobacillus. It is world-widely distributed and has resulted in great economic losses since its first appearance. In this study, a pathogenic strain was isolated from diseased pearl gentian grouper and identified as V. parahaemolyticus based on the sequencing results of 16S rDNA gene. In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of this isolation, the whole genome sequencing was conducted. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete genomes of 16 Vibrio species showed that LF1113, ATCC17802, ATCC33787, 2210633, FORC 004, and 160807 were the most closely related. Animal experiments demonstrated that the isolated LF1113 strain was pathogenic in a fish model. This study is the first study to describe the complete genome sequence of a V. parahaemolyticus isolate, which infected pearl gentian grouper from an outbreak in a fish factory farm in Hainan. The results will expand our understanding of genetic characteristics, pathogenesis, diagnostics and disease prevention of V. parahaemolyticus, and lay the foundation for further study.

Pilotins are mobile T3SS components involved in assembly and substrate specificity of the bacterial type III secretion system

In animal pathogens, assembly of the type III secretion system injectisome requires the presence of so-called pilotins, small lipoproteins that assist the formation of the secretin ring in the outer membrane. Using a combination of functional assays, interaction studies, proteomics, and live-cell microscopy, we determined the contribution of the pilotin to the assembly, function, and substrate selectivity of the T3SS and identified potential new downstream roles of pilotin proteins. In absence of its pilotin SctG, Yersinia enterocolitica forms few, largely polar injectisome sorting platforms and needles. Accordingly, most export apparatus subcomplexes are mobile in these strains, suggesting the absence of fully assembled injectisomes. Remarkably, while absence of the pilotin all but prevents export of early T3SS substrates, such as the needle subunits, it has little effect on secretion of late T3SS substrates, including the virulence effectors. We found that although pilotins interact with other injectisome components such as the secretin in the outer membrane, they mostly localize in transient mobile clusters in the bacterial membrane. Together, these findings provide a new view on the role of pilotins in the assembly and function of type III secretion injectisomes.

Infection biology of Salmonella enterica

Salmonella enterica is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness in the USA, with an estimated 95% of salmonellosis cases due to the consumption of contaminated food products. Salmonella can cause several different disease syndromes, with the most common being gastroenteritis, followed by bacteremia and typhoid fever. Among the over 2,600 currently identified serotypes/serovars, some are mostly host-restricted and host-adapted, while the majority of serotypes can infect a broader range of host species and are associated with causing both livestock and human disease. Salmonella serotypes and strains within serovars can vary considerably in the severity of disease that may result from infection, with some serovars that are more highly associated with invasive disease in humans, while others predominantly cause mild gastroenteritis. These observed clinical differences may be caused by the genetic make-up and diversity of the serovars. Salmonella virulence systems are very complex containing several virulence-associated genes with different functions that contribute to its pathogenicity. The different clinical syndromes are associated with unique groups of virulence genes, and strains often differ in the array of virulence traits they display. On the chromosome, virulence genes are often clustered in regions known as Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs), which are scattered throughout different Salmonella genomes and encode factors essential for adhesion, invasion, survival, and replication within the host. Plasmids can also carry various genes that contribute to Salmonella pathogenicity. For example, strains from several serovars associated with significant human disease, including Choleraesuis, Dublin, Enteritidis, Newport, and Typhimurium, can carry virulence plasmids with genes contributing to attachment, immune system evasion, and other roles. The goal of this comprehensive review is to provide key information on the Salmonella virulence, including the contributions of genes encoded in SPIs and plasmids during Salmonella pathogenesis.

Identification and bioinformatic analysis of invA gene of Salmonella in free range chicken

Abstract Salmonella is a serious cause of the health issues in human and animal worldwide. Salmonella has been isolated from different biological samples and it considers as the key role in induction of inflammation of gastrointestinal tract which in turn cause diarrhoea in different species. To further understand the involvement of Salmonella in contaminating and infecting fresh eggs and meat of free-range chicken. This study aimed to establish the microbiological and molecular detections of Salmonella in the cloaca of the free-range chicken and to identify predicted biological functions using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Gene and Genomic (KEGG) pathways and protein-protein interaction. Cloacal swabs were collected from free range chicken raised in the local farm in Duhok city. The isolates were cultured and biochemical test performed using XLD and TSI, respectively. Molecular detection and functional annotation of invA gene was carried out using Conventional PCR and bioinformatics approaches. The present study found that Salmonella was detected in 36 out of 86 samples using microbiological methods. To confirm these findings, invA gene was utilised and 9 out of 36 Salmonella isolates have shown a positive signal of invA by agarose gel. In addition, bioinformatic analysis revealed that invA gene was mainly associated with bacterial secretion processes as well as their KEGG terms and Protein-Protein Interaction were involved in bacterial invasion and secretion pathways. These findings suggested that invA gene plays important role in regulating colonization and invasion processes of Salmonella within the gut host in the free range chicken.

Positive regulation of the PhcB neighbouring regulator PrhX on expression of the type III secretion system and pathogenesis in Ralstonia solanacearum

Ralstonia solanacearum PhcB and PhcA control a quorum-sensing (QS) system that globally regulates expression of about one third of all genes, including pathogenesis genes. The PhcB-PhcA QS system positively regulates the production of exopolysaccharide (EPS) and negatively regulates hrp gene expression, which is crucial for the type III secretion system (T3SS). Both EPS and the T3SS are essential for pathogenicity. The gene rsc2734 is located upstream of a phcBSR operon and annotated as a response regulator of a two-component system. Here, we demonstrated that RSc2734, hereafter named PrhX, positively regulated hrp gene expression via a PrhA-PrhIR-PrhJ-HrpG signalling cascade. Moreover, PrhX was crucial for R. solanacearum to invade host roots and grow in planta naturally. prhX expression was independent of the PhcB-PhcA QS system. PrhX did not affect the expression of phcB and phcA and the QS-dependent phenotypes, such as EPS production and biofilm formation. Our results provide novel insights into the complex regulatory network of the T3SS and pathogenesis in R. solanacearum.

A tuneable genetic switch for tight control of tac promoters in Escherichia coli boosts expression of synthetic injectisomes

Biosafety of engineered bacteria as living therapeutics requires a tight regulation to control the specific delivery of protein effectors, maintaining minimum leakiness in the uninduced (OFF) state and efficient expression in the induced (ON) state. Here, we report a three repressors (3R) genetic circuit that tightly regulates the expression of multiple tac promoters (Ptac) integrated in the chromosome of E. coli and drives the expression of a complex type III secretion system injectisome for therapeutic protein delivery. The 3R genetic switch is based on the tetracycline repressor (TetR), the non-inducible lambda repressor cI (ind-) and a mutant lac repressor (LacIW220F ) with higher activity. The 3R switch was optimized with different protein translation and degradation signals that control the levels of LacIW220F . We demonstrate the ability of an optimized switch to fully repress the strong leakiness of the Ptac promoters in the OFF state while triggering their efficient activation in the ON state with anhydrotetracycline (aTc), an inducer suitable for in vivo use. The implementation of the optimized 3R switch in the engineered synthetic injector E. coli (SIEC) strain boosts expression of injectisomes upon aTc induction, while maintaining a silent OFF state that preserves normal growth in the absence of the inducer. Since Ptac is a commonly used promoter, the 3R switch may have multiple applications for tight control of protein expression in E. coli. In addition, the modularity of the 3R switch may enable its tuning for the control of Ptac promoters with different inducers.

Unveiling the Potential Ways to Apply Citrus Oil to Control Causative Agents of Pullorum Disease and Fowl Typhoid in Floor Materials

This study investigates the potential role of Cold-pressed Valencia Terpeneless citrus oil (CO), as a natural antimicrobial, in controlling causative agents of pullorum disease and fowl typhoid in floor materials for poultry farming, specifically wooden chips. The study addresses the issues that have arisen as a result of the reduction in antibiotic use in poultry farming, which has resulted in the re-emergence of bacterial diseases including salmonellosis. CO efficiently inhibits the growth of pathogens including various serovars of Salmonella enterica (SE), including SE serovar Gallinarum (S. Gallinarum) and SE serovar Pullorum (S. Pullorum), in a dose-dependent manner. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of CO showed potential for controlling diverse S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum isolates. Growth inhibition assays demonstrated that 0.4% (v/w) CO eliminated S. Pullorum and S. Gallinarum from 24 h onwards, also impacting poultry gut microbiota and probiotic strains. Floor material simulation, specifically wooden chips treated with 0.4% CO, confirmed CO's effectiveness in preventing S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum growth on poultry house floors. This study also investigated the effect of CO on the expression of virulence genes in S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum. Specifically, the study revealed that the application of CO resulted in a downregulation trend in virulence genes, including spiA, invA, spaN, sitC, and sifA, in both S. Pullorum and S. Gallinarum, implying that CO may alter the pathogenicity of these bacterial pathogens. Overall, this study reveals that CO has the potential to be used as a natural antimicrobial in the prevention and management of Salmonella-related infections in chicken production, offering a viable alternative to control these re-emerging diseases.

A bacterial effector protein promotes nuclear translocation of Stat3 to induce IL-10

The multifunctional Yersinia effector YopM inhibits effector triggered immunity and increases production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine Interleukin-10 (IL-10) to suppress the host immune response. Previously it was shown that YopM induces IL-10 gene expression by elevating phosphorylation of the serine-threonine kinase RSK1 in the nucleus of human macrophages. Using transcriptomics, we found that YopM strongly affects expression of genes belonging to the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Further analysis revealed that YopM mediates nuclear translocation of the transcription factor Stat3 in Y. enterocolitica infected macrophages and that knockdown of Stat3 inhibited YopM-induced IL-10 gene expression. YopM-induced Stat3 translocation did not depend on autocrine IL-10, activation of RSK1 or tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat3. Thus, besides activation of RSK1, stimulation of nuclear translocation of Stat3 is another mechanism by which YopM increases IL-10 gene expression in macrophages.

Development of recombinant subunit vaccine targeting InvH protein of Salmonella Typhimurium and evaluation of its immunoprotective efficacy against salmonellosis

Salmonella Typhimurium is the most prevalent non-host specific Salmonella serovars and a major concern for both human and animal health systems worldwide contributing to significant economic loss. Type 3 secretion system (T3SS) of Salmonella plays an important role in bacterial adherence and entry into the host epithelial cells. The product of invH gene of Salmonella is an important component of the needle complex of the type 3 secretion system. Hence, the present study was undertaken to clone and express the 15 kDa InvH surface protein of Salmonella Typhimurium in an E. coli host and to evaluate its immune potency in mice. The purified recombinant InvH (r-InvH) protein provoked a significant (p < 0.01) rise in IgG in the inoculated mice. The immunized mice were completely (100%) protected against the challenge dose of 107.5 LD50, while protection against challenge with the same dose of heterologous serovars was 90%. The bacterin-vaccinated group showed homologous protection of 60% against all three serovars. Findings in this study suggest the potential of the r-InvH protein of S. Typhimurium as an effective vaccine candidate against Salmonella infections.

Differential priority effects impact taxonomy and functionality of host-associated microbiomes

Most multicellular eukaryotes host complex communities of microorganisms, but the factors that govern their assembly are poorly understood. The settlement of specific microorganisms may have a lasting impact on community composition, a phenomenon known as the priority effect. Priority effects of individual bacterial strains on a host's microbiome are, however, rarely studied and their impact on microbiome functionality remains unknown. We experimentally tested the effect of two bacterial strains (Pseudoalteromonas tunicata D2 and Pseudovibrio sp. D323) on the assembly and succession of the microbial communities associated with the green macroalga Ulva australis. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and qPCR, we found that both strains exert a priority effect, with strain D2 causing initially strong but temporary taxonomic changes and strain D323 causing weaker but consistent changes. Consistent changes were predominately facilitatory and included taxa that may benefit the algal host. Metagenome analyses revealed that the strains elicited both shared (e.g., depletion of type III secretion system genes) and unique (e.g., enrichment of antibiotic resistance genes) effects on the predicted microbiome functionality. These findings indicate strong idiosyncratic effects of colonizing bacteria on the structure and function of host-associated microbial communities. Understanding the idiosyncrasies in priority effects is key for the development of novel probiotics to improve host condition.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 on Bovine Rectoanal Junction Cells and Human Colonic Epithelial Cells during Initial Adherence

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are notorious foodborne pathogens, capable of causing severe diarrhea and life-threatening complications in humans. Cattle, acting as both primary reservoirs and asymptomatic carriers of STEC, predominantly harbor the pathogen in their rectoanal junction (RAJ), facilitating its transmission to humans through contaminated food sources. Despite the central role of cattle in STEC transmission, the molecular mechanisms governing STEC's adaptation in the RAJ of the asymptomatic reservoir host and its subsequent infection of human colonic epithelial cells, resulting in diarrhea, remain largely unexplored. This study aims to uncover these complicated dynamics by focusing on the STEC O157:H7 serotype within two distinct host environments, bovine RAJ cells and human colonic epithelial cells, during initial colonization. We employed comparative transcriptomics analysis to investigate differential gene expression profiles of STEC O157:H7 during interactions with these cell types. STEC O157:H7 was cultured either with bovine RAJ cells or the human colonic epithelial cell line CCD CoN 841 to simulate STEC-epithelial cell interactions within these two host species. High-throughput RNA sequencing revealed 829 and 1939 bacterial genes expressed in RAJ and CCD CoN 841, respectively. After gene filtering, 221 E. coli O157:H7 genes were upregulated during initial adherence to CCD CoN cells and 436 with RAJ cells. Furthermore, 22 genes were uniquely expressed with human cells and 155 genes with bovine cells. Our findings revealed distinct expression patterns of STEC O157:H7 genes involved in virulence, including adherence, metal iron homeostasis, and stress response during its initial adherence (i.e., six hours post-infection) to bovine RAJ cells, as opposed to human colonic epithelial cells. Additionally, the comparative analysis highlighted the potential role of some genes in host adaptation and tissue-specific pathogenicity. These findings shed new light on the potential mechanisms of STEC O157:H7 contributing to colonize the intestinal epithelium during the first six hours of infection, leading to survival and persistence in the bovine reservoir and causing disease in humans.

New antibacterial targets: Regulation of quorum sensing and secretory systems in zoonotic bacteria

Quorum sensing (QS) is a communication mechanism that controls bacterial communication and can influence the transcriptional expression of multiple genes through one or more signaling molecules, thereby coordinating the population response of multiple bacterial pathogens. Secretion systems (SS) play an equally important role in bacterial information exchange, relying on the secretory systems to secrete proteins that act as virulence factors to promote adhesion to host cells. Eight highly efficient SS have been described, all of which are involved in the secretion or transfer of virulence factors, and the effector proteins they secrete play a key role in the virulence and pathogenicity of bacteria. It has been shown that many bacterial SS are directly or indirectly regulated by QS and thus influence bacterial virulence and antibiotic resistance. This review describes the relationship between QS and SS of several common zoonotic pathogenic bacteria and outlines the molecular mechanisms of how QS systems regulate SS, to provide a theoretical basis for the study of bacterial pathogenicity and the development of novel antibacterial drugs.

Identification of Salmonella Pullorum Factors Affecting Immune Reaction in Macrophages from the Avian Host

The host-specific Salmonella serovar S. Pullorum (SP) modulates the chicken immune response to a Th2-biased response associated with persistent infection. This is different from the Th1-biased immune response induced by the genetically close serovar, S. Enteritidis (SE). Based on core genome differences between SP and SE, we used three complementary bioinformatics approaches to identify SP genes, which may be important for stimulation of the immune response. Defined mutants were constructed in selected genes, and the infection potential and ability of mutants to stimulate cytokine production in avian derived HD11 macrophages were determined. Deletion of large genomic regions unique to SP did not change infection potential nor immune stimulation significantly. Mutants in genes with conserved single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between the two serovars in the region 100 bp upstream of the start codon (conserved upstream SNPs [CuSNPs]) such as sseE, osmB, tolQ, a putative immune antigen, and a putative persistent infection factor, exhibited differences in induction of inflammatory cytokines compared to wild-type SP, suggesting a possible role of these CuSNPs in immune regulation. Single nucleotide SP mutants correcting for the CuSNP difference were constructed in the upstream region of sifA and pipA. The SNP corrected pipA mutant expressed pipA at a higher level than the wild-type SP strain, and the mutant differentially caused upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines. It suggests that this CuSNP is important for the suppression of proinflammatory responses. In conclusion, this study has identified putative immune stimulating factors of relevance to the difference in infection dynamics between SP and SE in avian macrophages. IMPORTANCE Salmonella Pullorum is host specific to avian species, where it causes life-threatening infection in young birds. It is unknown why it is host restricted and causes systemic disease, rather than gastroenteritis normally seen with Salmonella. In the present study, we identified genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; relative to the broad-host-range type Salmonella Enteritidis), which affected survival and immune induction in macrophages from hens suggesting a role in development of the host specific infection. Further studies of such genes may enable understanding of which genetic factors determine the development of host specific infection by S. Pullorum. In this study, we developed an in silico approach to predict candidate genes and SNPs for development of the host-specific infection and the specific induction of immunity associated with this infection. This study flow can be used in similar studies in other clades of bacteria.

Repertoire and abundance of secreted virulence factors shape the pathogenic capacity of Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata

Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata is a member of the sugar beet pathobiome and the causative agent of leaf spot disease. Like many pathogenic bacteria, P. syringae relies on the secretion of toxins, which manipulate host-pathogen interactions, to establish and maintain an infection. This study analyzes the secretome of six pathogenic P. syringae pv. aptata strains with different defined virulence capacities in order to identify common and strain-specific features, and correlate the secretome with disease outcome. All strains show a high type III secretion system (T3SS) and type VI secretion system (T6SS) activity under apoplast-like conditions mimicking the infection. Surprisingly, we found that low pathogenic strains show a higher secretion of most T3SS substrates, whereas a distinct subgroup of four effectors was exclusively secreted in medium and high pathogenic strains. Similarly, we detected two T6SS secretion patterns: while one set of proteins was highly secreted in all strains, another subset consisting of known T6SS substrates and previously uncharacterized proteins was exclusively secreted in medium and high virulence strains. Taken together, our data show that P. syringae pathogenicity is correlated with the repertoire and fine-tuning of effector secretion and indicate distinct strategies for establishing virulence of P. syringae pv. aptata in plants.

Synthetic and natural antimicrobials as a control against food borne pathogens: A review

Food borne pathogens are one of the most common yet concerning cause of illnesses around the globe. These microbes invade the body via food items, through numerous mediums of contamination and it is impossible to completely eradicate these organisms from food. Extensive research has been made regarding their treatment. Unfortunately, the only available treatment currently is by antibiotics. Recent exponential increase in antibiotic resistance and the side effect of synthetic compounds have established a need for alternate therapies that could be utilized either on their own or along with antibiotics to provide protection against food-borne diseases. The aim of this review is to provide information regarding some common food borne diseases, their current and possible natural treatment. It will include details regarding some common foodborne pathogens, the disease they cause, prevalence, manifestations and treatment of the respective disease. Some natural modes of potential treatment will be summarized, which including phytochemicals, derived from plants either as crude extracts or as purified form and Bacteriocins as microbial based treatment, obtained from various types of bacteria. The paper will describe their mechanism of action, classification, susceptible organisms, some antimicrobial compounds and producing organisms, application in food systems and as potential treatment. Along with that, synthetic treatment i.e., antibiotics will be discussed including the first-line treatment of some common food borne infections, prevalence and mechanism of resistance against antibiotics in the pathogens.

Novel secreted STPKLRR from Vibrio splendidus AJ01 promotes pathogen internalization via mediating tropomodulin phosphorylation dependent cytoskeleton rearrangement

We previously demonstrated that the flagellin of intracellular Vibrio splendidus AJ01 could be specifically identified by tropomodulin (Tmod) and further mediate p53-dependent coelomocyte apoptosis in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. In higher animals, Tmod serves as a regulator in stabilizing the actin cytoskeleton. However, the mechanism on how AJ01 breaks the AjTmod-stabilized cytoskeleton for internalization remains unclear. Here, we identified a novel AJ01 Type III secretion system (T3SS) effector of leucine-rich repeat-containing serine/threonine-protein kinase (STPKLRR) with five LRR domains and a serine/threonine kinase (STYKc) domain, which could specifically interact with tropomodulin domain of AjTmod. Furthermore, we found that STPKLRR directly phosphorylated AjTmod at serine 52 (S52) to reduce the binding stability between AjTmod and actin. After AjTmod dissociated from actin, the F-actin/G-actin ratio decreased to induce cytoskeletal rearrangement, which in turn promoted the internalization of AJ01. The STPKLRR knocked out strain could not phosphorylated AjTmod and displayed lower internalization capacity and pathogenic effect compared to AJ01. Overall, we demonstrated for the first time that the T3SS effector STPKLRR with kinase activity was a novel virulence factor in Vibrio and mediated self-internalization by targeting host AjTmod phosphorylation dependent cytoskeleton rearrangement, which provided a candidate target to control AJ01 infection in practice.

Exploring the 'N-terminal arm' & 'Convex surface' binding Interfaces of the T3SS Chaperone-Translocator Complexes from P. aeruginosa

One infection method widely used by many gram-negative bacteria involves a protein nanomachine called the Type Three Secretion System (T3SS). The T3SS enables the transportation of bacterial "toxins" via a proteinaceous channel that directly links the cytosol of the bacteria and host cell. The channel from the bacteria is completed by a translocon pore formed by two proteins named the major and minor translocators. Prior to pore formation, the translocator proteins are bound to a small chaperone within the bacterial cytoplasm. This interaction is crucial to effective secretion. Here we investigated the specificity of the binding interfaces of the translocator-chaperone complexes from Pseudomonas aeruginosa via the selection of peptide and protein libraries based on its chaperone PcrH. Five libraries encompassing PcrH's N-terminal and central α-helices were panned, using ribosome display, against both the major (PopB) and minor (PopD) translocator. Both translocators were shown to significantly enrich a similar pattern of WT and non-WT sequences from the libraries. This highlighted key similarities/differences between the interactions of the major and minor translocators with their chaperone. Moreover, as the enriched non-WT sequences were specific to each translocator, it would suggest that PcrH can be adapted to bind each translocator individually. The ability to evolve such proteins indicates that these molecules may provide promising anti-bacterial candidates.

Calcium-responsive plasmid copy number regulation is dependent on discrete YopD domains in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Yersinia pathogenicity depends mainly on a Type III Secretion System (T3SS) responsible for translocating effector proteins into the eukaryotic target cell cytosol. The T3SS is encoded on a 70 kb, low copy number virulence plasmid, pYV. A key T3SS regulator, YopD, is a multifunctional protein and consists of discrete modular domains that are essential for pore formation and translocation of Yop effectors. In Y. pseudotuberculosis, the temperature-dependent plasmid copy number increase that is essential for elevated T3SS gene dosage and virulence is also affected by YopD. Here, we found that the presence of intracellular YopD results in increased levels of the CopA-RNA and CopB, two inhibitors of plasmid replication. Secretion of YopD leads to decreased expression of copA and copB, resulting in increased plasmid copy number. Moreover, using a systematic mutagenesis of YopD mutants, we demonstrated that the same discrete modular domains important for YopD translocation are also necessary for both the regulation of plasmid copy number as well as copA and copB expression. Hence, Yersinia has evolved a mechanism coupling active secretion of a plasmid-encoded component of the T3SS, YopD, to the regulation of plasmid replication. Our work provides evidence for the cross-talk between plasmid-encoded functions with the IncFII replicon.

Exploring the "N-Terminal Anchor" Binding Interface of the T3SS Chaperone-Translocator Complexes from P. aeruginosa

The type III secretion system is a large multiprotein complex that many Gram-negative bacteria use for infection. A crucial part of the complex is its translocon pore formed by two proteins: the major and minor translocators. The pore completes a proteinaceous channel from the bacterial cytosol through the host cell membrane and allows the direct injection of bacterial toxins. Effective pore formation is predicated by the translocator proteins binding to a small chaperone within the bacterial cytoplasm. Given the vital role of the chaperone-translocator interaction, we investigated the specificity of the "N-terminal anchor" binding interface present in both translocator-chaperone complexes from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Isothermal calorimetry (ITC), alanine scanning, and the selection of a motif-based peptide library using ribosome display were used to characterize the major (PopB) and minor (PopD) translocator interactions with their chaperone PcrH. We show that 10 mer PopB_51-60 and PopD_47-56 peptides bind to PcrH with a K_D of 148 ± 18 and 91 ± 9 μM, respectively. Moreover, mutation to alanine of each of the consensus residues (xxVxLxxPxx) of the PopB peptide severely affected or completely abrogated binding to PcrH. When the directed peptide library (X-X-hydrophobic-X-L-X-X-P-X-X) was panned against PcrH, there was no obvious convergence at the varied residues. The PopB/PopD wild-type (WT) sequences were also not prevalent. However, a consensus peptide was shown to bind to PcrH with micromolar affinity. Thus, selected sequences were binding with similar affinities to WT PopB/PopD peptides. These results demonstrate that only the conserved "xxLxxP" motif drives binding at this interface.

Exploring the Microbial Community and Functional Characteristics of the Livestock Feces Using the Whole Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing

The foodborne illness is the important public health concerns, and the livestock feces are known to be one of the major reservoirs of foodborne pathogens. Also, it was reported that 45.5% of foodborne illness outbreaks have been associated with the animal products contaminated with the livestock feces. In addition, it has been known that the persistence of a pathogens depends on many potential virulent factors including the various virulent genes. Therefore, the first step to understanding the public health risk of livestock feces is to identify and describe microbial communities and potential virulent genes that contribute to bacterial pathogenicity. We used the whole metagenome shotgun sequencing to evaluate the prevalence of foodborne pathogens and to characterize the virulence associated genes in pig and chicken feces. Our data showed that the relative abundance of potential foodborne pathogens, such as Bacillus cereus was higher in chickens than pigs at the species level while the relative abundance of foodborne pathogens including Campylobacter coli was only detected in pigs. Also, the microbial functional characteristics of livestock feces revealed that the gene families related to "Biofilm formation and quorum sensing" were highly enriched in pigs than chicken. Moreover, the variety of gene families associated with "Resistance to antibiotics and toxic compounds" were detected in both animals. These results will help us to prepare the scientific action plans to improve awareness and understanding of the public health risks of livestock feces.

The Missing Pieces: The Role of Secretion Systems in Campylobacter jejuni Virulence

Campylobacter jejuni is likely the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, responsible for millions of cases of inflammatory diarrhea characterized by severe abdominal cramps and blood in the stool. Further, C. jejuni infections are associated with post-infection sequelae in developed countries and malnutrition and growth-stunting in low- and middle-income countries. Despite the increasing prevalence of the disease, campylobacteriosis, and the recognition that this pathogen is a serious health threat, our understanding of C. jejuni pathogenesis remains incomplete. In this review, we focus on the Campylobacter secretion systems proposed to contribute to host-cell interactions and survival in the host. Moreover, we have applied a genomics approach to defining the structural and mechanistic features of C. jejuni type III, IV, and VI secretion systems. Special attention is focused on the flagellar type III secretion system and the prediction of putative effectors, given that the proteins exported via this system are essential for host cell invasion and the inflammatory response. We conclude that C. jejuni does not possess a type IV secretion system and relies on the type III and type VI secretion systems to establish a niche and potentiate disease.

Distinct Cytosolic Complexes Containing the Type III Secretion System ATPase Resolved by Three-Dimensional Single-Molecule Tracking in Live Yersinia enterocolitica

The membrane-embedded injectisome, the structural component of the virulence-associated type III secretion system (T3SS), is used by Gram-negative bacterial pathogens to inject species-specific effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. The cytosolic injectisome proteins are required for export of effectors and display both stationary, injectisome-bound populations and freely diffusing cytosolic populations. How the cytosolic injectisome proteins interact with each other in the cytosol and associate with membrane-embedded injectisomes remains unclear. Here, we utilized three-dimensional (3D) single-molecule tracking to resolve distinct cytosolic complexes of injectisome proteins in living Yersinia enterocolitica cells. Tracking of the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (eYFP)-labeled ATPase YeSctN and its regulator, YeSctL, revealed that these proteins form a cytosolic complex with each other and then further with YeSctQ. YeSctNL and YeSctNLQ complexes can be observed both in wild-type cells and in ΔsctD mutants, which cannot assemble injectisomes. In ΔsctQ mutants, the relative abundance of the YeSctNL complex is considerably increased. These data indicate that distinct cytosolic complexes of injectisome proteins can form prior to injectisome binding, which has important implications for how injectisomes are functionally regulated. IMPORTANCE Injectisomes are membrane-embedded, multiprotein assemblies used by bacterial pathogens to inject virulent effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. Protein secretion is regulated by cytosolic proteins that dynamically bind and unbind at injectisomes. However, how these regulatory proteins interact with each other remains unknown. By measuring the diffusion rates of single molecules in living cells, we show that cytosolic injectisome proteins form distinct oligomeric complexes with each other prior to binding to injectisomes. We additionally identify the molecular compositions of these complexes and quantify their relative abundances. Quantifying to what extent cytosolic proteins exist as part of larger complexes in living cells has important implications for deciphering the complexity of biomolecular mechanisms. The results and methods reported here are thus relevant for advancing our understanding of how injectisomes and related multiprotein assemblies, such as bacterial flagellar motors, are functionally regulated.

Research Progress on Small Molecular Inhibitors of the Type 3 Secretion System

The overuse of antibiotics has led to severe bacterial drug resistance. Blocking pathogen virulence devices is a highly effective approach to combating bacterial resistance worldwide. Type three secretion systems (T3SSs) are significant virulence factors in Gram-negative pathogens. Inhibition of these systems can effectively weaken infection whilst having no significant effect on bacterial growth. Therefore, T3SS inhibitors may be a powerful weapon against resistance in Gram-negative bacteria, and there has been increasing interest in the research and development of T3SS inhibitors. This review outlines several reported small-molecule inhibitors of the T3SS, covering those of synthetic and natural origin, including their sources, structures, and mechanisms of action.

Gut colonization by Proteobacteria alters host metabolism and modulates cocaine neurobehavioral responses

Gut-microbiota membership is associated with diverse neuropsychological outcomes, including substance use disorders (SUDs). Here, we use mice colonized with Citrobacter rodentium or the human γ-Proteobacteria commensal Escherichia coli HS as a model to examine the mechanistic interactions between gut microbes and host responses to cocaine. We find that cocaine exposure increases intestinal norepinephrine levels that are sensed through the bacterial adrenergic receptor QseC to promote intestinal colonization of γ-Proteobacteria. Colonized mice show enhanced host cocaine-induced behaviors. The neuroactive metabolite glycine, a bacterial nitrogen source, is depleted in the gut and cerebrospinal fluid of colonized mice. Systemic glycine repletion reversed, and γ-Proteobacteria mutated for glycine uptake did not alter the host response to cocaine. γ-Proteobacteria modulated glycine levels are linked to cocaine-induced transcriptional plasticity in the nucleus accumbens through glutamatergic transmission. The mechanism outline here could potentially be exploited to modulate reward-related brain circuits that contribute to SUDs.

Lasiodiplodia theobromae protein LtScp1 contributes to fungal virulence and protects fungal mycelia against hydrolysis by grapevine chitinase

The LysM proteins have been reported to be important for the virulence and host immunity suppression in herbaceous plant pathogens, whereas far less information is documented in the woody plant pathogen Lasiodiplodia theobromae. To investigate the functional mechanism of LysM protein in L. theobromae, one gene LtScp1 was cloned and characterized detailedly in the current study. Transcription profiling revealed that LtScp1 was highly expressed at the infectious stages. Compared to wild type, overexpression and silencing of LtScp1 in L. theobromae led to significantly increased and decreased lesion areas, respectively. Moreover, LtScp1 was determined to be a secreted protein via a yeast signal peptide trapping system. Interestingly, LtScp1 was confirmed to be modified by the N-glycosylation, which is necessary for the homodimerization of LtScp1 molecules. Furthermore, it was found that LtScp1 interacted with the grapevine chitinase VvChi4 and interfered the ability of VvChi4 to bind chitin. Collectively, these results suggest that LtScp1 functions as a virulence factor to protect the fungus from degradation during the infection.

Salmonella as a Promising Curative Tool against Cancer

Bacteria-mediated cancer therapy has become a topic of interest under the broad umbrella of oncotherapy. Among many bacterial species, Salmonella remains at the forefront due to its ability to localize and proliferate inside tumor microenvironments and often suppress tumor growth. Salmonella Typhimurium is one of the most promising mediators, with engineering plasticity and cancer specificity. It can be used to deliver toxins that induce cell death in cancer cells specifically, and also as a cancer-specific instrument for immunotherapy by delivering tumor antigens and exposing the tumor environment to the host immune system. Salmonella can be used to deliver prodrug converting enzymes unambiguously against cancer. Though positive responses in Salmonella-mediated cancer treatments are still at a preliminary level, they have paved the way for developing combinatorial therapy with conventional chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, and can be used synergistically to combat multi-drug resistant and higher-stage cancers. With this background, Salmonella-mediated cancer therapy was approved for clinical trials by U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the results were not satisfactory and more pre-clinical investigation is needed. This review summarizes the recent advancements in Salmonella-mediated oncotherapy in the fight against cancer. The present article emphasizes the demand for Salmonella mutants with high stringency toward cancer and with amenable elements of safety by virulence deletions.

Functional characterization of a gamma-glutamyl phosphate reductase ProA in proline biosynthesis and promoting expression of type three secretion system in Ralstonia solanacearum

Ralstonia solanacearum RSc2741 has been predicted as a gamma-glutamyl phosphate reductase ProA catalyzing the second reaction of proline formation from glutamate. Here, we experimentally demonstrated that proA mutants were proline auxotrophs that failed to grow in a minimal medium, and supplementary proline, but not glutamate, fully restored the diminished growth, confirming that ProA is responsible for the biosynthesis of proline from glutamate in R. solanacearum. ProA was previously identified as one of the candidates regulating the expression of genes for type three secretion system (T3SS), one of the essential pathogenicity determinants of R. solanacearum. Supplementary proline significantly enhanced the T3SS expression both in vitro and in planta, indicating that proline is a novel inducer of the T3SS expression. Deletion of proA substantially impaired the T3SS expression both in vitro and in planta even under proline-supplemented conditions, indicating that ProA plays additional roles apart from proline biosynthesis in promoting the expression of the T3SS genes. It was further revealed that the involvement of ProA in the T3SS expression was mediated through the pathway of PrhG-HrpB. Both the proA mutants and the wild-type strain grew in the intercellular spaces of tobacco leaves, while their ability to invade and colonize tobacco xylem vessels was substantially impaired, which was about a 1-day delay for proA mutants to successfully invade xylem vessels and was about one order of magnitude less than the wild-type strain to proliferate to the maximum densities in xylem vessels. It thus resulted in substantially impaired virulence of proA mutants toward host tobacco plants. The impaired abilities of proA mutants to invade and colonize xylem vessels were not due to possible proline insufficiency in the rhizosphere soil or inside the plants. All taken together, these results extend novel insights into the understanding of the biological function of ProA and sophisticated regulation of the T3SS and pathogenicity in R. solanacearum.

Comparative genomics provides insights into the potential biocontrol mechanism of two Lysobacter enzymogenes strains with distinct antagonistic activities

Lysobacter enzymogenes has been applied as an abundant beneficial microorganism to control plant disease; however, most L. enzymogenes strains have been mainly reported to control fungal diseases, not bacterial diseases. In this study, two L. enzymogenes strains were characterized, of which CX03 displayed a broad spectrum of antagonistic activities toward multiple bacteria, while CX06 exhibited a broad spectrum of antagonistic activities toward diverse fungi and oomycete, and the whole genomes of the two strains were sequenced and compared. The genome annotation showed that the CX03 genome comprised a 5,947,018 bp circular chromosome, while strain CX06 comprised a circular 6,206,196 bp chromosome. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that CX03 had a closer genetic relationship with L. enzymogenes ATCC29487^T and M497-1, while CX06 was highly similar to L. enzymogenes C3. Functional gene annotation analyses of the two L. enzymogenes strains showed that many genes or gene clusters associated with the biosynthesis of different secondary metabolites were found in strains CX03 and CX06, which may be responsible for the different antagonistic activities against diverse plant pathogens. Moreover, comparative genomic analysis revealed the difference in bacterial secretory systems between L. enzymogenes strains CX03 and CX06. In addition, numerous conserved genes related to siderophore biosynthesis, quorum sensing, two-component systems, flagellar biosynthesis and chemotaxis were also identified in the genomes of strains CX03 and CX06. Most reported L. enzymogenes strains were proven mainly to suppress fungi, while CX03 exhibited direct inhibitory activities toward plant bacterial pathogens and showed an obvious role in managing bacterial disease. This study provides a novel understanding of the biocontrol mechanisms of L. enzymogenes, and reveals great potential for its application in plant disease control.

Functional characterization of Vibrio alginolyticus T3SS regulator ExsA and evaluation of its mutant as a live attenuated vaccine candidate in zebrafish (Danio rerio) model

Vibrio alginolyticus, a Gram-negative bacterium, is an opportunistic pathogen of both marine animals and humans, resulting in significant losses in the aquaculture industry. Type III secretion system (T3SS) is a crucial virulence mechanism of V. alginolyticus. In this study, the T3SS regulatory gene exsA, which was cloned from V. alginolyticus wild-type strain HY9901, is 861 bp encoding a protein of 286 amino acids. The ΔexsA was constructed by homologous recombination and Overlap-PCR. Although there was no difference in growth between HY9901 and ΔexsA, the ΔexsA exhibited significantly decreased extracellular protease activity and biofilm formation. Besides, the ΔexsA showed a weakened swarming phenotype and an ~100-fold decrease in virulence to zebrafish. Antibiotic susceptibility testing showed the HY9901ΔexsA was more sensitive to kanamycin, minocycline, tetracycline, gentamicin, doxycycline and neomycin. Compared to HY9901 there were 541 up-regulated genes and 663 down-regulated genes in ΔexsA, screened by transcriptome sequencing. qRT-PCR and β-galactosidase reporter assays were used to analyze the transcription levels of hop gene revealing that exsA gene could facilitate the expression of hop gene. Finally, Danio rerio, vaccinated with ΔexsA through intramuscular injection, induced a relative percent survival (RPS) value of 66.7% after challenging with HY9901 wild type strain. qRT-PCR assays showed that vaccination with ΔexsA increased the expression of immune-related genes, including GATA-1, IL6, IgM, and TNF-α in zebrafish. In summary, these results demonstrate the importance of exsA in V. alginolyticus and provide a basis for further investigations into the virulence and infection mechanism.

Edwardsiella ictaluri T3SS Effector EseN Modulates Expression of Host Genes Involved in the Immune Response

The type III secretion system (T3SS) effector EseN is encoded on the Edwardsiella ictaluri chromosome and is homologous to a family of T3SS effector proteins with phosphothreonine lyase activity. Previously we demonstrated that E. ictaluri invasion activates extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) early in the infection, which are subsequently inactivated by EseN. Comparative transcriptomic analysis showed a total of 753 significant differentially expressed genes in head-kidney-derived macrophages (HKDM) infected with an EseN mutant (∆EseN) compared to HKDM infected with wild-type (WT) strains. This data strongly indicates classical activation of macrophages (the M1 phenotype) in response to E. ictaluri infection and a significant role for EseN in the manipulation of this process. Our data also indicates that E. ictaluri EseN is involved in the modulation of pathways involved in the immune response to infection and expression of several transcription factors, including NF-κβ (c-rel and relB), creb3L4, socs6 and foxo3a. Regulation of transcription factors leads to regulation of proinflammatory interleukins (IL-8, IL-12a, IL-15, IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Inhibition of COX-2 mRNA by WT E. ictaluri leads to decreased production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which is the product of COX-2 activity. Collectively, our results indicate that E. ictaluri EseN is an important player in the modulation of host immune responses to E.ictaluri infection.

Orf1B controls secretion of T3SS proteins and contributes to Edwardsiella piscicida adhesion to epithelial cells

Edwardsiella piscicida is a Gram-negative enteric pathogen that causes hemorrhagic septicemia in fish. The type III secretion system (T3SS) is one of its two most important virulence islands. T3SS protein EseJ inhibits E. piscicida adhesion to epithelioma papillosum cyprini (EPC) cells by negatively regulating type 1 fimbria. Type 1 fimbria helps E. piscicida to adhere to fish epithelial cells. In this study, we characterized a functional unknown protein (Orf1B) encoded within the T3SS gene cluster of E. piscicida. This protein consists of 122 amino acids, sharing structural similarity with YscO in Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Orf1B controls secretion of T3SS translocon and effectors in E. piscicida. By immunoprecipitation, Orf1B was shown to interact with T3SS ATPase EsaN. This interaction may contribute to the assembly of the ATPase complex, which energizes the secretion of T3SS proteins. Moreover, disruption of Orf1B dramatically decreased E. piscicida adhesion to EPC cells due to the increased steady-state protein level of EseJ within E. piscicida. Taken together, this study partially unraveled the mechanisms through which Orf1B promotes secretion of T3SS proteins and contributes to E. piscicida adhesion. This study helps to improve our understanding on molecular mechanism of E. piscicida pathogenesis.

Development of a hyper-adhesive and attenuated Edwardsiella ictaluri strain as a novel immersion vaccine candidate in yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)

Edwardsiella ictaluri, a Gram-negative intracellular pathogen, is the causative agent of enteric septicemia in channel catfish, and catfish aquaculture in China suffers heavy economic losses due to E. ictaluri infection. Vaccination is an effective control measure for this disease. In this study, an attenuated E. ictaluri strain was acquired through deletion mutation of the T3SS protein eseJ_ei, and the ΔeseJ_ei strain fails to replicate in the epithelioma papillosum of carp cells. The type 1 fimbria plays a pivotal role in the adhesion of E. ictaluri, and it was found in this study that deletion of -245 to -50 nt upstream of fimA increases its adhesion to around five times that of the WT strain. A hyper-adhesive and highly attenuated double mutant (ΔeseJ_eiΔfimA_-245-_-50 strain) was constructed, and it was used as a vaccine candidate in yellow catfish via bath immersion at a dosage of 1 × 10⁵ CFU/mL. It was found that this vaccine candidate can stimulate protection when challenged with E. ictaluri HSN-1 at 5 × 10⁷ CFU/mL (∼20 × LD₅₀). The survival rate was 83.61% for the vaccinated group and 33.33% for the sham-vaccinated group. The RPS (relative percent of survival) of the vaccination trial reached 75.41%. In conclusion, the ΔeseJ_eiΔfimA_-245-_-50 strain developed in this study can be used as a vaccine candidate. It excels in terms of ease of delivery (via bath immersion) and is highly efficient in stimulating protection against E. ictaluri infection.

A Macroporous Magnesium Oxide-Templated Carbon Adsorbs Shiga Toxins and Type III Secretory Proteins in Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Which Attenuates Virulence

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is one of the most common foodborne pathogens. However, no drug that prevents the severe complications caused by this bacterium has been approved yet. This study showed that a macroporous magnesium oxide (MgO)-templated carbon material (MgOC₁₅₀) adsorbs Shiga toxins, and Type III secretory EspA/EspB proteins responsible for EHEC pathogenesis, and decreases the extracellular levels of these proteins. On the other hand, this material did not affect the growth of EHEC. Citrobacter rodentium traditionally used to estimate Type III secretion system-associated virulence in mice is highly virulent. The survival period of infected mice was prolonged when MgOC₁₅₀ was administered. This adsorbent disturbed neither mammalian cells nor normal intestinal bacteria, such as Enterococcus hirae, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Lactobacillus casei. In contrast, MgOC₁₅₀ adsorbed antimicrobial agents, including β-lactams, quinolones, tetracyclines, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. However, fosfomycin and amikacin were not adsorbed. Thus, MgOC₁₅₀ can be used with fosfomycin and amikacin to treat infections. MgOC₁₅₀ is used for industrial purposes, such as an electrode catalyst, a bioelectrode, and enzyme immobilization. The study proposed another potential application of MgOC₁₅₀, assisting anti-EHEC chemotherapy.

A Highly Unstable and Elusive Plasmid That Encodes the Type III Secretion System Is Necessary for Full Virulence in the Marine Fish Pathogen Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida

The marine bacterium Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida (Pdp) causes photobacteriosis in fish and important financial losses in aquaculture, but knowledge of its virulence factors is still scarce. We here demonstrate that an unstable plasmid (pPHDPT3) that encodes a type III secretion system (T3SS) is highly prevalent in Pdp strains from different geographical origins and fish host species. We found that pPHDPT3 undergoes curing upon in vitro cultivation, and this instability constitutes a generalized feature of pPHDPT3-like plasmids in Pdp strains. pPHDPT3 markers were detected in tissues of naturally-infected moribund fish and in the Pdp colonies grown directly from the fish tissues but were undetectable in a fraction of the colonies produced upon the first passage of the primeval colonies on agar plates. Notably, cured strains exhibited a marked reduction in virulence for fish, demonstrating that pPHDPT3 is a major virulence factor of Pdp. The attempts to stabilize pPHDPT3 by insertion of antibiotic resistance markers by allelic exchange caused an even greater reduction in virulence. We hypothesize that the existence of a high pressure to shed pPHDPT3 plasmid in vitro caused the selection of clones with off-target mutations and gene rearrangements during the process of genetic modification. Collectively, these results show that pPHDPT3 constitutes a novel, hitherto unreported virulence factor of Pdp that shows a high instability in vitro and warn that the picture of Pdp virulence genes has been historically underestimated, since the loss of the T3SS and other plasmid-borne genes may have occurred systematically in laboratories for decades.

Reprogramming of Cell Death Pathways by Bacterial Effectors as a Widespread Virulence Strategy

The modulation of programmed cell death (PCD) processes during bacterial infections is an evolving arms race between pathogens and their hosts. The initiation of apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis pathways are essential to immunity against many intracellular and extracellular bacteria. These cellular self-destructive mechanisms are used by the infected host to restrict and eliminate bacterial pathogens. Without a tight regulatory control, host cell death can become a double-edged sword. Inflammatory PCDs contribute to an effective immune response against pathogens, but unregulated inflammation aggravates the damage caused by bacterial infections. Thus, fine-tuning of these pathways is required to resolve infection while preserving the host immune homeostasis. In turn, bacterial pathogens have evolved secreted virulence factors or effector proteins that manipulate PCD pathways to promote infection. In this review, we discuss the importance of controlled cell death in immunity to bacterial infection. We also detail the mechanisms employed by type 3 secreted bacterial effectors to bypass these pathways and their importance in bacterial pathogenesis.

Chemical proteomics for identifying short-chain fatty acid modified proteins in Salmonella

Microbiota-metabolized small molecules play important roles to regulate host immunity and pathogen virulence. Specifically, microbiota generates millimolar concentration of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) that can directly inhibit Salmonella virulence. Here, we describe chemical proteomic methods to identify SCFA-modified proteins in Salmonella using free fatty acids as well as their salicylic acid derivatives. In addition, we include CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing protocols for epitope-tagging of specific proteins to validate SCFA-modification in Salmonella. These protocols should facilitate the discovery and functional analysis of SCFA-modified proteins in Salmonella microbiology and pathogenesis.

Inflammasome Contribution to the Activation of Th1, Th2, and Th17 Immune Responses

Inflammasomes are cytosolic polyprotein complexes formed in response to various external and internal stimuli, including viral and bacterial antigens. The main product of the inflammasome is active caspase 1 which proteolytically cleaves, releasing functional interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). These cytokines play a central role in shaping immune response to pathogens. In this review, we will focus on the mechanisms of inflammasome activation, as well as their role in development of Th1, Th2, and Th17 lymphocytes. The contribution of cytokines IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-33, products of activated inflammasomes, are summarized. Additionally, the role of cytokines released from tissue cells in promoting differentiation of lymphocyte populations is discussed.

Roles of the Tol/Pal System in Bacterial Pathogenesis and Its Application to Antibacterial Therapy

The Tol/Pal system (also written as “The Tol-Pal system”) is a set of protein complexes produced by most Gram-negative bacteria. It comprises the inner membrane-associated and the outer membrane-anchored subunits composed of the TolA, TolQ, and TolR proteins and the TolB and Pal proteins, respectively. Although the Tol/Pal system was first defined as bacterial proteins involved in colicin uptake of Escherichia coli, its global roles have been characterized in several studies as mentioned in this article. Pathogenesis of many Gram-negative pathogens is sustained by the Tol/Pal system. It is also essential for cell growth and fitness in some pathogens. Therefore, the Tol/Pal system is proposed as a potential target for antimicrobial chemotherapy. Although the tol/pal mutants are low in virulence, they still have the ability to stimulate the immune system. The Pal protein is highly immunogenic and induces both adaptive and innate immune responses. Therefore, the tol/pal mutant strains and Pal proteins also have potential vaccine properties. For these reasons, the Tol/Pal system represents a promising research target in the development of antibacterial therapeutic strategies for refractory infections caused by multi-drug-resistant (MDR), Gram-negative pathogens. In this paper, we summarize studies on the Tol/Pal system associated with bacterial pathogenesis and vaccine development.

Structural and Functional Analysis of SsaV Cytoplasmic Domain and Variable Linker States in the Context of the InvA-SsaV Chimeric Protein

The type III secretion (T3S) injectisome is a syringe-like protein-delivery nanomachine widely utilized by Gram-negative bacteria. It can deliver effector proteins directly from bacteria into eukaryotic host cells, which is crucial for the bacterial-host interaction. Intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium encodes two sets of T3S injectisomes from Salmonella pathogenicity islands 1 and 2 (SPI-1 and SPI-2), which are critical for its host invasion and intracellular survival, respectively. The inner membrane export gate protein, SctV (InvA in SPI-1 and SsaV in SPI-2), is the largest component of the injectisome and is essential for assembly and function of T3SS. Here, we report the 2.11 Å cryo-EM structure of the SsaV cytoplasmic domain (SsaVC) in the context of a full-length SctV chimera consisting of the transmembrane region of InvA, the linker of SsaV (SsaVL) and SsaVC. The structural analysis shows that SsaVC exists in a semi-open state and SsaVL exhibits two major orientations, implying a highly dynamic process of SsaV for the substrate selection and secretion in a full-length context. A biochemical assay indicates that SsaVL plays an essential role in maintaining the nonameric state of SsaV. This study offers near atomic-level insights into how SsaVC and SsaVL facilitate the assembly and function of SsaV and may lead to the development of potential anti-virulence therapeutics against T3SS-mediated bacterial infection. IMPORTANCE Type III secretion system (T3SS) is a multicomponent nanomachine and a critical virulence factor for a wide range of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. It can deliver numbers of effectors into the host cell to facilitate the bacterial host infection. Export gate protein SctV, as one of the engines of T3SS, is at the center of T3SS assembly and function. In this study, we show the high-resolution atomic structure of the cytosolic domain of SctV in the nonameric state with variable linker conformations. Our first observation of conformational changes of the linker region of SctV and the semi-open state of the cytosolic domain of SctV in the full-length context further support that the substrate selection and secretion process of SctV is highly dynamic. These findings have important implications for the development of therapeutic strategies targeting SctV to combat T3SS-mediated bacterial infection.

Injectisome T3SS subunits as potential chaperones in the extracellular export of Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum bacteriocins Carocin S1 and Carocin S3 secreted via flagellar T3SS

Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (Pcc) causes soft-rot disease in a wide variety of plants resulting in economic losses worldwide. It produces various types of bacteriocin to compete against related plant pathogens. Studies on how bacteriocins are extracellularly secreted are conducted to understand the mechanism of interbacterial competition. In this study, the secretion of the low-molecular-weight bacteriocins (LMWB) Carocin S1 and Carocin S3 produced by a multiple-bacteriocin producing strain of Pcc, 89-H-4, was investigated. Tn5 insertional mutagenesis was used to generate a mutant, TH22–6, incapable of LMWBs secretion. Sequence and homology analyses of the gene disrupted by transposon Tn5 insertion revealed that the gene sctT, an essential component of the injectisome type III secretion machinery (T3aSS), is required for the secretion of the bacteriocins. This result raised a question regarding the nature of the secretion mechanism of Pcc bacteriocins which was previously discovered to be secreted via T3bSS, a system that utilizes the bacterial flagellum for extracellular secretions. Our previous report has shown that bacteriocin Carocin S1 cannot be secreted by mutants that are defective of T3bSS-related genes such as flhA, flhC, flhD and fliC. We knocked out several genes making up the significant structural components of both T3aSS and T3bSS. The findings led us to hypothesize the potential roles of the T3aSS-related proteins, SctT, SctU and SctV, as flagellar T3SS chaperones in the secretion of Pcc bacteriocins. This current discovery and the findings of our previous study helped us to conceptualize a unique Type III secretion system for bacteriocin extracellular export which is a hybrid of the injectisome and flagellar secretion systems.

Idiosyncratic Biogenesis of Intracellular Pathogens-Containing Vacuoles

While most bacterial species taken up by macrophages are degraded through processing of the bacteria-containing vacuole through the endosomal-lysosomal degradation pathway, intravacuolar pathogens have evolved to evade degradation through the endosomal-lysosomal pathway. All intra-vacuolar pathogens possess specialized secretion systems (T3SS-T7SS) that inject effector proteins into the host cell cytosol to modulate myriad of host cell processes and remodel their vacuoles into proliferative niches. Although intravacuolar pathogens utilize similar secretion systems to interfere with their vacuole biogenesis, each pathogen has evolved a unique toolbox of protein effectors injected into the host cell to interact with, and modulate, distinct host cell targets. Thus, intravacuolar pathogens have evolved clear idiosyncrasies in their interference with their vacuole biogenesis to generate a unique intravacuolar niche suitable for their own proliferation. While there has been a quantum leap in our knowledge of modulation of phagosome biogenesis by intravacuolar pathogens, the detailed biochemical and cellular processes affected remain to be deciphered. Here we discuss how the intravacuolar bacterial pathogens Salmonella, Chlamydia, Mycobacteria, Legionella, Brucella, Coxiella, and Anaplasma utilize their unique set of effectors injected into the host cell to interfere with endocytic, exocytic, and ER-to-Golgi vesicle traffic. However, Coxiella is the main exception for a bacterial pathogen that proliferates within the hydrolytic lysosomal compartment, but its T4SS is essential for adaptation and proliferation within the lysosomal-like vacuole.

Yersinia remodels epigenetic histone modifications in human macrophages

Various pathogens systematically reprogram gene expression in macrophages, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. We investigated whether the enteropathogen Yersinia enterocolitica alters chromatin states to reprogram gene expression in primary human macrophages. Genome-wide chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) seq analyses showed that pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) induced up- or down-regulation of histone modifications (HMod) at approximately 14500 loci in promoters and enhancers. Effectors of Y. enterocolitica reorganized about half of these dynamic HMod, with the effector YopP being responsible for about half of these modulatory activities. The reorganized HMod were associated with genes involved in immune response and metabolism. Remarkably, the altered HMod also associated with 61% of all 534 known Rho GTPase pathway genes, revealing a new level in Rho GTPase regulation and a new aspect of bacterial pathogenicity. Changes in HMod were associated to varying degrees with corresponding gene expression, e. g. depending on chromatin localization and cooperation of the HMod. In summary, infection with Y. enterocolitica remodels HMod in human macrophages to modulate key gene expression programs of the innate immune response.

Human pathogenic bacteria can affect epigenetic histone modifications to modulate gene expression in host cells. However, a systems biology analysis of this bacterial virulence mechanism in immune cells has not been performed. Here we analyzed genome-wide epigenetic histone modifications and associated gene expression changes in primary human macrophages infected with enteropathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica. We demonstrate that Yersinia virulence factors extensively modulate histone modifications and associated gene expression triggered by the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of the bacteria. The epigenetically modulated genes are involved in several key pathways of the macrophage immune response, including the Rho GTPase pathway, revealing a novel level of Rho GTPase regulation by a bacterial pathogen. Overall, our findings provide an in-depth view of epigenetic and gene expression changes during host-pathogen interaction and might have further implications for understanding of the innate immune memory in macrophages.

Roles of OmpA in Type III Secretion System-Mediated Virulence of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Outer membrane proteins are commonly produced by gram-negative bacteria, and they have diverse functions. A subgroup of proteins, which includes OmpA, OmpW and OmpX, is often involved in bacterial pathogenesis. Here we show that OmpA, rather than OmpW or OmpX, contributes to the virulence of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) through its type III secretion system (T3SS). Deletion of ompA decreased secretion of the T3SS proteins EspA and EspB; however, the expression level of the LEE genes that encode a set of T3SS proteins did not decrease. The ompA mutant had less abilities to form A/E lesions in host epithelial cells and lyse human red blood cells than the parent strain. Moreover, the virulence of an ompA mutant of Citrobacter rodentium (traditionally used to estimate T3SS-associated virulence in mice) was attenuated. Mice infected with the ompA mutant survived longer than those infected with the parent strain. Furthermore, mice infected with ompA developed symptoms of diarrhea more slowly than mice infected with the parent strain. Altogether, these results suggest that OmpA sustains the activity of the T3SS and is required for optimal virulence in EHEC. This work expands the roles of outer membrane proteins in bacterial pathogenesis.

Plant nitrate supply regulates Erwinia amylovora virulence gene expression in Arabidopsis

We showed previously that nitrogen (N) limitation decreases Arabidopsis resistance to Erwinia amylovora (Ea). We show that decreased resistance to bacteria in low N is correlated with lower apoplastic reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and lower jasmonic acid (JA) pathway expression. Consistently, pretreatment with methyl jasmonate (Me-JA) increased the resistance of plants grown under low N. In parallel, we show that in planta titres of a nonvirulent type III secretion system (T3SS)-deficient Ea mutant were lower than those of wildtype Ea in low N, as expected, but surprisingly not in high N. This lack of difference in high N was consistent with the low expression of the T3SS-encoding hrp virulence genes by wildtype Ea in plants grown in high N compared to plants grown in low N. This suggests that expressing its virulence factors in planta could be a major limiting factor for Ea in the nonhost Arabidopsis. To test this hypothesis, we preincubated Ea in an inducing medium that triggers expression of hrp genes in vitro, prior to inoculation. This preincubation strongly enhanced Ea titres in planta, independently of the plant N status, and was correlated to a significant repression of JA-dependent genes. Finally, we identify two clusters of metabolites associated with resistance or with susceptibility to Ea. Altogether, our data showed that high susceptibility of Arabidopsis to Ea, under low N or following preincubation in hrp-inducing medium, is correlated with high expression of the Ea hrp genes in planta and low expression of the JA signalling pathway, and is correlated with the accumulation of specific metabolites.