Resolving the molecular mechanism of cadherin catch bond formation

De novo DNA-based catch bonds

All primary chemical interactions weaken under mechanical stress, which imposes fundamental mechanical limits on the materials constructed from them. Biological materials combine plasticity with strength, for which nature has evolved a unique solution-catch bonds, supramolecular interactions that strengthen under tension. Biological catch bonds use force-gated conformational switches to convert weak bonds into strong ones. So far, catch bonds remain exclusive to nature, leaving their potential as mechanoadaptive elements in synthetic systems untapped. Here we report the design and realization of artificial catch bonds. Starting from a minimal set of thermodynamic design requirements, we created a molecular motif capable of catch bonding. It consists of a DNA duplex featuring a cryptic domain that unfolds under tension to strengthen the interaction. We show that these catch bonds recreate force-enhanced rolling adhesion, a hallmark feature of biological catch bonds in bacteria and leukocytes. This Article introduces catch bonds into the synthetic domain, and could lead to the creation of artificial catch-bonded materials.

Principles and regulation of mechanosensing

Research over the past two decades has highlighted that mechanical signaling is a crucial component in regulating biological processes. Although many processes and proteins are termed 'mechanosensitive', the underlying mechanisms involved in mechanosensing can vary greatly. Recent studies have also identified mechanosensing behaviors that can be regulated independently of applied force. This important finding has major implications for our understanding of downstream mechanotransduction, the process by which mechanical signals are converted into biochemical signals, as it offers another layer of biochemical regulatory control for these crucial signaling pathways. In this Review, we discuss the different molecular and cellular mechanisms of mechanosensing, how these processes are regulated and their effects on downstream mechanotransduction. Together, these discussions provide an important perspective on how cells and tissues control the ways in which they sense and interpret mechanical signals.

Engineering an artificial catch bond using mechanical anisotropy

Catch bonds are a rare class of protein-protein interactions where the bond lifetime increases under an external pulling force. Here, we report how modification of anchor geometry generates catch bonding behavior for the mechanostable Dockerin G:Cohesin E (DocG:CohE) adhesion complex found on human gut bacteria. Using AFM single-molecule force spectroscopy in combination with bioorthogonal click chemistry, we mechanically dissociate the complex using five precisely controlled anchor geometries. When tension is applied between residue #13 on CohE and the N-terminus of DocG, the complex behaves as a two-state catch bond, while in all other tested pulling geometries, including the native configuration, it behaves as a slip bond. We use a kinetic Monte Carlo model with experimentally derived parameters to simulate rupture force and lifetime distributions, achieving strong agreement with experiments. Single-molecule FRET measurements further demonstrate that the complex does not exhibit dual binding mode behavior at equilibrium but unbinds along multiple pathways under force. Together, these results show how mechanical anisotropy and anchor point selection can be used to engineer artificial catch bonds.

Adherens junctions as molecular regulators of emergent tissue mechanics

Tissue and organ development during embryogenesis relies on the collective and coordinated action of many cells. Recent studies have revealed that tissue material properties, including transitions between fluid and solid tissue states, are controlled in space and time to shape embryonic structures and regulate cell behaviours. Although the collective cellular flows that sculpt tissues are guided by tissue-level physical changes, these ultimately emerge from cellular-level and subcellular-level molecular mechanisms. Adherens junctions are key subcellular structures, built from clusters of classical cadherin receptors. They mediate physical interactions between cells and connect biochemical signalling to the physical characteristics of cell contacts, hence playing a fundamental role in tissue morphogenesis. In this Review, we take advantage of the results of recent, quantitative measurements of tissue mechanics to relate the molecular and cellular characteristics of adherens junctions, including adhesion strength, tension and dynamics, to the emergent physical state of embryonic tissues. We focus on systems in which cell-cell interactions are the primary contributor to morphogenesis, without significant contribution from cell-matrix interactions. We suggest that emergent tissue mechanics is an important direction for future research, bridging cell biology, developmental biology and mechanobiology to provide a holistic understanding of morphogenesis in health and disease.

Structural basis of molecular recognition among classical cadherins mediating cell adhesion

Cadherins are type-I membrane glycoproteins that primarily participate in calcium-dependent cell adhesion and homotypic cell sorting in various stages of embryonic development. Besides their crucial role in cellular and physiological processes, increasing studies highlight their involvement in pathophysiological functions ranging from cancer progression and metastasis to being entry receptors for pathogens. Cadherins mediate these cellular processes through homophilic, as well as heterophilic interactions (within and outside the superfamily) by their membrane distal ectodomains. This review provides an in-depth structural perspective of molecular recognition among type-I and type-II classical cadherins. Furthermore, this review offers structural insights into different dimeric assemblies like the 'strand-swap dimer' and 'X-dimer' as well as mechanisms relating these dimer forms like 'two-step adhesion' and 'encounter complex'. Alongside providing structural details, this review connects structural studies to bond mechanics merging crystallographic and single-molecule force spectroscopic findings. Finally, the review discusses the recent discoveries on dimeric intermediates that uncover prospects of further research beyond two-step adhesion.

Molecular basis and cellular functions of vinculin-actin directional catch bonding

The ability of cells and tissues to respond differentially to mechanical forces applied in distinct directions is mediated by the ability of load-bearing proteins to preferentially maintain physical linkages in certain directions. However, the molecular basis and biological consequences of directional force-sensitive binding remain unclear. Vinculin (Vcn) is a load-bearing linker protein that exhibits directional catch bonding due to interactions between the Vcn tail domain (Vt) and filamentous (F)-actin. We developed a computational approach to predict Vcn residues involved in directional catch bonding and produced a set of associated Vcn variants with unaltered Vt structure, actin binding, or phospholipid interactions. Incorporation of the variants did not affect Vcn activation but reduced Vcn loading and altered exchange dynamics, consistent with the loss of directional catch bonding. Expression of Vcn variants perturbed the coordination of subcellular structures and cell migration, establishing key cellular functions for Vcn directional catch bonding.

Molecular mechanisms of catch bonds and their implications for platelet hemostasis

Adhesive molecular bonds between blood cells are essential for thrombosis and hemostasis as they provide means for platelet adhesion, aggregation, and signaling in flowing blood. According to the nowadays conventional definition, a "catch" bond is a type of non-covalent bio-molecular bridge, whose dissociation lifetime counter-intuitively increases with applied tensile force. Following recent experimental findings, such receptor-ligand protein bonds are vital to the blood cells involved in the prevention of bleeding (hemostatic response) and infection (immunity). In this review, we examine the up-to-date experimental discoveries and theoretical insights about catch bonds between the blood cells, their biomechanical principles at the molecular level, and their role in platelet thrombosis and hemostasis.

Mechanotransduction: Forcing a change in metabolism

Epithelial and endothelial cells experience numerous mechanical cues throughout their lifetimes. Cells resist these forces by fortifying their cytoskeletal networks and adhesions. This reinforcement is energetically costly. Here we describe how these energetic demands are met. We focus on the response of epithelial and endothelial cells to mechanical cues, describe the energetic needs of epithelia and endothelia, and identify the mechanisms these cells employ to increase glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, and fatty acid metabolism. We discuss the similarities and differences in the responses of the two cell types.

Push-pull mechanics of E-cadherin ectodomains in biomimetic adhesions

E-cadherin plays a central role in cell-cell adhesion. The ectodomains of wild-type cadherins form a crystalline-like two-dimensional lattice in cell-cell interfaces mediated by both trans (apposed cell) and cis (same cell) interactions. In addition to these extracellular forces, adhesive strength is further regulated by cytosolic phenomena involving α and β catenin-mediated interactions between cadherin and the actin cytoskeleton. Cell-cell adhesion can be further strengthened under tension through mechanisms that have not been definitively characterized in molecular detail. Here we quantitatively determine the role of the cadherin ectodomain in mechanosensing. To this end, we devise an E-cadherin-coated emulsion system, in which droplet surface tension is balanced by protein binding strength to give rise to stable areas of adhesion. To reach the honeycomb/cohesive limit, an initial emulsion compression by centrifugation facilitates E-cadherin trans binding, whereas a high protein surface concentration enables the cis-enhanced stabilization of the interface. We observe an abrupt concentration dependence on recruitment into adhesions of constant crystalline density, reminiscent of a first-order phase transition. Removing the lateral cis interaction with a "cis mutant" shifts this transition to higher surface densities leading to denser, yet weaker adhesions. In both proteins, the stabilization of progressively larger areas of deformation is consistent with single-molecule experiments that show a force-dependent lifetime enhancement in the cadherin ectodomain, which may be attributed to the "X-dimer" bond.

Engineering the Interactions of Classical Cadherin Cell-Cell Adhesion Proteins

Classical cadherins are calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion proteins that play key roles in the formation and maintenance of tissues. Deficiencies in cadherin adhesion are hallmarks of numerous cancers. In this article, we review recent biophysical studies on the regulation of cadherin structure and adhesion. We begin by reviewing distinct cadherin binding conformations, their biophysical properties, and their response to mechanical stimuli. We then describe biophysical guidelines for engineering Abs that can regulate adhesion by either stabilizing or destabilizing cadherin interactions. Finally, we review molecular mechanisms by which cytoplasmic proteins regulate the conformation of cadherin extracellular regions from the inside out.

Catch bond models may explain how force amplifies TCR signaling and antigen discrimination

The TCR integrates forces in its triggering process upon interaction with pMHC. Force elicits TCR catch-slip bonds with strong pMHCs but slip-only bonds with weak pMHCs. We develop two models and apply them to analyze 55 datasets, demonstrating the models' ability to quantitatively integrate and classify a broad range of bond behaviors and biological activities. Comparing to a generic two-state model, our models can distinguish class I from class II MHCs and correlate their structural parameters with the TCR/pMHC's potency to trigger T cell activation. The models are tested by mutagenesis using an MHC and a TCR mutated to alter conformation changes. The extensive comparisons between theory and experiment provide model validation and testable hypothesis regarding specific conformational changes that control bond profiles, thereby suggesting structural mechanisms for the inner workings of the TCR mechanosensing machinery and plausible explanations of why and how force may amplify TCR signaling and antigen discrimination.

The emerging roles of the cytoskeleton in intestinal epithelium homeostasis

The intestinal epithelium must absorb many nutrients and water while forming a barrier that is impermeable to pathogens present in the external environment. Concurrently to fulfill this dual role, the intestinal epithelium is challenged by a rapid renewal of cells and forces resulting from digestion. Hence, intestinal homeostasis requires precise control of tissue integrity, tissue renewal, cell polarity, and force generation/transmission. In this review, we highlight the contribution of the cell cytoskeleton- actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments- to intestinal epithelium homeostasis. With a focus on enterocytes, we first discuss the role of these networks in the formation and maintenance of cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Then, we cover their role in intracellular trafficking related to the apicobasal polarity of enterocytes. Finally, we report on the cytoskeletal changes that occur during tissue renewal. In conclusion, the importance of the cytoskeleton in maintaining intestinal homeostasis is emerging, and we think this field will keep evolving.

Catch bond-inspired hydrogels with repeatable and loading rate-sensitive specific adhesion

Biological receptor-ligand adhesion governed by mammalian cells involves a series of mechanochemical processes that can realize reversible, loading rate-dependent specific interfacial bonding, and even exhibit a counterintuitive behavior called catch bonds that tend to have much longer lifetimes when larger pulling forces are applied. Inspired by these catch bonds, we designed a hydrogen bonding-meditated hydrogel made from acrylic acid-N-acryloyl glycinamide (AA-NAGA) copolymers and tannic acids (TA), which formed repeatable specific adhesion to polar surfaces in an ultra-fast and robust way, but hardly adhered to nonpolar materials. It demonstrated up to five-fold increase in shear adhesive strength and interfacial adhesive toughness with external loading rates varying from 5 to 500 mm min⁻¹. With a mechanochemical coupling model based on Monte Carlo simulations, we quantitatively revealed the nonlinear dependence of rate-sensitive interfacial adhesion on external loading, which was in good agreement with the experimental data. Likewise, the developed hydrogels were biocompatible, possessed antioxidant and antibacterial properties and promoted wound healing. This work not only reports a stimuli-responsive hydrogel adhesive suitable for multiple biomedical applications, but also offers an innovative strategy for bionic designs of smart hydrogels with loading rate-sensitive specific adhesion for various emerging areas including flexible electronics and soft robotics.

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Catch-bond inspired hydrogels (PNT hydrogels) were proposed.

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PNT hydrogels could realize loading-rate sensitive specific adhesion.

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The nonlinear dynamic responses of PNT hydrogels were quantitatively dissected.

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The optimized PNT-10 hydrogel was promotive in wound healing.

Quantification of carboxylate-bridged di-zinc site stability in protein due ferri by single-molecule force spectroscopy

Carboxylate-bridged diiron proteins belong to a protein family involved in different physiological processes. These proteins share the conservative EXXH motif, which provides the carboxylate bridge and is critical for metal binding. Here, we choose de novo-designed single-chain due ferri protein (DFsc), a four-helical protein with two EXXH motifs as a model protein, to study the stability of the carboxylate-bridged di-metal binding site. The mechanical and kinetic properties of the di-Zn site in DFsc were obtained by atomic force microscopy-based single-molecule force spectroscopy. Zn-DFsc showed a considerable rupture force of ~200 pN, while the apo-protein is mechanically labile. In addition, multiple rupture pathways were observed with different probabilities, indicating the importance of the EXXH-based carboxylate-bridged metal site. These results demonstrate carboxylate-bridged di-metal site is mechanically stable and improve our understanding of this important type of metalloprotein.

Characterizing the Biophysical Properties of Adhesive Proteins in Live Cells Using Single-Molecule Atomic Force Microscopy

Cell adhesion proteins play essential roles in the formation, regeneration, and maintenance of tissue. However, the molecular mechanisms by which cells regulate the conformation and binding properties of adhesion proteins are poorly understood. These biophysical properties can be resolved, with single-molecule resolution, using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Here, we outline how AFM force measurements can be used to study the conformation, cytoskeletal linkage, binding strength, and force-dependent bond lifetimes of adhesion proteins in live cells.

Feedback between mechanosensitive signaling and active forces governs endothelial junction integrity

The formation and recovery of gaps in the vascular endothelium governs a wide range of physiological and pathological phenomena, from angiogenesis to tumor cell extravasation. However, the interplay between the mechanical and signaling processes that drive dynamic behavior in vascular endothelial cells is not well understood. In this study, we propose a chemo-mechanical model to investigate the regulation of endothelial junctions as dependent on the feedback between actomyosin contractility, VE-cadherin bond turnover, and actin polymerization, which mediate the forces exerted on the cell-cell interface. Simulations reveal that active cell tension can stabilize cadherin bonds, but excessive RhoA signaling can drive bond dissociation and junction failure. While actin polymerization aids gap closure, high levels of Rac1 can induce junction weakening. Combining the modeling framework with experiments, our model predicts the influence of pharmacological treatments on the junction state and identifies that a critical balance between RhoA and Rac1 expression is required to maintain junction stability. Our proposed framework can help guide the development of therapeutics that target the Rho family of GTPases and downstream active mechanical processes.

Multiple dimeric structures and strand-swap dimerization of E-cadherin in solution visualized by high-speed atomic force microscopy

Classical cadherins play key roles in cell-cell adhesion. The adhesion process is thought to comprise mainly two steps: X-dimer and strand-swap (SS-) dimer formation of the extracellular domains (ectodomains) of cadherins. The dimerization mechanism of this two-step process has been investigated for type I cadherins, including E-cadherin, of classical cadherins, whereas other binding states also have been proposed, raising the possibility of additional binding processes required for the cadherin dimerization. However, technical limitations in observing single-molecule structures and their dynamics have precluded the investigation of the dynamic binding process of cadherin. Here, we used high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) to observe full-length ectodomains of E-cadherin in solution and identified multiple dimeric structures that had not been reported previously. HS-AFM revealed that almost half of the cadherin dimers showed S- (or reverse S-) shaped conformations, which had more dynamic properties than the SS- and X-like dimers. The combined HS-AFM, mutational, and molecular modeling analyses showed that the S-shaped dimer was formed by membrane-distal ectodomains, while the binding interface was different from that of SS- and X-dimers. Furthermore, the formation of the SS-dimer from the S-shaped and X-like dimers was directly visualized, suggesting the processes of SS-dimer formation from S-shaped and X-dimers during cadherin dimerization.

Intramolecular covalent bonds in Gram-positive bacterial surface proteins

Gram-positive bacteria experience considerable mechanical perturbation when adhering to host surfaces during colonization and infection. They have evolved various adhesion proteins that are mechanically robust to ensure strong surface adhesion. Recently, it was discovered that these adhesion proteins contain rare, extra intramolecular covalent bonds that stabilize protein structures and participate in surface bonding. These intramolecular covalent bonds include isopeptides, thioesters, and ester bonds, which often form spontaneously without the need for additional enzymes. With the development of single-molecule force spectroscopy techniques, the detailed mechanical roles of these intramolecular covalent bonds have been revealed. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in this area of research, focusing on the link between the mechanical stability and function of these covalent bonds in Gram-positive bacterial surface proteins. We also highlight the potential impact of these discoveries on the development of novel antibiotics and chemical biology tools.

Recombinant FimH Adhesin Demonstrates How the Allosteric Catch Bond Mechanism Can Support Fast and Strong Bacterial Attachment in the Absence of Shear

The FimH protein of Escherichia coli is a model two-domain adhesin that is able to mediate an allosteric catch bond mechanism of bacterial cell attachment, where the mannose-binding lectin domain switches from an 'inactive' conformation with fast binding to mannose to an 'active' conformation with slow detachment from mannose. Because mechanical tensile force favors separation of the domains and, thus, FimH activation, it has been thought that the catch bonds can only be manifested in a fluidic shear-dependent mode of adhesion. Here, we used recombinant FimH variants with a weakened inter-domain interaction and show that a fast and sustained allosteric activation of FimH can also occur under static, non-shear conditions. Moreover, it appears that lectin domain conformational activation happens intrinsically at a constant rate, independently from its ability to interact with the pilin domain or mannose. However, the latter two factors control the rate of FimH deactivation. Thus, the allosteric catch bond mechanism can be a much broader phenomenon involved in both fast and strong cell-pathogen attachments under a broad range of hydrodynamic conditions. This concept that allostery can enable more effective receptor-ligand interactions is fundamentally different from the conventional wisdom that allostery provides a mechanism to turn binding off under specific conditions.

Peeling dynamics of fluid membranes bridged by molecular bonds: moving or breaking

Biological adhesion is a critical mechanical function of complex organisms. At the scale of cell-cell contacts, adhesion is remarkably tunable to enable both cohesion and malleability during development, homeostasis and disease. It is physically supported by transient and laterally mobile molecular bonds embedded in fluid membranes. Thus, unlike specific adhesion at solid-solid or solid-fluid interfaces, peeling at fluid-fluid interfaces can proceed by breaking bonds, by moving bonds or by a combination of both. How the additional degree of freedom provided by bond mobility changes the mechanics of peeling is not understood. To address this, we develop a theoretical model coupling diffusion, reactions and mechanics. Mobility and reaction rates determine distinct peeling regimes. In a diffusion-dominated Stefan-like regime, bond motion establishes self-stabilizing dynamics that increase the effective fracture energy. In a reaction-dominated regime, peeling proceeds by travelling fronts where marginal diffusion and unbinding control peeling speed. In a mixed reaction-diffusion regime, strengthening by bond motion competes with weakening by bond breaking in a force-dependent manner, defining the strength of the adhesion patch. In turn, patch strength depends on molecular properties such as bond stiffness, force sensitivity or crowding. We thus establish the physical rules enabling tunable cohesion in cellular tissues and in engineered biomimetic systems.

Force-dependent intercellular adhesion strengthening underlies asymmetric adherens junction contraction

Tissue morphogenesis arises from the culmination of changes in cell-cell junction length. Mechanochemical signaling in the form of RhoA underlies these ratcheted contractions, which occur asymmetrically. The underlying mechanisms of asymmetry remain unknown. We use optogenetically controlled RhoA in model epithelia together with biophysical modeling to uncover the mechanism lending to asymmetric vertex motion. Using optogenetic and pharmacological approaches, we find that both local and global RhoA activation can drive asymmetric junction contraction in the absence of tissue-scale patterning. We find that standard vertex models with homogeneous junction properties are insufficient to recapitulate the observed junction dynamics. Furthermore, these experiments reveal a local coupling of RhoA activation with E-cadherin accumulation. This motivates a coupling of RhoA-mediated increases in tension and E-cadherin-mediated adhesion strengthening. We then demonstrate that incorporating this force-sensitive adhesion strengthening into a continuum model is successful in capturing the observed junction dynamics. Thus, we find that a force-dependent intercellular "clutch" at tricellular vertices stabilizes vertex motion under increasing tension and is sufficient to generate asymmetries in junction contraction.

Assessing models of force-dependent unbinding rates via infrequent metadynamics

Protein–ligand interactions are crucial for a wide range of physiological processes. Many cellular functions result in these non-covalent “bonds” being mechanically strained, and this can be integral to proper cellular function. Broadly, two classes of force dependence have been observed—slip bonds, where the unbinding rate increases, and catch bonds, where the unbinding rate decreases. Despite much theoretical work, we cannot predict for which protein–ligand pairs, pulling coordinates, and forces a particular rate dependence will appear. Here, we assess the ability of MD simulations combined with enhanced sampling techniques to probe the force dependence of unbinding rates. We show that the infrequent metadynamics technique correctly produces both catch and slip bonding kinetics for model potentials. We then apply it to the well-studied case of a buckyball in a hydrophobic cavity, which appears to exhibit an ideal slip bond. Finally, we compute the force-dependent unbinding rate of biotin–streptavidin. Here, the complex nature of the unbinding process causes the infrequent metadynamics method to begin to break down due to the presence of unbinding intermediates, despite the use of a previously optimized sampling coordinate. Allowing for this limitation, a combination of kinetic and free energy computations predicts an overall slip bond for larger forces consistent with prior experimental results although there are substantial deviations at small forces that require further investigation. This work demonstrates the promise of predicting force-dependent unbinding rates using enhanced sampling MD techniques while also revealing the methodological barriers that must be overcome to tackle more complex targets in the future.

Elastic versus brittle mechanical responses predicted for dimeric cadherin complexes

Cadherins are a superfamily of adhesion proteins involved in a variety of biological processes that include the formation of intercellular contacts, the maintenance of tissue integrity, and the development of neuronal circuits. These transmembrane proteins are characterized by ectodomains composed of a variable number of extracellular cadherin (EC) repeats that are similar but not identical in sequence and fold. E-cadherin, along with desmoglein and desmocollin proteins, are three classical-type cadherins that have slightly curved ectodomains and engage in homophilic and heterophilic interactions through an exchange of conserved tryptophan residues in their N-terminal EC1 repeat. In contrast, clustered protocadherins are straighter than classical cadherins and interact through an antiparallel homophilic binding interface that involves overlapped EC1 to EC4 repeats. Here we present molecular dynamics simulations that model the adhesive domains of these cadherins using available crystal structures, with systems encompassing up to 2.8 million atoms. Simulations of complete classical cadherin ectodomain dimers predict a two-phased elastic response to force in which these complexes first softly unbend and then stiffen to unbind without unfolding. Simulated α, β, and γ clustered protocadherin homodimers lack a two-phased elastic response, are brittle and stiffer than classical cadherins and exhibit complex unbinding pathways that in some cases involve transient intermediates. We propose that these distinct mechanical responses are important for function, with classical cadherin ectodomains acting as molecular shock absorbers and with stiffer clustered protocadherin ectodomains facilitating overlap that favors binding specificity over mechanical resilience. Overall, our simulations provide insights into the molecular mechanics of single cadherin dimers relevant in the formation of cellular junctions essential for tissue function.

Collective mechanical responses of cadherin-based adhesive junctions as predicted by simulations

Cadherin-based adherens junctions and desmosomes help stabilize cell-cell contacts with additional function in mechano-signaling, while clustered protocadherin junctions are responsible for directing neuronal circuits assembly. Structural models for adherens junctions formed by epithelial cadherin (CDH1) proteins indicate that their long, curved ectodomains arrange to form a periodic, two-dimensional lattice stabilized by tip-to-tip trans interactions (across junction) and lateral cis contacts. Less is known about the exact architecture of desmosomes, but desmoglein (DSG) and desmocollin (DSC) cadherin proteins are also thought to form ordered junctions. In contrast, clustered protocadherin (PCDH)-based cell-cell contacts in neuronal tissues are thought to be responsible for self-recognition and avoidance, and structural models for clustered PCDH junctions show a linear arrangement in which their long and straight ectodomains form antiparallel overlapped trans complexes. Here, we report all-atom molecular dynamics simulations testing the mechanics of minimalistic adhesive junctions formed by CDH1, DSG2 coupled to DSC1, and PCDHγB4, with systems encompassing up to 3.7 million atoms. Simulations generally predict a favored shearing pathway for the adherens junction model and a two-phased elastic response to tensile forces for the adhesive adherens junction and the desmosome models. Complexes within these junctions first unbend at low tensile force and then become stiff to unbind without unfolding. However, cis interactions in both the CDH1 and DSG2-DSC1 systems dictate varied mechanical responses of individual dimers within the junctions. Conversely, the clustered protocadherin PCDHγB4 junction lacks a distinct two-phased elastic response. Instead, applied tensile force strains trans interactions directly, as there is little unbending of monomers within the junction. Transient intermediates, influenced by new cis interactions, are observed after the main rupture event. We suggest that these collective, complex mechanical responses mediated by cis contacts facilitate distinct functions in robust cell-cell adhesion for classical cadherins and in self-avoidance signaling for clustered PCDHs.

Cortical tension initiates the positive feedback loop between cadherin and F-actin

Adherens junctions physically link two cells at their contact interface via extracellular binding between cadherin molecules and intracellular interactions between cadherins and the actin cytoskeleton. Cadherin and actomyosin cytoskeletal dynamics are regulated reciprocally by mechanical and chemical signals, which subsequently determine the strength of cell-cell adhesions and the emergent organization and stiffness of the tissues they form. However, an understanding of the integrated system is lacking. We present a new mechanistic computational model of intercellular junction maturation in a cell doublet to investigate the mechanochemical cross talk that regulates adherens junction formation and homeostasis. The model couples a two-dimensional lattice-based simulation of cadherin dynamics with a reaction-diffusion representation of the reorganising actomyosin network through its regulation by Rho signalling at the intracellular junction. We demonstrate that local immobilization of cadherin induces cluster formation in a cis-less-dependent manner. We then recapitulate the process of cell-cell contact formation. Our model suggests that cortical tension applied on the contact rim can explain the ring distribution of cadherin and actin filaments (F-actin) on the cell-cell contact of the cell doublet. Furthermore, we propose and test the hypothesis that cadherin and F-actin interact like a positive feedback loop, which is necessary for formation of the ring structure. Different patterns of cadherin distribution were observed as an emergent property of disturbances of this positive feedback loop. We discuss these findings in light of available experimental observations on underlying mechanisms related to cadherin/F-actin binding and the mechanical environment.

Regulating life after death: how mechanical communication mediates the epithelial response to apoptosis

It is increasingly evident that cells in tissues and organs can communicate with one another using mechanical forces. Such mechanical signalling can serve as a basis for the assembly of cellular communities. For this to occur, there must be local instabilities in tissue mechanics that are the source of the signals, and mechanisms for changes in mechanical force to be transmitted and detected within tissues. In this review, we discuss these principles using the example of cell death by apoptosis, when it occurs in epithelia. This elicits the phenomenon of apical extrusion, which can rapidly eliminate apoptotic cells by expelling them from the epithelium. Apoptotic extrusion requires that epithelial cells detect the presence of nearby apoptotic cells, something which can be elicited by the mechanotransduction of tensile instabilities caused by the apoptotic cell. We discuss the central role that adherens junctions can play in the transmission and detection of mechanical signals from apoptotic cells.

Neuromechanobiology: An Expanding Field Driven by the Force of Greater Focus

The brain processes information by transmitting signals through highly connected and dynamic networks of neurons. Neurons use specific cellular structures, including axons, dendrites and synapses, and specific molecules, including cell adhesion molecules, ion channels and chemical receptors to form, maintain and communicate among cells in the networks. These cellular and molecular processes take place in environments rich of mechanical cues, thus offering ample opportunities for mechanical regulation of neural development and function. Recent studies have suggested the importance of mechanical cues and their potential regulatory roles in the development and maintenance of these neuronal structures. Also suggested are the importance of mechanical cues and their potential regulatory roles in the interaction and function of molecules mediating the interneuronal communications. In this review, the current understanding is integrated and promising future directions of neuromechanobiology are suggested at the cellular and molecular levels. Several neuronal processes where mechanics likely plays a role are examined and how forces affect ligand binding, conformational change, and signal induction of molecules key to these neuronal processes are indicated, especially at the synapse. The disease relevance of neuromechanobiology as well as therapies and engineering solutions to neurological disorders stemmed from this emergent field of study are also discussed.

Cadmium significantly changes major morphometrical points and cardiovascular functional parameters during early development of zebrafish

Living organisms are commonly exposed to cadmium and other toxic metals. A vast body of research has shown the significant effects of these toxic metals on developmental processes. In order to study the role of toxic metals on early developmental stages of eukaryotes, we explored the effect of cadmium (Cd²⁺) contaminant on zebrafish. Thus, zebrafish embryos were exposed to 3 mg/L (16.7 μM) Cd²⁺ for 96 h and imaged every 24 h from the exposure onwards. Hatching rates of the eggs were determined at 72 h, followed by analyses at 96 h for: survival rate, morphometrical factors, and functional parameters of the cardiovascular system. Interestingly enough, significant hatching delays along with smaller cephalic region and some morphological abnormalities were observed in the treatment group. Moreover, substantial changes were noticed in the length of notochord and embryo, absorption of yolk sac with shorter extension, area of swimming bladder, as well as pericardium sac after Cd²⁺ treatment. Cadmium also caused significant abnormalities in heart physiology which could be the leading cause of mentioned morphological deformities. Herein, our results shine light on systematic acute embryological effects of cadmium in the early development of zebrafish for the first time.

Fibronectin: Molecular Structure, Fibrillar Structure and Mechanochemical Signaling

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a key role as both structural scaffold and regulator of cell signal transduction in tissues. In times of ECM assembly and turnover, cells upregulate assembly of the ECM protein, fibronectin (FN). FN is assembled by cells into viscoelastic fibrils that can bind upward of 40 distinct growth factors and cytokines. These fibrils play a key role in assembling a provisional ECM during embryonic development and wound healing. Fibril assembly is also often upregulated during disease states, including cancer and fibrotic diseases. FN fibrils have unique mechanical properties, which allow them to alter mechanotransduction signals sensed and relayed by cells. Binding of soluble growth factors to FN fibrils alters signal transduction from these proteins, while binding of other ECM proteins, including collagens, elastins, and proteoglycans, to FN fibrils facilitates the maturation and tissue specificity of the ECM. In this review, we will discuss the assembly of FN fibrils from individual FN molecules; the composition, structure, and mechanics of FN fibrils; the interaction of FN fibrils with other ECM proteins and growth factors; the role of FN in transmitting mechanobiology signaling events; and approaches for studying the mechanics of FN fibrils.

Inside-out regulation of E-cadherin conformation and adhesion

Cadherin cell-cell adhesion proteins play key roles in tissue morphogenesis and wound healing. Cadherin ectodomains bind in two conformations, X-dimers and strand-swap dimers, with different adhesive properties. However, the mechanisms by which cells regulate ectodomain conformation are unknown. Cadherin intracellular regions associate with several actin-binding proteins including vinculin, which are believed to tune cell-cell adhesion by remodeling the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we show at the single-molecule level, that vinculin association with the cadherin cytoplasmic region allosterically converts weak X-dimers into strong strand-swap dimers and that this process is mediated by myosin II-dependent changes in cytoskeletal tension. We also show that in epithelial cells, ∼70% of apical cadherins exist as strand-swap dimers while the remaining form X-dimers, providing two cadherin pools with different adhesive properties. Our results demonstrate the inside-out regulation of cadherin conformation and establish a mechanistic role for vinculin in this process.

Characterization of the strain-rate-dependent mechanical response of single cell-cell junctions

Cell-cell adhesions are often subjected to mechanical strains of different rates and magnitudes in normal tissue function. However, the rate-dependent mechanical behavior of individual cell-cell adhesions has not been fully characterized due to the lack of proper experimental techniques and therefore remains elusive. This is particularly true under large strain conditions, which may potentially lead to cell-cell adhesion dissociation and ultimately tissue fracture. In this study, we designed and fabricated a single-cell adhesion micro tensile tester (SCAµTT) using two-photon polymerization and performed displacement-controlled tensile tests of individual pairs of adherent epithelial cells with a mature cell-cell adhesion. Straining the cytoskeleton-cell adhesion complex system reveals a passive shear-thinning viscoelastic behavior and a rate-dependent active stress-relaxation mechanism mediated by cytoskeleton growth. Under low strain rates, stress relaxation mediated by the cytoskeleton can effectively relax junctional stress buildup and prevent adhesion bond rupture. Cadherin bond dissociation also exhibits rate-dependent strengthening, in which increased strain rate results in elevated stress levels at which cadherin bonds fail. This bond dissociation becomes a synchronized catastrophic event that leads to junction fracture at high strain rates. Even at high strain rates, a single cell-cell junction displays a remarkable tensile strength to sustain a strain as much as 200% before complete junction rupture. Collectively, the platform and the biophysical understandings in this study are expected to build a foundation for the mechanistic investigation of the adaptive viscoelasticity of the cell-cell junction.

Activated nanoscale actin-binding domain motion in the catenin-cadherin complex revealed by neutron spin echo spectroscopy

As the core component of the adherens junction in cell-cell adhesion, the cadherin-catenin complex transduces mechanical tension between neighboring cells. Structural studies have shown that the cadherin-catenin complex exists as an ensemble of flexible conformations, with the actin-binding domain (ABD) of α-catenin adopting a variety of configurations. Here, we have determined the nanoscale protein domain dynamics of the cadherin-catenin complex using neutron spin echo spectroscopy (NSE), selective deuteration, and theoretical physics analyses. NSE reveals that, in the cadherin-catenin complex, the motion of the entire ABD becomes activated on nanosecond to submicrosecond timescales. By contrast, in the α-catenin homodimer, only the smaller disordered C-terminal tail of ABD is moving. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations also show increased mobility of ABD in the cadherin-catenin complex, compared to the α-catenin homodimer. Biased MD simulations further reveal that the applied external forces promote the transition of ABD in the cadherin-catenin complex from an ensemble of diverse conformational states to specific states that resemble the actin-bound structure. The activated motion and an ensemble of flexible configurations of the mechanosensory ABD suggest the formation of an entropic trap in the cadherin-catenin complex, serving as negative allosteric regulation that impedes the complex from binding to actin under zero force. Mechanical tension facilitates the reduction in dynamics and narrows the conformational ensemble of ABD to specific configurations that are well suited to bind F-actin. Our results provide a protein dynamics and entropic explanation for the observed force-sensitive binding behavior of a mechanosensitive protein complex.

Detailed Balance Broken by Catch Bond Kinetics Enables Mechanical-Adaptation in Active Materials

Unlike nearly all engineered materials which contain bonds that weaken under load, biological materials contain "catch" bonds which are reinforced under load. Consequently, materials, such as the cell cytoskeleton, can adapt their mechanical properties in response to their state of internal, non-equilibrium (active) stress. However, how large-scale material properties vary with the distance from equilibrium is unknown, as are the relative roles of active stress and binding kinetics in establishing this distance. Through course-grained molecular dynamics simulations, the effect of breaking of detailed balance by catch bonds on the accumulation and dissipation of energy within a model of the actomyosin cytoskeleton is explored. It is found that the extent to which detailed balance is broken uniquely determines a large-scale fluid-solid transition with characteristic time-reversal symmetries. The transition depends critically on the strength of the catch bond, suggesting that active stress is necessary but insufficient to mount an adaptive mechanical response.

Distinct actin-dependent nanoscale assemblies underlie the dynamic and hierarchical organization of E-cadherin

Cadherins are transmembrane adhesion proteins required for the formation of cohesive tissues.^1-4 Intracellular interactions of E-cadherin with the Catenin family proteins, α- and β-catenin, facilitate connections with the cortical actomyosin network. This is necessary for maintaining the integrity of cell-cell adhesion in epithelial tissues.^5-11 The supra-molecular architecture of E-cadherin is an important feature of its adhesion function; cis and trans interactions of E-cadherin are deployed^12-15 to form clusters, both in cis and trans.^11,16-21 Studies in Drosophila embryo have also shown that Drosophila E-cadherin (dE-cad) is organized as finite-sized dynamic clusters that localize with actin patches at cell-cell junctions, in continuous exchange with the extra-junctional pool of dE-cad surrounding the clusters.^11,19 Here, we use the ectopic expression of dE-cad in larval hemocytes, which lack endogenous dE-cad to recapitulate functional cell-cell junctions in a convenient model system. We find that, while dE-cad at cell-cell junctions in hemocytes exhibits a clustered trans-paired organization similar to that reported previously in embryonic epithelial tissue, extra-junctional dE-cad is also organized as relatively immobile nanoclusters as well as more loosely packed diffusive oligomers. Oligomers are promoted by cis interactions of the ectodomain, and their growth is counteracted by the activity of cortical actomyosin. Oligomers in turn promote assembly of dense nanoclusters that require cortical actomyosin activity. Thus, cortical actin activity remodels oligomers and generates nanoclusters. The requirement for dynamic actin in the organization of dE-cad at the nanoscale may provide a mechanism to dynamically tune junctional strength.

Abl and Canoe/Afadin mediate mechanotransduction at tricellular junctions

Epithelial structure is generated by the dynamic reorganization of cells in response to mechanical forces. Adherens junctions transmit forces between cells, but how cells sense and respond to these forces in vivo is not well understood. We identify a mechanotransduction pathway involving the Abl tyrosine kinase and Canoe/Afadin that stabilizes cell adhesion under tension at tricellular junctions in the Drosophila embryo. Canoe is recruited to tricellular junctions in response to actomyosin contractility, and this mechanosensitivity requires Abl-dependent phosphorylation of a conserved tyrosine in the Canoe actin-binding domain. Preventing Canoe tyrosine phosphorylation destabilizes tricellular adhesion, and anchoring Canoe at tricellular junctions independently of mechanical inputs aberrantly stabilizes adhesion, arresting cell rearrangement. These results identify a force-responsive mechanism that stabilizes tricellular adhesion under tension during epithelial remodeling.

Cell-cell interfaces as specialized compartments directing cell function

Cell-cell interfaces are found throughout multicellular organisms, from transient interactions between motile immune cells to long-lived cell-cell contacts in epithelia. Studies of immune cell interactions, epithelial cell barriers, neuronal contacts and sites of cell-cell fusion have identified a core set of features shared by cell-cell interfaces that critically control their function. Data from diverse cell types also show that cells actively and passively regulate the localization, strength, duration and cytoskeletal coupling of receptor interactions governing cell-cell signalling and physical connections between cells, indicating that cell-cell interfaces have a unique membrane organization that emerges from local molecular and cellular mechanics. In this Review, we discuss recent findings that support the emerging view of cell-cell interfaces as specialized compartments that biophysically constrain the arrangement and activity of their protein, lipid and glycan components. We also review how these biophysical features of cell-cell interfaces allow cells to respond with high selectivity and sensitivity to multiple inputs, serving as the basis for wide-ranging cellular functions. Finally, we consider how the unique properties of cell-cell interfaces present opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Force-clamp spectroscopy identifies a catch bond mechanism in a Gram-positive pathogen

Physical forces have profound effects on cellular behavior, physiology, and disease. Perhaps the most intruiguing and fascinating example is the formation of catch-bonds that strengthen cellular adhesion under shear stresses. Today mannose-binding by the Escherichia coli FimH adhesin remains one of the rare microbial catch-bond thoroughly characterized at the molecular level. Here we provide a quantitative demonstration of a catch-bond in living Gram-positive pathogens using force-clamp spectroscopy. We show that the dock, lock, and latch interaction between staphylococcal surface protein SpsD and fibrinogen is strong, and exhibits an unusual catch-slip transition. The bond lifetime first grows with force, but ultimately decreases to behave as a slip bond beyond a critical force (~1 nN) that is orders of magnitude higher than for previously investigated complexes. This catch-bond, never reported for a staphylococcal adhesin, provides the pathogen with a mechanism to tightly control its adhesive function during colonization and infection.

The Mechanical Microenvironment in Breast Cancer

Mechanotransduction is the interpretation of physical cues by cells through mechanosensation mechanisms that elegantly translate mechanical stimuli into biochemical signaling pathways. While mechanical stress and their resulting cellular responses occur in normal physiologic contexts, there are a variety of cancer-associated physical cues present in the tumor microenvironment that are pathological in breast cancer. Mechanistic in vitro data and in vivo evidence currently support three mechanical stressors as mechanical modifiers in breast cancer that will be the focus of this review: stiffness, interstitial fluid pressure, and solid stress. Increases in stiffness, interstitial fluid pressure, and solid stress are thought to promote malignant phenotypes in normal breast epithelial cells, as well as exacerbate malignant phenotypes in breast cancer cells.

Osmotic Gradients in Epithelial Acini Increase Mechanical Tension across E-cadherin, Drive Morphogenesis, and Maintain Homeostasis

Epithelial cells spontaneously form acini (also known as cysts or spheroids) with a single, fluid-filled central lumen when grown in 3D matrices. The size of the lumen is dependent on apical secretion of chloride ions, most notably by the CFTR channel, which has been suggested to establish pressure in the lumen due to water influx. To study the cellular biomechanics of acini morphogenesis and homeostasis, we used MDCK-2 cells. Using FRET-force biosensors for E-cadherin, we observed significant increases in the average tension per molecule for each protein in mature 3D acini as compared to 2D monolayers. Increases in CFTR activity resulted in increased E-cadherin forces, indicating that ionic gradients affect cellular tension. Direct measurements of pressure revealed that mature acini experience significant internal hydrostatic pressure (37 ± 10.9 Pa). Changes in CFTR activity resulted in pressure and/or volume changes, both of which affect E-cadherin tension. Increases in CFTR chloride secretion also induced YAP signaling and cellular proliferation. In order to recapitulate disruption of acinar homeostasis, we induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). During the initial stages of EMT, there was a gradual decrease in E-cadherin force and lumen pressure that correlated with lumen infilling. Strikingly, increasing CFTR activity was sufficient to block EMT. Our results show that ion secretion is an important regulator of morphogenesis and homeostasis in epithelial acini. Furthermore, this work demonstrates that, for closed 3D cellular systems, ion gradients can generate osmotic pressure or volume changes, both of which result in increased cellular tension.

Molecular Mobility-Mediated Regulation of E-Cadherin Adhesion

Cells in epithelial tissues utilize homotypic E-cadherin interaction-mediated adhesions to both physically adhere to each other and sense the physical properties of their microenvironment, such as the presence of other cells in close vicinity or an alteration in the mechanical tension of the tissue. These position E-cadherin centrally in organogenesis and other processes, and its function is therefore tightly regulated through a variety of means including endocytosis and gene expression. How does membrane molecular mobility of E-cadherin, and thus membrane physical properties and associated actin cytoskeleton, impinges on the assembly of adhesive clusters and signaling is discussed.

Single-molecule studies of classical and desmosomal cadherin adhesion

Classical cadherin and desmosomal cadherin cell-cell adhesion proteins play essential roles in tissue morphogenesis and in maintaining tissue integrity. Deficiencies in cadherin adhesion are hallmarks of diseases like cancers, skin diseases and cardiomyopathies. Structural studies and single molecule biophysical measurements have revealed critical similarities and surprising differences between these key adhesion proteins. This review summarizes our current understanding of the biophysics of classical and desmosomal cadherin adhesion and the molecular basis for their cross-talk. We focus on recent single molecule measurements, highlight key insights into the adhesion of cadherin extracellular regions and their relation to associated diseases, and identify major open questions in this exciting area of research.

Tissue Regeneration from Mechanical Stretching of Cell-Cell Adhesion

Cell-cell adhesion complexes are macromolecular adhesive organelles that integrate cells into tissues. This mechanochemical coupling in cell-cell adhesion is required for a large number of cell behaviors, and perturbations of the cell-cell adhesion structure or related mechanotransduction pathways can lead to critical pathological conditions such as skin and heart diseases, arthritis, and cancer. Mechanical stretching has been a widely used method to stimulate the mechanotransduction process originating from the cell-cell adhesion and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) complexes. These studies aimed to reveal the biophysical processes governing cell proliferation, wound healing, gene expression regulation, and cell differentiation in various tissues, including cardiac, muscle, vascular, and bone. This review explores techniques in mechanical stretching in two-dimensional settings with different stretching regimens on different cell types. The mechanotransduction responses from these different cell types will be discussed with an emphasis on their biophysical transformations during mechanical stretching and the cross talk between the cell-cell and cell-ECM adhesion complexes. Therapeutic aspects of mechanical stretching are reviewed considering these cellular responses after the application of mechanical forces, with a focus on wound healing and tissue regeneration. Impact Statement Mechanical stretching has been proposed as a therapeutic option for tissue regeneration and wound healing. It has been accepted that mechanotransduction processes elicited by mechanical stretching govern cellular response and behavior, and these studies have predominantly focused on the cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) sites. This review serves the mechanobiology community by shifting the focus of mechanical stretching effects from cell-ECM adhesions to the less examined cell-cell adhesions, which we believe play an equally important role in orchestrating the response pathways.

Tensile Forces and Mechanotransduction at Cell-Cell Junctions

Cell-cell junctions are specializations of the plasma membrane responsible for physically integrating cells into tissues. We are now beginning to appreciate the diverse impacts that mechanical forces exert upon the integrity and function of these junctions. Currently, this is best understood for cadherin-based adherens junctions in epithelia and endothelia, where cell-cell adhesion couples the contractile cytoskeletons of cells together to generate tissue-scale tension. Junctional tension participates in morphogenesis and tissue homeostasis. Changes in tension can also be detected by mechanotransduction pathways that allow cells to communicate with each other. In this review, we discuss progress in characterising the forces present at junctions in physiological conditions; the cellular mechanisms that generate intrinsic tension and detect changes in tension; and, finally, we consider how tissue integrity is maintained in the face of junctional stresses.

Broken force dispersal network in tip-links by the mutations at the Ca2+-binding residues induces hearing-loss

Tip-link as force-sensor in hearing conveys the mechanical force originating from sound to ion-channels while maintaining the integrity of the entire sensory assembly in the inner ear. This delicate balance between structure and function of tip-links is regulated by Ca²⁺-ions present in endolymph. Mutations at the Ca²⁺-binding sites of tip-links often lead to congenital deafness, sometimes syndromic defects impairing vision along with hearing. Although such mutations are already identified, it is still not clear how the mutants alter the structure-function properties of the force-sensors associated with diseases. With an aim to decipher the differences in force-conveying properties of the force-sensors in molecular details, we identified the conformational variability of mutant and wild-type tip-links at the single-molecule level using FRET at the endolymphatic Ca²⁺ concentrations and subsequently measured the force-responsive behavior using single-molecule force spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). AFM allowed us to mimic the high and wide range of force ramps (10³-10⁶ pN s^-1) as experienced in the inner ear. We performed in silico network analysis to learn that alterations in the conformations of the mutants interrupt the natural force-propagation paths through the sensors and make the mutant tip-links vulnerable to input forces from sound stimuli. We also demonstrated that a Ca²⁺ rich environment can restore the force-response of the mutant tip-links which may eventually facilitate the designing of better therapeutic strategies to the hearing loss.

Force-Dependent Binding Constants

Life is an emergent property of transient interactions between biomolecules and other organic and inorganic molecules that somehow leads to harmony and order. Measurement and quantitation of these biological interactions are of value to scientists and are major goals of biochemistry, as affinities provide insight into biological processes. In an organism, these interactions occur in the context of forces and the need for a consideration of binding affinities in the context of a changing mechanical landscape necessitates a new way to consider the biochemistry of protein–protein interactions. In the past few decades, the field of mechanobiology has exploded, as both the appreciation of, and the technical advances required to facilitate the study of, how forces impact biological processes have become evident. The aim of this review is to introduce the concept of force dependence of biomolecular interactions and the requirement to be able to measure force-dependent binding constants. The focus of this discussion will be on the mechanotransduction that occurs at the integrin-mediated adhesions with the extracellular matrix and the major mechanosensors talin and vinculin. However, the approaches that the cell uses to sense and respond to forces can be applied to other systems, and this therefore provides a general discussion of the force dependence of biomolecule interactions.

Structure-Based Virtual Screening Allows the Identification of Efficient Modulators of E-Cadherin-Mediated Cell-Cell Adhesion

Cadherins are a large family of transmembrane calcium-dependent cell adhesion proteins that orchestrate adherens junction formation and are crucially involved in tissue morphogenesis. Due to their important role in cancer development and metastasis, cadherins can be considered attractive targets for drug discovery. A recent crystal structure of the complex of a cadherin extracellular portion and a small molecule inhibitor allowed the identification of a druggable interface, thus providing a viable strategy for the design of cadherin dimerization modulators. Here, we report on a structure-based virtual screening approach that led to the identification of efficient and selective modulators of E-cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion. Of all the putative inhibitors that were identified and experimentally tested by cell adhesion assays using human pancreatic tumor BxPC-3 cells expressing both E-cadherin and P-cadherin, two compounds turned out to be effective in inhibiting stable cell–cell adhesion at micromolar concentrations. Moreover, at the same concentrations, one of them also showed anti-invasive properties in cell invasion assays. These results will allow further development of novel and selective cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion modulators for the treatment of a variety of cadherin-expressing solid tumors and for improving the efficiency of drug delivery across biological barriers.

Tensile and compressive force regulation on cell mechanosensing

Receptor-mediated cell mechanosensing plays critical roles in cell spreading, migration, growth, and survival. Dynamic force spectroscopy (DFS) techniques have recently been advanced to visualize such processes, which allow the concurrent examination of molecular binding dynamics and cellular response to mechanical stimuli on single living cells. Notably, the live-cell DFS is able to manipulate the force "waveforms" such as tensile versus compressive, ramped versus clamped, static versus dynamic, and short versus long lasting forces, thereby deriving correlations of cellular responses with ligand binding kinetics and mechanical stimulation profiles. Here, by differentiating extracellular mechanical stimulations into two major categories, tensile force and compressive force, we review the latest findings on receptor-mediated mechanosensing mechanisms that are discovered by the state-of-the-art live-cell DFS technologies.