The distribution of glass-transition temperatures in nanoscopically confined glass formers

Dewetting of thin polymer films reveals non-equilibrium conformational difference between substrate and air sides

The anomalous dynamics of thin polymer films, often attributed to geometrical confinement and interfacial interaction, have aroused considerable interest, particularly with regard to the inherent and processing-induced chain conformation changes. Here, the capillary peeling method is employed to obtain reattached thin polystyrene films with either the substrate or the air side beneath. Compared to traditional dewetting experiments solely conducted on the substrate side of as-cast films, the difference in dewetting behavior between the two sides of films is demonstrated, with the air side showing a faster dewetting velocity in the early stage and a larger apparent residual stress. Through this method, the non-equilibrium conformation of polymer chains that used to be located on the air side due to spin-casting can be thoroughly investigated without any interference from free surface effects. Our findings offer evidence of the difference in interfacial chain entanglement density, which determines variations in the performance on relaxation of residual stress within the thin films. This work is an improved method to study polymer dynamics through dewetting and gives insight into chain conformation at interfaces during processing.

Comparison of Physical Aging and Glass Transition in Glassy-Rubbery Polymer Bilayer Films

In the present work, we use ellipsometry to extract the physical aging response of thin glassy polystyrene (PS) layers from rubbery-glassy bilayer films of poly(n-butyl methacrylate) (PnBMA) atop PS. How the soft interface between rubbery and glassy polymer domains can impact the physical aging response of glassy domains is unclear. Measurements in the literature have shown that the local glass transition temperature Tg of PS is strongly reduced near a PnBMA/PS interface with a magnitude twice as large compared to that imparted by a free surface. As the free surface is known to reduce physical aging, we anticipated large changes in the physical aging response of PS within PnBMA/PS bilayer films. However, surprisingly the aging response remained equivalent to bulk down to 75 nm PS layer thicknesses that were the thinnest we found could be accurately measured given the optical limits of dispersion. With complementary fluorescence measurements, we show that the average Tg(hPS) of such PS layers within 150 nm PnBMA/75 nm PS bilayer films are also still bulk. These findings demonstrate that films with finite domain sizes have interfacial dynamical gradients that are significantly altered from those previously measured in systems with semi-infinite domain sizes.

End-To-End FRET Enabling Direct Measurement of Oligomer Chain Conformations and Molecular Weight in Reaction Solutions

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is an established tool for measuring distances between two molecules (donor and acceptor) on the nanometer scale. In the field of polymer science, the use of FRET to measure polymer end-to-end distances (Ree) often requires complex synthetic steps to label the chain ends with the FRET pair. This work reports an anthracene-functionalized chain-transfer agent for reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization, enabling the synthesized chains to be directly end-labeled with a donor and acceptor without the need for any post-polymerization functionalization. Noteworthily, this FRET method allows for chain conformation measurements of low molecular weight oligomers in situ, without any work-up steps. Using FRET to directly measure the average Ree of the oligomer chains during polymerization, the chain growth of methyl methacrylate, styrene, and methyl acrylate is investigated as a function of reaction time, including determining their degree of polymerization (DP). It is found that DP results from FRET are consistent with other established measurement methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Altogether, this work presents a broadly applicable and straightforward method to in situ characterize Ree of low molecular weight oligomers and their DP during reaction.

Effect of Confinement on the Translational Diffusivity of Small Dye Molecules in Thin Polystyrene Films and Its Connection to Tg-Confinement and Fragility-Confinement Effects

Using fluorescence, we study the impact of nanoscale confinement on the translational diffusivity (D) of trace levels of a small-molecule dye, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene (BPEA), in supported polystyrene (PS) films via Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). Reductions in BPEA diffusivity are observed in films thinner than ∼200 nm, with D decreasing by 80-90% in 100 nm-thick films compared to bulk. The activation energy of BPEA diffusivity increases from ∼210 kJ/mol in bulk films to ∼370 kJ/mol in 130 nm-thick films. BPEA exhibits a greater diffusivity-confinement effect than a larger dye, decacyclene, in terms of the length scale at which the effects of confinement become evident and the percentage reduction in diffusivity. For both BPEA and decacyclene, the diffusivity-confinement effect in supported PS films occurs at a length scale much larger than that for the glass transition temperature (Tg)-confinement effect and somewhat larger than that for the fragility-confinement effect. This difference in confinement-effect length scales can be rationalized as follows: small-molecule dye diffusivity relates predominantly to short times in the α-relaxation distribution, whereas Tg relates to long times in the α-relaxation distribution, and fragility reflects the overall breadth of this relaxation time distribution. If confinement results in a narrower relaxation time distribution in PS films with the short-time relaxations being shifted to longer times and the longest-time relaxation regimes being shifted to shorter times, then Tg, diffusivity, and fragility all decrease at sufficient levels of confinement. If the narrowing with confinement begins with the shortest relaxation time regimes, then fragility and small-molecule dye diffusivity are influenced by confinement at larger length scales than Tg.

A Bayesian Inference Approach to Accurately Fitting the Glass Transition Temperature in Thin Polymer Films

We present a Bayesian inference-based nonlinear least-squares fitting approach developed to reliably fit challenging, noisy data in an automated and robust manner. The advantages of using Bayesian inference for nonlinear fitting are demonstrated by applying this approach to a set of temperature-dependent film thickness h(T) data collected by ellipsometry for thin films of polystyrene (PS) and poly(2-vinylpyridine) (P2VP). The glass transition experimentally presents as a continuous transition in thickness characterized by a change in slope that in thin films with broadened transitions can become particularly subtle and challenging to fit. This Bayesian fitting approach is implemented using existing open-source Python libraries that make these powerful methods accessible with desktop computers. We show how this Bayesian approach is more versatile and robust than existing methods by comparing it to common fitting methods currently used in the polymer science literature for identifying T g. As Bayesian inference allows for fitting to more complex models than existing methods in the literature do, our discussion includes an in-depth evaluation of the best functional form for capturing the behavior of h(T) data with temperature-dependent changes in thermal expansivity. This Bayesian fitting approach is easily automated, capable of reliably fitting noisy and challenging data in an unsupervised manner, and ideal for machine learning approaches to materials development.

Unravel-engineer-design: a three-pronged approach to advance ionomer performance at interfaces in proton exchange membrane fuel cells

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), which use hydrogen as fuel, present an eco-friendly alternative to internal combustion engines (ICEs) for powering low-to-heavy-duty vehicles and various devices. Despite their promise, PEMFCs must meet strict cost, performance, and durability standards to reach their full potential. A key challenge lies in optimizing the electrode, where a thin ionomer layer is responsible for proton conduction and binding catalyst particles to the electrode. Enhancing ion transport within these sub-μm thick films is critical to improving the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathodes of PEMFCs. For the past 15 years, our research has targeted this limitation through a comprehensive "Unravel - Engineer - Design" approach. We first unraveled the behavior of ionomers, gaining deeper insights into both the average and distributed proton conduction properties within sub-μm thick films and at interfaces that mimic catalyst binder layers. Next, we engineered ionomer-substrate interfaces to gain control over interfacial makeup and boost proton conductivity, essential for PEMFC efficiency. Finally, we designed novel nature-derived or nature-inspired, fluorine-free ionomers to tackle the ion transport limitations seen in state-of-the-art ionomers under thin-film confinement. Some of these ionomers even pave the way to address cost and sustainability challenges in PEMFC materials. This feature article highlights our contributions and their importance in advancing PEMFCs and other sustainable energy conversion and storage technologies.

Random Copolymers Based on 2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate Exhibit Unusual Glass Transition Breadth and Facile Autonomous Self-Healing over a Broad Composition Range

Statistical copolymers are commercially important because their properties can be tuned by comonomer selection and composition. Rubbery-state styrene (S)/n-butyl acrylate (nBA) copolymers have previously been reported to exhibit facile, autonomous self-healing over a narrow composition band (47/53 to 53/47 mol%). The need for a narrow composition band is explained by alternating comonomer sequences that accommodate interchain secondary bonding. It is hypothesized that copolymers that achieve interchain secondary bonding without alternating sequences can exhibit facile self-healing over a broad composition range. 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA) is identified as yielding sequence-independent secondary bonding interactions. For these interactions it is tested experimentally by glass transition breadth in rubbery-state S/EHA copolymers, with S/n-hexyl acrylate (nHA) and S/nBA copolymers as controls. The n-alkyl acrylate random copolymers exhibit enhanced glass transition breadths over narrow composition bands that correspond to autonomous self-healing. In contrast, S/EHA copolymers exhibit much greater glass transition breadths than S/nHA and S/nBA copolymers at all compositions tested as well as self-healing of damage over a broad composition range with full tensile-property recovery, often in 3-10 h. Characterization of glass transition breadth may serve as a simple screening tool for identifying copolymers that exhibit broad-composition-range, facile, autonomous self-healing and contribute to polymer resilience and sustainability.

Advancements in Novel Mechano-Rheological Probes for Studying Glassy Dynamics in Nanoconfined Thin Polymer Films

The nanoconfinement effects of glassy polymer thin films on their thermal and mechanical properties have been investigated thoroughly, especially with an emphasis on its altered glass transition behavior compared to bulk polymer, which has been known for almost three decades. While research in this direction is still evolving, reaching new heights to unravel the underlying physics of phenomena observed in confined thin polymer films, we have a much clearer picture now. This, in turn, has promoted their application in miniaturized and functional applications. To extract the full potential of such confined films, starting from their fabrication, function, and various applications, we must realize the necessity to have an understanding and availability of robust characterization protocols that specifically target thin film thermo-mechanical stability. Being nanometer-sized in thickness, often atop a solid substrate, direct mechanical testing on such films becomes extremely challenging and often encounters serious complexity from the dominating effect of the substrate. In this review, we have compiled together a few important novel and promising techniques for mechano-rheological characterization of glassy polymer thin films. The conceptual background involved in each technique, constitutive equations, methodology, and current status of research are touched upon following a pedagogical tutorial approach. Further, we discussed each technique's success and limitations, carefully covering the puzzling or contradicting observations reported within the broad nexus of glass transition temperature-viscosity-modulus-molecular mobility (including diffusion and relaxation).

Unveiling Strong Thin Film Confinement Effects on Semirigid Conjugated Polymers

Nanoconfinement has been recognized to induce significant changes in the physical properties of polymeric films when their thickness is less than 100 nm. Despite extensive research on the effect of nanoconfinement on nonconjugated polymers, studies focusing on the confinement effects on dynamics and associated electronic and mechanical properties for semiconductive and semirigid conjugated polymers remain limited. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive investigation into the nanoconfinement effects on both p- and n-type conjugated polymers having varying chain rigidity under different degrees of confinement. Using the flash differential scanning calorimetry technique, it was found that the increased molecular mobility with decreasing film thickness, as indicated by the depression of glass transition temperature (T g) from its bulk values, was directly proportional to chain rigidity. This relationship between chain rigidity and enhanced segmental mobility was further corroborated through molecular dynamics simulations. Thinner films exhibited a higher degree of crystallinity for all conjugated polymers, and a significant reduction of more than 50% in elastic modulus was observed for films with approximately 20 nm thickness compared to those of 105 nm thickness, particularly for highly rigid conjugated polymers. Interestingly, we found that the charge mobility remained independent of film thickness, with all samples demonstrating good charge mobility regardless of the different film thicknesses for devices measured here. Nanoconfined conjugated polymer thin films exhibited a combination of mechanical compliance and good charge carrier mobility properties, making them promising candidates for the next generation of flexible and portable organic electronics. From an engineering standpoint, confinement could be an effective strategy to tailor the dynamics and mechanical properties without significant loss of electronic property.

Maximizing the wetting resistance of fluorine-free omniphobic membranes for hypersaline wastewater desalination

Membrane distillation (MD) equipped with omniphobic (non-wetting) membranes has found a niche in water reclamation from hypersaline industrial wastewater. Here, we examined the efficacy of non-fluorinated materials as surface coating agents for omniphobic MD membrane fabrication, and identified necessary mechanisms to attain a maximized wetting resistance using fluorine-free materials. We first prepared MD membranes with different surface chemistries using a series of linear alkylsilanes and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as representative fluorine-free, low surface energy materials. Membranes modified with a longer chain alkylsilane exhibited a lower surface energy and demonstrated a greater wetting resistance in direct contact MD experiments using feedwaters of various surface tensions. Despite the nearly identical surface energy measured for the longest alkylsilane and PDMS, PDMS-modified membrane exhibited an extended antiwetting performance as compared to the membrane treated with the longest alkylsilane. To elucidate the source of the distinctive wetting resistance, we examined the nucleation and condensation kinetics on the surfaces with the different surface chemistries via environmental scanning electron microscopy. Our analysis suggests that the membranes treated with long chain alkylsilanes contain surface defects (i.e., hydrophilic regions) whereas the high mobility of the PDMS effectively minimizes the defect exposure, slowing down the condensation and subsequent surface wetting.

Correlating Ultrastability with Fragility and Surface Mobility in Vapor Deposited Tetrahedral Glasses

Several experiments on molecular and metallic glasses have shown that the ability of vapor deposition to produce ultrastable glasses is correlated to their structural and thermodynamic properties. Here we investigate the vapor deposition of a class of tetrahedral materials (including silicon and water) via molecular dynamics simulations of the generalized Stillinger-Weber potential. By changing a single parameter that controls the local tetrahedrality, we show that the emergence of ultrastable behavior is correlated with an increase in the fragility of the model. At the same time, while the mobility of the surface compared to the bulk shows only slight changes at low temperature, with increasing the tetrahedrality, it displays a significant enhancement toward the glass transition temperature. Our results point toward a strong connection between bulk dynamics, surface dynamics, and glass-ultrastability ability in this class of materials.

Investigations of the adsorbed layer of polysulfone: Influence of the thickness of the adsorbed layer on the glass transition of thin films

This work studies the influence of the adsorbed layer on the glass transition of thin films of polysulfone. Therefore, the growth kinetics of the irreversibly adsorbed layer of polysulfone on silicon substrates was first investigated using the solvent leaching approach, and the thickness of the remaining layer was measured with atomic force microscopy. Annealing conditions before leaching were varied in temperature and time (0-336 h). The growth kinetics showed three distinct regions: a pre-growth step where it was assumed that phenyl rings align parallel to the substrate at the shortest annealing times, a linear growth region, and a crossover from linear to logarithmic growth observed at higher temperatures for the longest annealing times. No signs of desorption were observed, pointing to the formation of a strongly adsorbed layer. Second, the glass transition of thin polysulfone films was studied in dependence on the film thickness using spectroscopic ellipsometry. Three annealing conditions were compared: two with only a tightly bound layer formed in the linear growth regime and one with both tightly bound and loosely adsorbed layers formed in the logarithmic growth regime. The onset thickness and increase in the glass transition temperature increases with annealing time and temperature. These differences were attributed to the distinct conformations of the formed adsorbed layers.

High-temperature capacitive energy stroage in polymer nanocomposites through nanoconfinement

Polymeric-based dielectric materials hold great potential as energy storage media in electrostatic capacitors. However, the inferior thermal resistance of polymers leads to severely degraded dielectric energy storage capabilities at elevated temperatures, limiting their applications in harsh environments. Here we present a flexible laminated polymer nanocomposite where the polymer component is confined at the nanoscale, achieving improved thermal-mechanical-electrical stability within the resulting nanocomposite. The nanolaminate, consisting of nanoconfined polyetherimide (PEI) polymer sandwiched between solid Al2O3 layers, exhibits a high energy density of 18.9 J/cm3 with a high energy efficiency of ~ 91% at elevated temperature of 200°C. Our work demonstrates that nanoconfinement of PEI polymer results in reduced diffusion coefficient and constrained thermal dynamics, leading to a remarkable increase of 37°C in glass-transition temperature compared to bulk PEI polymer. The combined effects of nanoconfinement and interfacial trapping within the nanolaminates synergistically contribute to improved electrical breakdown strength and enhanced energy storage performance across temperature range up to 250°C. By utilizing the flexible ultrathin nanolaminate on curved surfaces such as thin metal wires, we introduce an innovative concept that enables the creation of a highly efficient and compact metal-wired capacitor, achieving substantial capacitance despite the minimal device volume.

Probing Viscoelastic Properties and Interfaces in High-Density Polyethylene Vitrimers at the Nanoscale Using Dynamic Mode Atomic Force Microscopy

Vitrimers are a new class of heterogeneous polymers that combine the best features of thermosets with those of thermoplastics. The introduction of cross-links strongly changes the viscoelastic behavior of vitrimer materials. However, the characterization and understanding of the nanostructures and interfaces in vitrimers resulting from dynamic cross-linking formation remain a major challenge. Here, using dynamic modes of atomic force microscopy (AFM), namely intermodulation AFM (ImAFM) and AFM-based dynamic mechanical analysis (AFM-nDMA), local viscoelastic properties and interfaces at the nanoscale length of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) vitrimer materials are reported. ImAFM imaging in combination with the k-means clustering algorithm clearly reveals two distinct phases in the vitrimer system with highly different viscoelastic properties. AFM-nDMA further provides quantitative nanoviscoelastic properties at the nanoscale to confirm that there is a cross-linking-rich aggregation area forming a nanosize network structure in the cross-linking-poor matrix phase. The cross-linking-rich region shows a similar elastic modulus but much higher adhesion force measured by AFM compared to the cross-linking-poor HDPE matrix. Furthermore, the frequency influence on the local viscoelastic properties of HDPE vitrimer at the nanoscale was initially screened. The observed HDPE vitrimer nanostructures and viscoelastic properties at the nanoscale also provide explanations on the observed bulk HDPE vitrimer crystallinity decrease and dimensional stability increase compared to HDPE. Therefore, probing the viscoelastic properties and interfaces of HDPE vitrimer provides important insights into understanding of the correlations between the vitrimer nanostructure and the bulk mechanical and rheological behaviors.

Intramolecular dynamic coupling slows surface relaxation of polymer glasses

Over the past three decades, studies have indicated a mobile surface layer with steep gradients on glass surfaces. Among various glasses, polymers are unique because intramolecular interactions - combined with chain connectivity - can alter surface dynamics, but their fundamental role has remained elusive. By devising polymer surfaces occupied by chain loops of various penetration depths, combined with surface dissipation experiments and Monte Carlo simulations, we demonstrate that the intramolecular dynamic coupling along surface chains causes the sluggish bulk polymers to suppress the fast surface dynamics. Such effect leads to that accelerated segmental relaxation on polymer glass surfaces markedly slows when the surface polymers extend chain loops deeper into the film interior. The surface mobility suppression due to the intramolecular coupling reduces the magnitude of the reduction in glass transition temperature commonly observed in thin films, enabling new opportunities for tailoring polymer properties at interfaces and under confinement and producing glasses with enhanced thermal stability.

Fluorophilic Sigma(σ)-Lock Self-Healable Copolymers

Although F-Containing molecules and macromolecules are often used in molecular biology to increase the binding with Lewis acidic groups by introducing favorable C-F dipoles, there is virtually no experimental evidence and limited understanding of the nature of these interactions, especially their role in synthetic polymeric materials. These studies elucidate the molecular origin of inter- and intra-Chain interactions responsible for self-healing of F-Containing copolymers composed of pentafluorostyrene and n-butyl acrylate units (p(PFS/nBA). Guided by dynamic surface oscillating force (SOF) and spectroscopic measurements supported by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, these studies show that the reformation of σ-σ orbitals in -C-F of PFS and CH3CH2- of nBA units enables the recovery of entropic energy via fluorophilic-σ-lock van der Waals forces when PFS/nBA molar ratios are ~50/50. The strength of these interactions determined experimentally for self-healable PFS/nBA compositions is in the order ~0.3 kcal/mol which primarily comes from fluorophilic-σ-lock (~70 %) contributions. These interactions are significantly diminished for non-self-healable counterparts. Strongly polarized -C-F σ orbitals create lateral dipolar forces enhancing the affinity towards -C-H orbitals, facilitating energetically favorable interactions. Entropic recovery driven by non-Covalent bonding offers a valuable tool in designing materials with unique functionalities, particularly self-healable batteries and energy storage devices.

In Situ Real-Time Atomic Force Microscopy Observation of the Surface Mobility on Each Domain of a Polystyrene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) Film at High Temperatures

The surface chain movements within the microdomains of a polystyrene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PS-b-PMMA) and corresponding homopolymer films were observed via in situ real-time atomic force microscopy (AFM) at high temperatures and analyzed quantitatively using particle image velocimetry (PIV). At low temperatures, mobility within the PS microdomains resembled that within the PS homopolymer film, but movements in the PMMA microdomains were notably accelerated compared to the PMMA homopolymer. Conversely, at high temperatures, mobility within both PS and PMMA microdomains was considerably suppressed compared to their respective homopolymer films, likely owing to the fixed linkage of the block chains at the microdomain interface. This combination of real-time AFM observation and PIV analysis is an effective method for quantitatively evaluating surface chain mobility in real space.

Surface mobility gradient and emergent facilitation in glassy films

Confining glassy polymers into films can substantially modify their local and film-averaged properties. We present a lattice model of film geometry with void-mediated facilitation behaviors but free from any elasticity effect. We analyze the spatially varying viscosity to delineate the transport properties of glassy films. The film mobility measurements reported by Yang et al., Science, 2010, 328, 1676 are successfully reproduced. The flow exhibits a crossover from a simple viscous flow to a surface-dominated regime as the temperature decreases. The propagation of a highly mobile front induced by the free surface is visualized in real space. Our approach provides a microscopic treatment of the observed glassy phenomena.

Dynamic Interfaces in Self-Healable Polymers

It is well-established that interfaces play critical roles in biological and synthetic processes. Aside from significant practical applications, the most accessible and measurable quantity is interfacial tension, which represents a measure of the energy required to create or rejoin two surfaces. Owing to the fact that interfacial processes are critical in polymeric materials, this review outlines recent advances in dynamic interfacial processes involving physics and chemistry targeting self-healing. Entropic interfacial energies stored during damage participate in the recovery, and self-healing depends upon copolymer composition and monomer sequence, monomer molar ratios, molecular weight, and polymer dispersity. These properties ultimately impact chain flexibility, shape-memory recovery, and interfacial interactions. Self-healing is a localized process with global implications on mechanical and other properties. Selected examples driven by interfacial flow and shape memory effects are discussed in the context of covalent and supramolecular rebonding targeting self-healable materials development.

The glass transition and enthalpy recovery of polystyrene nanorods using Flash differential scanning calorimetry

The glass transition (Tg) behavior and enthalpy recovery of polystyrene nanorods within an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) template (supported nanorods) and after removal from AAO (unsupported nanorods) is studied using Flash differential scanning calorimetry. Tg is found to be depressed relative to the bulk by 20 ± 2 K for 20 nm-diameter unsupported polystyrene (PS) nanorods at the slowest cooling rate and by 9 ± 1 K for 55 nm-diameter rods. On the other hand, bulk-like behavior is observed in the case of unsupported 350 nm-diameter nanorods and for all supported rods in AAO. The size-dependent Tg behavior of the PS unsupported nanorods compares well with results for ultrathin films when scaled using the volume/surface ratio. Enthalpy recovery was also studied for the 20 and 350 nm unsupported nanorods with evolution toward equilibrium found to be linear with logarithmic time. The rate of enthalpy recovery for the 350 nm rods was similar to that for the bulk, whereas the rate of recovery was enhanced for the 20 nm rods for down-jump sizes larger than 17 K. A relaxation map summarizes the behavior of the nanorods relative to the bulk and relative to that for the 20 nm-thick ultrathin film. Interestingly, the fragility of the 20 nm-diameter nanorod and the 20 nm ultrathin film are identical within the error of measurements, and when plotted vs departure from Tg (i.e., T - Tg), the relaxation maps of the two samples are identical in spite of the fact that the Tg is depressed 8 K more in the nanorod sample.

Segmental dynamics of polystyrene near polymer-polymer interfaces

This study investigated the segmental dynamics of polymers near polymer-polymer interfaces by probing the rotation of polymer-tethered fluorescent molecules using imaging rotational fluorescence correlation microscopy. Multilayered films were utilized to provide spatial selectivity relative to different polymer-polymer interfaces. In the experimental setup, for the overlayer polymer, polystyrene (PS) was employed and a 15 nm-thick probe-containing layer was placed ≈25 nm apart from different underlayer polymers with glass transition temperatures (Tg) either lower or higher than that of PS. The underlayer of poly-n-butyl methacrylate had 72 K lower Tg than that of PS, whereas polymethyl methacrylate and polysulfone had 22 and 81 K higher Tg, respectively, than that of PS. Two key dynamic features of the glass transition, the non-Arrhenius temperature dependence and stretched relaxation, were examined to study the influence of soft and hard confinements on the segmental dynamics of the overlayer polymer near the polymer-polymer interfaces. Although complications exist in the probing location owing to the diffusion of the polymer-tethered probe during the annealing protocol to consolidate the multilayers, the results suggest that either the segmental dynamics of the polymer near the polymer-polymer interface do not change owing to the soft and hard confinements or the interfacial perturbation is very short ranged.

Eliminating the Tg-confinement and fragility-confinement effects in poly(4-methylstyrene) films by incorporation of 3 mol % 2-ethylheyxl acrylate comonomer

Nanoconfined poly(4-methylstyrene) [P(4-MS)] films exhibit reductions in glass transition temperature (Tg) relative to bulk Tg (Tg,bulk). Ellipsometry reveals that 15-nm-thick P(4-MS) films supported on silicon exhibit Tg - Tg,bulk = - 15 °C. P(4-MS) films also exhibit fragility-confinement effects; fragility decreases ∼60% in going from bulk to a 20-nm-thick film. Previous research found that incorporating 2-6 mol  % 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA) comonomer in styrene-based random copolymers eliminates Tg- and fragility-confinement effects in polystyrene. Here, we demonstrate that incorporating 3 mol  % EHA in a 4-MS-based random copolymer, 97/3 P(4-MS/EHA), eliminates the Tg- and fragility-confinement effects. The invariance of fragility with nanoconfinement of 97/3 P(4-MS/EHA) films, hypothesized to originate from the interdigitation of ethylhexyl groups, indicates that the presence of EHA prevents the free surface from perturbing chain packing and the cooperative mobility associated with Tg. This method of eliminating confinement effects is advantageous as it relies on the simplest of polymerization methods and neat copolymer only slightly altered in composition from homopolymer. We also investigated whether we could eliminate the Tg-confinement effect with low levels of 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate (EHMA) in 4-MS-based or styrene-based copolymers. Although EHMA is structurally nearly identical to EHA, 4-MS-based and styrene-based copolymers incorporating 4 mol  % EHMA exhibit Tg-confinement effects similar to P(4-MS) and polystyrene. These results support the special character of EHA in eliminating confinement effects originating at free surfaces.

Development of broad modulus profile upon polymer-polymer interface formation between immiscible glassy-rubbery domains

Interfaces of glassy materials such as thin films, blends, and composites create strong unidirectional gradients to the local heterogeneous dynamics that can be used to elucidate the length scales and mechanisms associated with the dynamic heterogeneity of glasses. We focus on bilayer films of two different polymers with very different glass transition temperatures ([Formula: see text]) where previous work has demonstrated a long-range (∼200 nm) profile in local [Formula: see text] is established between immiscible glassy and rubbery polymer domains when the polymer-polymer interface is formed to equilibrium. Here, we demonstrate that an equally long-ranged gradient in local modulus [Formula: see text] is established when the polymer-polymer interface ([Formula: see text]5 nm) is formed between domains of glassy polystyrene (PS) and rubbery poly(butadiene) (PB), consistent with previous reports of a broad [Formula: see text] profile in this system. A continuum physics model for the shear wave propagation caused by a quartz crystal microbalance across a PB/PS bilayer film is used to measure the viscoelastic properties of the bilayer during the evolution of the PB/PS interface showing the development of a broad gradient in local modulus [Formula: see text] spanning [Formula: see text]180 nm between the glassy and rubbery domains of PS and PB. We suggest these broad profiles in [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] arise from a coupling of the spectrum of vibrational modes across the polymer-polymer interface as a result of acoustic impedance matching of sound waves with [Formula: see text] nm during interface broadening that can then trigger density fluctuations in the neighboring domain.

Effect of temperature on the air-water surface mechanical behavior of water-spread block copolymer micelles

In the pursuit of the development of a first-in-kind polymer lung surfactant (PLS) therapeutic whose effects are biophysical in nature, a comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting the air-water surface mechanical behavior of water-spread block copolymer micelles is desired. To this end, we explore the effect of temperature on the surface mechanical behavior of two different micelle core chemistries, poly(styrene) (PS) and poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) (PtBMA), each having poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as the hydrophilic block. The behavior is characterized using surface pressure-area isotherms and quantitative Brewster angle microscopy. The results indicate that the temperature has a significant effect on the micelle structure at the interface and this effect is related to the core Tg as well as the core interfacial tension properties. When temperature is higher than the core Tg for PS-PEG, the spherical micelle core rearranges to form an oblate-like structure which increases its interfacial area. The structural rearrangement changes the mechanism by which the film produces high surface pressure. For PtBMA-PEG, which has a lower interfacial tension with water and air compared to PS, the core domains spread at the interface when the mobility is sufficiently high such that a PtBMA film is formed under high compression. The implications of these changes on PLS efficacy are discussed highlighting the importance of core Tg characterization for polymer nanoparticle applications.

Glass formation and dynamics of model polymer films with one versus two active interfaces

Polymers and other glass-forming liquids can exhibit profound alterations in dynamics in the nanoscale vicinity of interfaces, over a range appreciably exceeding that of typical interfacial thermodynamic gradients. The understanding of these dynamical gradients is particularly complicated in systems with internal or external nanoscale dimensions, where a gradient nucleated at one interface can impinge on a second, potentially distinct, interface. To better understand the interactions that govern system dynamics and glass formation in these cases, here we simulate the baseline case of a glass-forming polymer film, over a wide range of thickness, supported on a dynamically neutral substrate that has little effect on nearby dynamics. We compare these results to our prior simulations of freestanding films. Results indicate that dynamical gradients in our simulated systems, as measured based upon translational relaxation, are simply truncated when they impinge on a secondary surface that is locally dynamically neutral. Altered film behavior can be described almost entirely by gradient effects down to the thinnest films probed, with no evidence for finite-size effects sometimes posited to play a role in these systems. Finally, our simulations predict that linear gradient overlap effects in the presence of symmetric dynamically active interfaces yield a non-monotonic variation of the whole free standing film stretching exponent (relaxation time distribution breadth). The maximum relaxation time distribution breadth in simulation is found at a film thickness of 4-5 times the interfacial gradient range. Observation of this maximum in experiment would provide an important validation that the gradient behavior observed in simulation persists to experimental timescales. If validated, observation of this maximum would potentially also enable determination of the dynamic gradient range from experimental mean-film measurements of film dynamics.

A Sensitive Concentration- and Polarity-Dependent Pyrene-Derived Vibrationally Resolved Fluorescence Probe for The Polymer Interdiffusion Study

The vibrationally resolved pyrene fluorescence probe method is once popular but now languished, because the vibrationally resolved patterns of pyrene with limited sensitivity and concentration independence have not been updated for over 50 years. During investigation on the polymer interdiffusion of a latex film, it is found that a pyrene acylhydrazone whose vibrationally resolved fluorescence pattern contradictory to those reported in pyrene and most pyrene derivatives. The pyrene acylhydrazone has sensitive concentration- and polarity-dependent fluorescence spectra (the sensitivity on polarity is at most 26 times higher than the old vibrationally resolved patterns), and the sensitivity well remains when it is copolymerized in a polymer. The vibrationally resolved spectrum of this pyrene acylhydrazone is a powerful fluorescence probe, which would be as useful as the pyrene excimer probe nowadays popular.

Unraveling bilayer interfacial features and their effects in polar polymer nanocomposites

Polymer nanocomposites with nanoparticles dispersed in polymer matrices have attracted extensive attention due to their significantly improved overall performance, in which the nanoparticle-polymer interface plays a key role. Understanding the structures and properties of the interfacial region, however, remains a major challenge for polymer nanocomposites. Here, we directly observe the presence of two interfacial polymer layers around a nanoparticle in polar polymers, i.e., an inner bound polar layer (~10 nm thick) with aligned dipoles and an outer polar layer (over 100 nm thick) with randomly orientated dipoles. Our results reveal that the impacts of the local nanoparticle surface potential and interparticle distance on molecular dipoles induce interfacial polymer layers with different polar molecular conformations from the bulk polymer. The bilayer interfacial features lead to an exceptional enhancement in polarity-related properties of polymer nanocomposites at ultralow nanoparticle loadings. By maximizing the contribution of inner bound polar layer via a nanolamination design, we achieve an ultrahigh dielectric energy storage density of 86 J/cm3, far superior to state-of-the-art polymers and nanocomposites.

Stealth and pseudo-stealth nanocarriers

The stealth effect plays a central role on capacitating nanomaterials for drug delivery applications through improving the pharmacokinetics such as blood circulation, biodistribution, and tissue targeting. Here based on a practical analysis of stealth efficiency and a theoretical discussion of relevant factors, we provide an integrated material and biological perspective in terms of engineering stealth nanomaterials. The analysis surprisingly shows that more than 85% of the reported stealth nanomaterials encounter a rapid drop of blood concentration to half of the administered dose within 1 h post administration although a relatively long β-phase is observed. A term, pseudo-stealth effect, is used to delineate this common pharmacokinetics behavior of nanomaterials, that is, dose-dependent nonlinear pharmacokinetics because of saturating or depressing bio-clearance of RES. We further propose structural holism can be a watershed to improve the stealth effect; that is, the whole surface structure and geometry play important roles, rather than solely relying on a single factor such as maximizing repulsion force through polymer-based steric stabilization (e.g., PEGylation) or inhibiting immune attack through a bio-inspired component. Consequently, engineering delicate structural hierarchies to minimize attractive binding sites, that is, minimal charges/dipole and hydrophobic domain, becomes crucial. In parallel, the pragmatic implementation of the pseudo-stealth effect and dynamic modulation of the stealth effect are discussed for future development.

Structural Signatures of Ultrastability in a Deposited Glassformer

Glasses obtained from vapor deposition on a cold substrate have superior thermodynamic and kinetic stability with respect to ordinary glasses. Here we perform molecular dynamics simulations of vapor deposition of a model glassformer and investigate the origin of its high stability compared to that of ordinary glasses. We find that the vapor deposited glass is characterized by locally favored structures (LFSs) whose occurrence correlates with its stability, reaching a maximum at the optimal deposition temperature. The formation of LFSs is enhanced near the free surface, hence supporting the idea that the stability of vapor deposited glasses is connected to the relaxation dynamics at the surface.

Mpemba effect in crystallization of polybutene-1

The Mpemba effect and its inverse can be understood as a result of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. In polymers, changes of state are generally non-equilibrium processes. However, the Mpemba effect has been rarely reported in the crystallization of polymers. In the melt, polybutene-1 (PB-1) has the lowest critical cooling rate in polyolefins and tends to maintain its original structure and properties with thermal history. A nascent PB-1 sample was prepared by using metallocene catalysis at low temperature, and the crystallization behavior and crystalline structure of the PB-1 were characterized by DSC and WAXS. Experimentally, a clear Mpemba effect is observed not only in the crystallization of the nascent PB-1 melt in form II but also in form I obtained from the nascent PB-1 at low melting temperature. It is proposed that this is due to the differences in the chain conformational entropy in the lattice which influence conformational relaxation times. The entropy and the relaxation time can be predicted using the Adam-Gibbs equations, whereas non-equilibrium thermodynamics is required to describe the crystallization with the Mpemba effect.

Solvent-Free Transfer of Freestanding Large-Area Conjugated Polymer Films for Optoelectronic Applications

Conventional processes for depositing thin films of conjugated polymers are restricted to those based on vapor, liquid, and solution-phase precursors. Each of these methods bear some limitations. For example, low-bandgap polymers with alternating donor-acceptor structures cannot be deposited from the vapor phase, and solution-phase deposition is always subject to issues related to the incompatibility of the substrate with the solvent. Here, a technique to enable deposition of large-area, ultra-thin films (≈20 nm or more), which are transferred from the surface of water, is demonstrated. From the water, these pre-solidified films can then be transferred to a desired substrate, circumventing limitations such as solvent orthogonality. The quality of these films is characterized by a variety of imaging and electrochemical measurements. Mechanical toughness is identified as a limiting property of polymer compatibility, along with some strategies to address this limitation. As a demonstration, the films are used as the hole-transport layer in perovskite solar cells, in which their performance is shown to be comparable to controls formed by spin-coating.

On the bridge hypothesis in the glass transition of freestanding polymer films

Freestanding thin polymer films with high molecular weights exhibit an anomalous decrease in the glass-transition temperature with film thickness. Specifically, in such materials, the measured glass-transition temperature evolves in an affine way with the film thickness, with a slope that weakly depends on the molecular weight. De Gennes proposed a sliding mechanism as the hypothetical dominant relaxation process in these systems, where stress kinks could propagate in a reptation-like fashion through so-called bridges, i.e. from one free interface to the other along the backbones of polymer macromolecules. Here, by considering the exact statistics of finite-sized random walks within a confined box, we investigate in details the bridge hypothesis. We show that the sliding mechanism cannot reproduce the basic features appearing in the experiments, and we exhibit the fundamental reasons behind such a fact.

Long-Wavelength Fluctuations in Quasi-2D Supercooled Liquids

We use molecular simulation to characterize the dynamics of supercooled liquids confined in quasi-2D slit geometries. Similar to bulk supercooled liquids, the confined systems exhibit subdiffusive dynamics on intermediate time scales arising from particle localization inside their neighbor cages, followed by an eventual crossover to diffusive behavior as cage rearrangement occurs. The quasi-2D confined liquids also exhibit signatures of long-wavelength fluctuations (LWFs) in the lateral directions parallel to the confining walls, reminiscent of the collective displacements observed in 2D but not 3D systems. The magnitude of the LWFs increases with the lateral dimensions of systems with the same particle volume fraction and confinement length scale, consistent with the logarithmic scaling predicted for 2D Mermin-Wagner fluctuations. The amplitude of the fluctuations is a nonmonotonic function of the confinement length scale because of a competition between caging and strengthening LWFs upon approaching the 2D limit. Our findings suggest that LWFs may play an important role in understanding the behavior of confined supercooled liquids due to their prevalence over a surprisingly broad range of particle densities and confinement length scales.

End-Tethered Chains Increase the Local Glass Transition Temperature of Matrix Chains by 45 K Next to Solid Substrates Independent of Chain Length

The local glass transition temperature T_g of pyrene-labeled polystyrene (PS) chains intermixed with end-tethered PS chains grafted to a neutral silica substrate was measured by fluorescence spectroscopy. To isolate the impact of the grafted chains, the films were capped with bulk neat PS layers eliminating competing effects of the free surface. Results demonstrate that end-grafted chains strongly increase the local T_g of matrix chains by ≈45 K relative to bulk T_g, independent of grafted chain molecular weight from M_n = 8.6 to 212 kg/mol and chemical end-group, over a wide range of grafting densities σ = 0.003 to 0.33 chains/nm² spanning the mushroom-to-brush transition regime. The tens-of-degree increase in local T_g resulting from immobilization of the chain ends by covalent bonding in this athermal system suggests a mechanism that substantially increases the local activation energy required for cooperative rearrangements.

Chain Movements at the Topmost Surface of Poly(methyl methacrylate) and Polystyrene Films Directly Evaluated by In Situ High-Temperature Atomic Force Microscopy

The surfaces of polymeric materials are thermodynamically unstable, and the glass-transition temperature (Tg) is significantly lower than that in the bulk material. However, the mobility of the chains at the top of the surface has never been directly evaluated. In this study, the movements of the topmost chains of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) bulk films were observed in situ at high temperatures with atomic force microscopy in tapping mode. PMMA and PS chains started moving at ∼97 and ∼50 °C, respectively, which were slightly and significantly below the values of their bulk Tg (PMMA, 108 °C; PS, 104 °C), respectively. The activation energies of the apparent diffusion constants of PMMA and PS, derived by particle image velocimetry analysis, were 193 and 151 kJ mol-1, respectively, and reasonable for the glass transition. Movements of isolated PMMA chains deposited on a PMMA film by the Langmuir-Blodgett technique were also observed and confirmed to be essentially the same as those on the PMMA film surface.

Microscale mobile surface double layer in a glassy polymer

This study examines the origin of the widely different length scales, h_t-nanometers to micrometers-that have been observed for the propagation of the near-surface enhanced mobility in glassy polymers. Mechanical relaxations of polystyrene films with thicknesses, h, from 5 nm to 186 μm have been studied. For h < ~1 μm, the films relaxed faster than the bulk and the relaxation time decreased with decreasing h below ~100 nm, consistent with the enhanced dynamics originating from a near-surface nanolayer. For h > ~1 μm, a bulk-like relaxation mode emerged, while the fast mode changed to one that extended over ~1 μm from the free surface. These findings evidence that the mobile surface region is inhomogeneous, comprising a nanoscale outer layer and a slower microscale sublayer that relax by different mechanisms. Consequently, measurements probing the enhanced mobility of different mechanisms may find vastly different h_t's as shown by the literature.

Time-Resolved Thickness and Shape-Change Quantification using a Dual-Band Nanoplasmonic Ruler with Sub-Nanometer Resolution

Time-resolved measurements of changes in the size and shape of nanobiological objects and layers are crucial to understand their properties and optimize their performance. Optical sensing is particularly attractive with high throughput and sensitivity, and label-free operation. However, most state-of-the-art solutions require intricate modeling or multiparameter measurements to disentangle conformational or thickness changes of biomolecular layers from complex interfacial refractive index variations. Here, we present a dual-band nanoplasmonic ruler comprising mixed arrays of plasmonic nanoparticles with spectrally separated resonance peaks. As electrodynamic simulations and model experiments show, the ruler enables real-time simultaneous measurements of thickness and refractive index variations in uniform and heterogeneous layers with sub-nanometer resolution. Additionally, nanostructure shape changes can be tracked, as demonstrated by quantifying the degree of lipid vesicle deformation at the critical coverage prior to rupture and supported lipid bilayer formation. In a broader context, the presented nanofabrication approach constitutes a generic route for multimodal nanoplasmonic optical sensing.

Decoupling of Glassy Dynamics from Viscosity in Thin Supported Poly(n-butyl methacrylate) Films

We utilized fast scanning calorimetry to characterize the glass transition temperature (T g) and intrinsic molecular mobility of low-molecular-weight poly(n-butyl methacrylate) thin films of varying thicknesses. We found that the T g and intrinsic molecular mobility were coupled, showing no film thickness-dependent variation. We further employed a unique noncontact capillary nanoshearing technique to directly probe layer-resolved gradients in the rheological response of these films. We found that layer-resolved shear mobility was enhanced with a reduction in film thickness, whereas the effective viscosity decreased. Our results highlight the importance of polymer-substrate attractive interactions and free surface-promoted enhanced mobility, establishing a competitive nanoconfinement effect in poly(n-butyl methacrylate) thin films. Moreover, the findings indicate a decoupling in the thickness-dependent variation of T g and intrinsic molecular mobility with the mechanical responses (shear mobility and effective viscosity).

Temperature dependent perylene fluorescence as a probe of local polymer glass transition dynamics

We demonstrate how the temperature dependence of perylene's fluorescence emission spectrum doped in bulk polymer matrices is sensitive to the local glass transition dynamics of the surrounding polymer segments. Focusing on the first fluorescence peak, we show that the intensity ratio I_Ratio(T) = I_Peak(T)/I_SRR between the first peak and a self referencing region (SRR) has a temperature dependence resulting from the temperature-dependent nonradiative decay pathway of the excited perylene dye that is influenced by its intermolecular collisions with the surrounding polymers segments. For different polymer matrices, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polystyrene (PS), poly(2-vinyl pyridine) (P2VP), and polycarbonate (PC), we demonstrate that I_Ratio(T) exhibits a transition from a non-Arrhenius behavior above the glass transition temperature T_g of the polymer to an Arrhenius temperature dependence with constant activation energy E below the T_g of the polymer matrix, indicating perylene's sensitivity to cooperative α-relaxation dynamics of the polymer matrix. This transition in temperature dependence allows us to identify a perylene defined local Tperyleneg of the surrounding polymer matrix that agrees well with the known T_g values of the polymers. We define a fluorescence intensity shift factor in analogy with the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation and use literature WLF parameters for the polymer matrix to quantify the calibration factor c_f needed to convert the fluorescence intensity ratio to the effective time scale ratio described by the conventional WLF shift factor. This work opens up a new characterization method that could be used to map the local dynamical response of the glass transition in nanoscale polymer materials using appropriate covalent attachment of perylene to polymer chains.

Versatile Method of Generating Triboluminescence in Polymer Films Blended with Common Luminophores

Herein we report a versatile method for the preparation of triboluminescent polymer films by physical blending with common luminophores. This method does not require the presence of a crystalline phase or the use of materials known to be triboluminescent. Emission is generated in response to friction of the polymer surface via triboelectrification, either by rubbing directly or through an inert coating layer, even with low applied stress (<0.1 MPa). Our findings offer a convenient and practical method of preparation of triboluminescent, amorphous polymer films with easily tunable emission properties.