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Chesters RA, Zhu J, Coull BM, Baidoe-Ansah D, Baumer L, Palm L, Klinghammer N, Chen S, Hahm A, Yagoub S, Cantacorps L, Bernardi D, Ritter K, Lippert RN. Fasting-induced activity changes in MC3R neurons of the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202402754. [PMID: 39107065 PMCID: PMC11303869 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202402754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The brain controls energy homeostasis by regulating food intake through signaling within the melanocortin system. Whilst we understand the role of the hypothalamus within this system, how extra-hypothalamic brain regions are involved in controlling energy balance remains unclear. Here we show that the melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) is expressed in the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT). We tested whether fasting would change the activity of MC3R neurons in this region by assessing the levels of c-Fos and pCREB as neuronal activity markers. We determined that overnight fasting causes a significant reduction in pCREB levels within PVT-MC3R neurons. We then questioned whether perturbation of MC3R signaling, during fasting, would result in altered refeeding. Using chemogenetic approaches, we show that modulation of MC3R activity, during the fasting period, does not impact body weight regain or total food intake in the refeeding period. However, we did observe significant differences in the pattern of feeding-related behavior. These findings suggest that the PVT is a region where MC3R neurons respond to energy deprivation and modulate refeeding behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Chesters
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Jiajie Zhu
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bethany M Coull
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Baidoe-Ansah
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lea Baumer
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Lydia Palm
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Niklas Klinghammer
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Seve Chen
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Anneke Hahm
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Selma Yagoub
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Lídia Cantacorps
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Bernardi
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Katrin Ritter
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Rachel N Lippert
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition https://ror.org/05xdczy51, Nuthetal, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Yang H, Chen Y, Tao Q, Shi W, Tian Y, Wei Y, Li S, Zhang Y, Han S, Cheng J. Integrative molecular and structural neuroimaging analyses of the interaction between depression and age of onset: A multimodal magnetic resonance imaging study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 134:111052. [PMID: 38871019 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.111052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Depression is a neurodevelopmental disorder that exhibits progressive gray matter volume (GMV) atrophy. Research indicates that brain development is influential in depression-induced GMV alterations. However, the interaction between depression and age of onset is not well understood by the underlying molecular and neuropathological mechanisms. Thus, 152 first-episode depression individuals and matched 130 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited to undergo T1-weighted high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging for this study. By two-way ANOVA, age and diagnosis were used as factors when analyzing the interaction of GMV in the participants. Then, spatial correlations between neurotransmitter maps and factor-related volume maps are established. Results illustrate a pronounced antagonistic interaction between depression and age of onset in the right insula, superior temporal gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and orbitofrontal gyrus. Depression-caused reductions in GMV are mainly distributed in thalamic-limbic-cortical regions, regardless of age. For the main effect of age, adults exhibit brain atrophy in frontal, cerebellum, parietal, and temporal lobe structures. Cross-modal correlations showed that GMV changes in the interactive regions were linked with the serotonergic system and dopaminergic systems. Summarily, our results reveal the interaction between depression and age of onset in neurobiological mechanisms, which provide hints for future treatment of different ages of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiting Yang
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qiuying Tao
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wenqing Shi
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ya Tian
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yarui Wei
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shuying Li
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Shaoqiang Han
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Jingliang Cheng
- Department of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of brain function and cognitive magnetic resonance imaging, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Technology Research Center for detection and application of brain function, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of medical imaging intelligent diagnosis and treatment, Zhengzhou, China; Henan key laboratory of imaging intelligence research, Zhengzhou, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Brain Function Development and Application, Zhengzhou, China.
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3
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Wilbrecht L, Lin WC, Callahan K, Bateson M, Myers K, Ross R. Experimental biology can inform our understanding of food insecurity. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246215. [PMID: 38449329 PMCID: PMC10949070 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Food insecurity is a major public health issue. Millions of households worldwide have intermittent and unpredictable access to food and this experience is associated with greater risk for a host of negative health outcomes. While food insecurity is a contemporary concern, we can understand its effects better if we acknowledge that there are ancient biological programs that evolved to respond to the experience of food scarcity and uncertainty, and they may be particularly sensitive to food insecurity during development. Support for this conjecture comes from common findings in several recent animal studies that have modeled insecurity by manipulating predictability of food access in various ways. Using different experimental paradigms in different species, these studies have shown that experience of insecure access to food can lead to changes in weight, motivation and cognition. Some of these studies account for changes in weight through changes in metabolism, while others observe increases in feeding and motivation to work for food. It has been proposed that weight gain is an adaptive response to the experience of food insecurity as 'insurance' in an uncertain future, while changes in motivation and cognition may reflect strategic adjustments in foraging behavior. Animal studies also offer the opportunity to make in-depth controlled studies of mechanisms and behavior. So far, there is evidence that the experience of food insecurity can impact metabolic efficiency, reproductive capacity and dopamine neuron synapses. Further work on behavior, the central and peripheral nervous system, the gut and liver, along with variation in age of exposure, will be needed to better understand the full body impacts of food insecurity at different stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Wilbrecht
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Wan Chen Lin
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Kathryn Callahan
- Psychiatric Research Institute of Montefiore and Einstein, Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Melissa Bateson
- Bioscience Institute, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Kevin Myers
- Department of Psychology and Programs in Animal Behavior and Neuroscience, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA
| | - Rachel Ross
- Psychiatric Research Institute of Montefiore and Einstein, Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, NY 10467, USA
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4
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Gozen O, Aypar B, Ozturk Bintepe M, Tuzcu F, Balkan B, Koylu EO, Kanit L, Keser A. Chronic Nicotine Consumption and Withdrawal Regulate Melanocortin Receptor, CRF, and CRF Receptor mRNA Levels in the Rat Brain. Brain Sci 2024; 14:63. [PMID: 38248278 PMCID: PMC10813117 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14010063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Alterations in the various neuropeptide systems in the mesocorticolimbic circuitry have been implicated in negative effects associated with drug withdrawal. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone are two peptides that may be involved. This study investigated the regulatory effects of chronic nicotine exposure and withdrawal on the mRNA levels of melanocortin receptors (MC3R, MC4R), CRF, and CRF receptors (CRFR1 and CRFR2) expressed in the mesocorticolimbic system. Rats were given drinking water with nicotine or without nicotine (control group) for 12 weeks, after which they continued receiving nicotine (chronic exposure) or were withdrawn from nicotine for 24 or 48 h. The animals were decapitated following behavioral testing for withdrawal signs. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that nicotine exposure (with or without withdrawal) increased levels of CRF and CRFR1 mRNA in the amygdala, CRF mRNA in the medial prefrontal cortex, and CRFR1 mRNA in the septum. Nicotine withdrawal also enhanced MC3R and MC4R mRNA levels in different brain regions, while chronic nicotine exposure was associated with increased MC4R mRNA levels in the nucleus accumbens. These results suggest that chronic nicotine exposure and withdrawal regulate CRF and melanocortin signaling in the mesocorticolimbic system, possibly contributing to negative affective state and nicotine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oguz Gozen
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Buket Aypar
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Meliha Ozturk Bintepe
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Fulya Tuzcu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
| | - Burcu Balkan
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ersin O. Koylu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Lutfiye Kanit
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Aysegul Keser
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey; (O.G.)
- Center for Brain Research, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
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5
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Sweeney P, Gimenez LE, Hernandez CC, Cone RD. Targeting the central melanocortin system for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2023; 19:507-519. [PMID: 37365323 DOI: 10.1038/s41574-023-00855-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
A large body of preclinical and clinical data shows that the central melanocortin system is a promising therapeutic target for treating various metabolic disorders such as obesity and cachexia, as well as anorexia nervosa. Setmelanotide, which functions by engaging the central melanocortin circuitry, was approved by the FDA in 2020 for use in certain forms of syndromic obesity. Furthermore, the FDA approvals in 2019 of two peptide drugs targeting melanocortin receptors for the treatment of generalized hypoactive sexual desire disorder (bremelanotide) and erythropoietic protoporphyria-associated phototoxicity (afamelanotide) demonstrate the safety of this class of peptides. These approvals have also renewed excitement in the development of therapeutics targeting the melanocortin system. Here, we review the anatomy and function of the melanocortin system, discuss progress and challenges in developing melanocortin receptor-based therapeutics, and outline potential metabolic and behavioural disorders that could be addressed using pharmacological agents targeting these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Sweeney
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Luis E Gimenez
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Roger D Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature Science and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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6
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Jin R, Sun S, Hu Y, Zhang H, Sun X. Neuropeptides Modulate Feeding via the Dopamine Reward Pathway. Neurochem Res 2023:10.1007/s11064-023-03954-4. [PMID: 37233918 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-023-03954-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a catecholamine neurotransmitter widely distributed in the central nervous system. It participates in various physiological functions, such as feeding, anxiety, fear, sleeping and arousal. The regulation of feeding is exceptionally complex, involving energy homeostasis and reward motivation. The reward system comprises the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAc), hypothalamus, and limbic system. This paper illustrates the detailed mechanisms of eight typical orexigenic and anorexic neuropeptides that regulate food intake through the reward system. According to recent literature, neuropeptides released from the hypothalamus and other brain regions regulate reward feeding predominantly through dopaminergic neurons projecting from the VTA to the NAc. In addition, their effect on the dopaminergic system is mediated by the prefrontal cortex, paraventricular thalamus, laterodorsal tegmental area, amygdala, and complex neural circuits. Research on neuropeptides involved in reward feeding can help identify more targets to treat diseases with metabolic disorders, such as obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijie Jin
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Shanbin Sun
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yang Hu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hongfei Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiangrong Sun
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China.
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7
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Willmore L, Minerva AR, Engelhard B, Murugan M, McMannon B, Oak N, Thiberge SY, Peña CJ, Witten IB. Overlapping representations of food and social stimuli in VTA dopamine neurons. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.17.541104. [PMID: 37293057 PMCID: PMC10245666 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.17.541104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA DA ) respond to food and social stimuli and contribute to both forms of motivation. However, it is unclear if the same or different VTA DA neurons encode these different stimuli. To address this question, we performed 2-photon calcium imaging in mice presented with food and conspecifics, and found statistically significant overlap in the populations responsive to both stimuli. Both hunger and opposite-sex social experience further increased the proportion of neurons that respond to both stimuli, implying that modifying motivation for one stimulus affects responses to both stimuli. In addition, single-nucleus RNA sequencing revealed significant co-expression of feeding- and social-hormone related genes in individual VTA DA neurons. Taken together, our functional and transcriptional data suggest overlapping VTA DA populations underlie food and social motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Willmore
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Adelaide R. Minerva
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Ben Engelhard
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
- Department of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, 3525433, Israel
| | - Malavika Murugan
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Brenna McMannon
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Nirja Oak
- Department of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, 3525433, Israel
| | - Stephan Y. Thiberge
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Catherine J. Peña
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
| | - Ilana B. Witten
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544 USA
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8
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Markov DD, Dolotov OV, Grivennikov IA. The Melanocortin System: A Promising Target for the Development of New Antidepressant Drugs. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076664. [PMID: 37047638 PMCID: PMC10094937 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders, causing significant human suffering and socioeconomic loss. Since conventional antidepressants are not sufficiently effective, there is an urgent need to develop new antidepressant medications. Despite marked advances in the neurobiology of depression, the etiology and pathophysiology of this disease remain poorly understood. Classical and newer hypotheses of depression suggest that an imbalance of brain monoamines, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) and immune system, or impaired hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotrophic factors pathways are cause of depression. It is assumed that conventional antidepressants improve these closely related disturbances. The purpose of this review was to discuss the possibility of affecting these disturbances by targeting the melanocortin system, which includes adrenocorticotropic hormone-activated receptors and their peptide ligands (melanocortins). The melanocortin system is involved in the regulation of various processes in the brain and periphery. Melanocortins, including peripherally administered non-corticotropic agonists, regulate HPAA activity, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects, stimulate the levels of neurotrophic factors, and enhance hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotransmission. Therefore, endogenous melanocortins and their analogs are able to complexly affect the functioning of those body’s systems that are closely related to depression and the effects of antidepressants, thereby demonstrating a promising antidepressant potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitrii D. Markov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg V. Dolotov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor A. Grivennikov
- National Research Center “Kurchatov Institute”, Kurchatov Sq. 2, 123182 Moscow, Russia
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9
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Bedenbaugh MN, Brener SC, Maldonado J, Lippert RN, Sweeney P, Cone RD, Simerly RB. Organization of neural systems expressing melanocortin-3 receptors in the mouse brain: Evidence for sexual dimorphism. J Comp Neurol 2022; 530:2835-2851. [PMID: 35770983 PMCID: PMC9724692 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The central melanocortin system is fundamentally important for controlling food intake and energy homeostasis. Melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) is one of two major receptors of the melanocortin system found in the brain. In contrast to the well-characterized melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), little is known regarding the organization of MC3R-expressing neural circuits. To increase our understanding of the intrinsic organization of MC3R neural circuits, identify specific differences between males and females, and gain a neural systems level perspective of this circuitry, we conducted a brain-wide mapping of neurons labeled for MC3R and characterized the distribution of their projections. Analysis revealed MC3R neuronal and terminal labeling in multiple brain regions that control a diverse range of physiological functions and behavioral processes. Notably, dense labeling was observed in the hypothalamus, as well as areas that share considerable connections with the hypothalamus, including the cortex, amygdala, thalamus, and brainstem. Additionally, MC3R neuronal labeling was sexually dimorphic in several areas, including the anteroventral periventricular area, arcuate nucleus, principal nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and ventral premammillary region. Altogether, anatomical evidence reported here suggests that MC3R has the potential to influence several different classes of motivated behavior that are essential for survival, including ingestive, reproductive, defensive, and arousal behaviors, and is likely to modulate these behaviors differently in males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle N. Bedenbaugh
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Samantha C. Brener
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jose Maldonado
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rachel N. Lippert
- Department of Neurocircuit Development and Function, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Patrick Sweeney
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Roger D. Cone
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Richard B. Simerly
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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10
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Morari J, Haddad-Tóvolli R, Silva Nogueira PA, Teixeira CJ, Maróstica R, Tobar N, Ramos CD, Velloso LA, Dias Bobbo VC, Anhê GF. Body mass variability in age-matched outbred male Swiss mice is associated to differential control of food intake by ghrelin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2022; 550:111646. [PMID: 35413387 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2022.111646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Swiss mice belong to an outbred strain of mice largely used as a model for experimental obesity induced by high fat diet (HFD). We have previously demonstrated that a given cohort of age-matched Swiss mice is hallmarked by heterogeneous changes in body weight when exposed to HFD. The reasons underlying such variability, however, are not completely understood. Therefore we aimed to clarify the mechanisms underlying the variability in spontaneous weight gain in age-matched male swiss mice. To achieve that, individuals in a cohort of age-matched male Swiss mice were categorized as prone to body mass gain (PBMG) and resistant to body mass gain (RBMG). PBMG animals had higher caloric intake and body mass gain. RBMG and PBMG mice had a similar reduction in food intake when challenged with leptin but only RBMG exhibited a drop in ghrelin concentrations after refeeding. PBMG also showed increased midbrain levels of ghrelin receptor (Ghsr) and Dopamine receptor d2 (Drd2) mRNAs upon refeeding. Pharmacological blockade of GHSR with JMV3002 failed to reduce food intake in PMBG mice as it did in RBMG. On the other hand, the response to JMV3002 seen in PBMG was hallmarked by singular transcriptional response in the midbrain characterized by a simultaneous increase in both tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) and Proopiomelanocortin (Pomc) expressions. In conclusion, our data show that differences in the expression of genes related to the reward system in the midbrain as well as in ghrelin concentrations in serum correlate with spontaneous variability in body mass and food intake seen in age-matched male Swiss mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseane Morari
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-887, Brazil; Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil; Department of Translational Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-881, Brazil.
| | - Roberta Haddad-Tóvolli
- Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Pedro Augusto Silva Nogueira
- Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Caio Jordão Teixeira
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of Sao Paulo, 1524. Prof. Lineu Prestes Ave., ICB1, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Rafael Maróstica
- Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Natália Tobar
- Department of Radiology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Celso Dario Ramos
- Department of Radiology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Licio Augusto Velloso
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-887, Brazil; Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Cristina Dias Bobbo
- Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Forato Anhê
- Department of Translational Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, 13083-881, Brazil
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11
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Itskovich E, Bowling DL, Garner JP, Parker KJ. Oxytocin and the social facilitation of placebo effects. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:2640-2649. [PMID: 35338314 PMCID: PMC9167259 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01515-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Significant clinical improvement is often observed in patients who receive placebo treatment in randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials. While a proportion of this "improvement" reflects experimental design limitations (e.g., reliance on subjective outcomes, unbalanced groups, reporting biases), some of it reflects genuine improvement corroborated by physiological change. Converging evidence across diverse medical conditions suggests that clinically-relevant benefits from placebo treatment are associated with the activation of brain reward circuits. In parallel, evidence has accumulated showing that such benefits are facilitated by clinicians that demonstrate warmth and proficiency during interactions with patients. Here, we integrate research on these neural and social aspects of placebo effects with evidence linking oxytocin and social reward to advance a neurobiological account for the social facilitation of placebo effects. This account frames oxytocin as a key mediator of treatment success across a wide-spectrum of interventions that increase social connectedness, thereby providing a biological basis for assessing this fundamental non-specific element of medical care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Itskovich
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Daniel L. Bowling
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Joseph P. Garner
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305.,Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Karen J. Parker
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305.,Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
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12
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Dunigan AI, Roseberry AG. Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. ADDICTION NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 2:100011. [PMID: 37220637 PMCID: PMC10201992 DOI: 10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The mesolimbic dopamine system is the primary neural circuit mediating motivation, reinforcement, and reward-related behavior. The activity of this system and multiple behaviors controlled by it are affected by changes in feeding and body weight, such as fasting, food restriction, or the development of obesity. Multiple different peptides and hormones that have been implicated in the control of feeding and body weight interact with the mesolimbic dopamine system to regulate many different dopamine-dependent, reward-related behaviors. In this review, we summarize the effects of a selected set of feeding-related peptides and hormones acting within the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens to alter feeding, as well as food, drug, and social reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna I. Dunigan
- Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Aaron G. Roseberry
- Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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13
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Copperi F, Kim JD, Diano S. Melanocortin Signaling Connecting Systemic Metabolism With Mood Disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2022; 91:879-887. [PMID: 34344535 PMCID: PMC8643363 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Obesity and mood disorders are often overlapping pathologies that are prevalent public health concerns. Many studies have indicated a positive correlation between depression and obesity, although weight loss and decreased appetite are also recognized as features of depression. Accordingly, DSM-5 defines two subtypes of depression associated with changes in feeding: melancholic depression, characterized by anhedonia and associated with decreased feeding and appetite; and atypical depression, characterized by fatigue, sleepiness, hyperphagia, and weight gain. The central nervous system plays a key role in the regulation of feeding and mood, thus suggesting that overlapping neuronal circuits may be involved in their modulation. However, these circuits have yet to be completely characterized. The central melanocortin system, a circuitry characterized by the expression of specific peptides (pro-opiomelanocortins, agouti-related protein, and neuropeptide Y) and their melanocortin receptors, has been shown to be a key player in the regulation of feeding. In addition, the melanocortin system has also been shown to affect anxiety and depressive-like behavior, thus suggesting a possible role of the melanocortin system as a biological substrate linking feeding and depression. However, more studies are needed to fully understand this complex system and its role in regulating metabolic and mood disorders. In this review, we will discuss the current literature on the role of the melanocortin system in human and animal models in feeding and mood regulation, providing evidence of the biological interplay between anxiety, major depressive disorders, appetite, and body weight regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Copperi
- Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Jung Dae Kim
- Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Sabrina Diano
- Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York; Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York; Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York.
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14
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Xavier J, Bastos CR, Camerini L, Amaral PB, Jansen K, de Mattos Souza LD, da Silva RA, Pinheiro RT, Lara DR, Ghisleni G. Interaction between COMT Val 158 Met polymorphism and childhood trauma predicts risk for depression in men. Int J Dev Neurosci 2022; 82:385-396. [PMID: 35441426 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a disabling illness with complex etiology. While the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene, in particular the functional Val158 Met polymorphism, has been related to depression, the mechanisms underlying this gene-disease association are not completely understood. Therefore, we explore the association of COMT Val158 Met polymorphism with depression as well as its interaction with childhood trauma in 1,136 young adults from a population-based study carried out in the city of Pelotas-Brazil. The diagnosis was performed through the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview 5.0 (MINI 5.0), and trauma was assessed with the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ). Total DNA was extracted and genotyped by real-time PCR and the QTLbase dataset was queried to perform large-scale quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis. Our research showed no direct association between the Val158 Met polymorphism and the diagnosis of depression (women: χ2=0.10, d=1, p=0.751 and men: χ2=0.003, df=1 p=0.956). However, the Met-allele of the Val158 Met polymorphism modified the effect of childhood trauma in men [OR=2.58 (95% CI:1.05-6.29); p=0.038] conferring risk for depression only on those who suffer from trauma. The conditional effect from moderation analysis showed that trauma impacts the risk of depression only in men carrying the Met-allele (Effect: 0.9490, Standard Error (SE): 0.2570; p=0.0002). QTLbase and dataset for Val158 Met polymorphism were consistent for markers that influence chromatin accessibility transcription capacity including histone methylation and acetylation. The changes caused in gene regulation by childhood trauma exposure and polymorphism may serve as evidence of the mechanism whereby the interaction increases susceptibility to this disorder in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janaína Xavier
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Clarissa Ribeiro Bastos
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Laísa Camerini
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Paola Bajadares Amaral
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Karen Jansen
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Luciano Dias de Mattos Souza
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Azevedo da Silva
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Tavares Pinheiro
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Diogo Rizzato Lara
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Gabriele Ghisleni
- Center of Health Sciences, Post-Graduation Program of Health and Behavior, Catholic University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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15
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Identification of Novel Neurocircuitry Through Which Leptin Targets Multiple Inputs to the Dopamine System to Reduce Food Reward Seeking. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 90:843-852. [PMID: 33867112 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leptin reduces the motivation to obtain food by modulating activity of the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system upon presentation of cues that predict a food reward. Although leptin directly reduces the activity of ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA neurons, the majority of leptin receptor (LepR)-expressing DA neurons do not project to the nucleus accumbens, the projection implicated in driving food reward seeking. Therefore, the precise locus of leptin action to modulate motivation for a food reward is unresolved. METHODS We used transgenic mice expressing Cre recombinase under the control of the LepR promoter, anatomical tracing, optogenetics-assisted patch-clamp electrophysiology, in vivo optogenetics with fiber photometric calcium measurements, and chemogenetics to unravel how leptin-targeted neurocircuitry inhibits food reward seeking. RESULTS A large number of DA neurons projecting to the nucleus accumbens are innervated by local VTA LepR-expressing GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) neurons. Leptin enhances the activity of these GABA neurons and thereby inhibits nucleus accumbens-projecting DA neurons. In addition, we find that lateral hypothalamic LepR-expressing neurons projecting to the VTA are inhibited by leptin and that these neurons modulate DA neurons indirectly via inhibition of VTA GABA neurons. In accordance with such a disinhibitory function, optogenetically stimulating lateral hypothalamic LepR projections to the VTA potently activates DA neurons in vivo. Moreover, we found that chemogenetic activation of lateral hypothalamic LepR neurons increases the motivation to obtain a food reward only when mice are in a positive energy balance. CONCLUSIONS We identify neurocircuitry through which leptin targets multiple inputs to the DA system to reduce food reward seeking.
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16
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Miller DR, Guenther DT, Maurer AP, Hansen CA, Zalesky A, Khoshbouei H. Dopamine Transporter Is a Master Regulator of Dopaminergic Neural Network Connectivity. J Neurosci 2021; 41:5453-5470. [PMID: 33980544 PMCID: PMC8221606 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0223-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) exhibit spontaneous firing activity. The dopaminergic neurons in these regions have been shown to exhibit differential sensitivity to neuronal loss and psychostimulants targeting dopamine transporter. However, it remains unclear whether these regional differences scale beyond individual neuronal activity to regional neuronal networks. Here, we used live-cell calcium imaging to show that network connectivity greatly differs between SNC and VTA regions with higher incidence of hub-like neurons in the VTA. Specifically, the frequency of hub-like neurons was significantly lower in SNC than in the adjacent VTA, consistent with the interpretation of a lower network resilience to SNC neuronal loss. We tested this hypothesis, in DAT-cre/loxP-GCaMP6f mice of either sex, when activity of an individual dopaminergic neuron is suppressed, through whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology, in either SNC or VTA networks. Neuronal loss in the SNC increased network clustering, whereas the larger number of hub-neurons in the VTA overcompensated by decreasing network clustering in the VTA. We further show that network properties are regulatable via a dopamine transporter but not a D2 receptor dependent mechanism. Our results demonstrate novel regulatory mechanisms of functional network topology in dopaminergic brain regions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In this work, we begin to untangle the differences in complex network properties between the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC) and VTA, that may underlie differential sensitivity between regions. The methods and analysis employed provide a springboard for investigations of network topology in multiple deep brain structures and disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas R Miller
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Dylan T Guenther
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Andrew P Maurer
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Carissa A Hansen
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Andrew Zalesky
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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17
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Barrett LR, Nunez J, Zhang X. Oxytocin activation of paraventricular thalamic neurons promotes feeding motivation to attenuate stress-induced hypophagia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2021; 46:1045-1056. [PMID: 33495546 PMCID: PMC8114915 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-00961-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) regulates important brain functions including feeding through activating OT receptors in multiple brain areas. Both OT fibers and OT receptors have been reported in the paraventricular thalamus (PVT), an area that was revealed to be important for the control of emotion, motivation, and food intake. However, the function and modulation of PVT OT signaling remain unknown. Here, we used a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement to examine the role of PVT OT signaling in regulating the motivation for food and patch-clamp electrophysiology to study the modulation of OT on PVT neurons in brain slices. We demonstrate that PVT OT administration increases active lever presses to earn food rewards in both male and female mice under PR trials and OT receptor antagonist atosiban inhibits OT-induced increase in motivated lever presses. However, intra-PVT OT infusion does not affect food intake in normal conditions but attenuates hypophagia induced by stress and anxiety. Using patch-clamp recordings, we find OT induces long-lasting excitatory effects on neurons in all PVT regions, especially the middle to posterior PVT. OT not only evokes tonic inward currents but also increases the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents on PVT neurons. The excitatory effect of OT on PVT neurons is mimicked by the specific OT receptor agonist [Thr4, Gly7]-oxytocin (TGOT) and blocked by OT receptor antagonist atosiban. Together, our study reveals a critical role of PVT OT signaling in promoting feeding motivation to attenuate stress-induced hypophagia through exciting PVT neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily R. Barrett
- grid.255986.50000 0004 0472 0419Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
| | - Jeremiah Nunez
- grid.255986.50000 0004 0472 0419Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
| | - Xiaobing Zhang
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
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18
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Lippert RN, Hess S, Klemm P, Burgeno LM, Jahans-Price T, Walton ME, Kloppenburg P, Brüning JC. Maternal high-fat diet during lactation reprograms the dopaminergic circuitry in mice. J Clin Invest 2021; 130:3761-3776. [PMID: 32510473 DOI: 10.1172/jci134412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The maternal perinatal environment modulates brain formation, and altered maternal nutrition has been linked to the development of metabolic and psychiatric disorders in the offspring. Here, we showed that maternal high-fat diet (HFD) feeding during lactation in mice elicits long-lasting changes in gene expression in the offspring's dopaminergic circuitry. This translated into silencing of dopaminergic midbrain neurons, reduced connectivity to their downstream targets, and reduced stimulus-evoked dopamine (DA) release in the striatum. Despite the attenuated activity of DA midbrain neurons, offspring from mothers exposed to HFD feeding exhibited a sexually dimorphic expression of DA-related phenotypes, i.e., hyperlocomotion in males and increased intake of palatable food and sucrose in females. These phenotypes arose from concomitantly increased spontaneous activity of D1 medium spiny neurons (MSNs) and profoundly decreased D2 MSN projections. Overall, we have unraveled a fundamental restructuring of dopaminergic circuitries upon time-restricted altered maternal nutrition to induce persistent behavioral changes in the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Lippert
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany.,National Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - S Hess
- Biocenter, Institute for Zoology, and.,Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - P Klemm
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - L M Burgeno
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - T Jahans-Price
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - M E Walton
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - P Kloppenburg
- Biocenter, Institute for Zoology, and.,Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - J C Brüning
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany.,National Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany.,Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Preventive Medicine (CEPD), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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19
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Whole-brain activation signatures of weight-lowering drugs. Mol Metab 2021; 47:101171. [PMID: 33529728 PMCID: PMC7895844 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The development of effective anti-obesity therapeutics relies heavily on the ability to target specific brain homeostatic and hedonic mechanisms controlling body weight. To obtain further insight into neurocircuits recruited by anti-obesity drug treatment, the present study aimed to determine whole-brain activation signatures of six different weight-lowering drug classes. METHODS Chow-fed C57BL/6J mice (n = 8 per group) received acute treatment with lorcaserin (7 mg/kg; i.p.), rimonabant (10 mg/kg; i.p.), bromocriptine (10 mg/kg; i.p.), sibutramine (10 mg/kg; p.o.), semaglutide (0.04 mg/kg; s.c.) or setmelanotide (4 mg/kg; s.c.). Brains were sampled two hours post-dosing and whole-brain neuronal activation patterns were analysed at single-cell resolution using c-Fos immunohistochemistry and automated quantitative three-dimensional (3D) imaging. RESULTS The whole-brain analysis comprised 308 atlas-defined mouse brain areas. To enable fast and efficient data mining, a web-based 3D imaging data viewer was developed. All weight-lowering drugs demonstrated brain-wide responses with notable similarities in c-Fos expression signatures. Overlapping c-Fos responses were detected in discrete homeostatic and non-homeostatic feeding centres located in the dorsal vagal complex and hypothalamus with concurrent activation of several limbic structures as well as the dopaminergic system. CONCLUSIONS Whole-brain c-Fos expression signatures of various weight-lowering drug classes point to a discrete set of brain regions and neurocircuits which could represent key neuroanatomical targets for future anti-obesity therapeutics.
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20
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Micioni Di Bonaventura E, Botticelli L, Tomassoni D, Tayebati SK, Micioni Di Bonaventura MV, Cifani C. The Melanocortin System behind the Dysfunctional Eating Behaviors. Nutrients 2020; 12:E3502. [PMID: 33202557 PMCID: PMC7696960 DOI: 10.3390/nu12113502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The dysfunction of melanocortin signaling has been associated with obesity, given the important role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, food intake, satiety and body weight. In the hypothalamus, the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) contribute to the stability of these processes, but MC3R and MC4R are also localized in the mesolimbic dopamine system, the region that responds to the reinforcing properties of highly palatable food (HPF) and where these two receptors seem to affect food reward and motivation. Loss of function of the MC4R, resulting from genetic mutations, leads to overeating in humans, but to date, a clear understanding of the underlying mechanisms and behaviors that promote overconsumption of caloric foods remains unknown. Moreover, the MC4R demonstrated to be a crucial modulator of the stress response, factor that is known to be strictly related to binge eating behavior. In this review, we will explore the preclinical and clinical studies, and the controversies regarding the involvement of melanocortin system in altered eating patterns, especially binge eating behavior, food reward and motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luca Botticelli
- School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (E.M.D.B.); (L.B.); (S.K.T.); (C.C.)
| | - Daniele Tomassoni
- School of Bioscience and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy;
| | - Seyed Khosrow Tayebati
- School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (E.M.D.B.); (L.B.); (S.K.T.); (C.C.)
| | | | - Carlo Cifani
- School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (E.M.D.B.); (L.B.); (S.K.T.); (C.C.)
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21
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Retinoic acid and depressive disorders: Evidence and possible neurobiological mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 112:376-391. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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22
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Li P, Shan H, Nie B, Liu H, Dong G, Guo Y, Du J, Gao H, Ma L, Li D, Shan B. Sleeve Gastrectomy Rescuing the Altered Functional Connectivity of Lateral but Not Medial Hypothalamus in Subjects with Obesity. Obes Surg 2020; 29:2191-2199. [PMID: 30895508 DOI: 10.1007/s11695-019-03822-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lateral and medial hypothalamus (LH and MH) play important roles in energy balance. Changed hypothalamic function has been found in subjects with obesity. However, the effect of bariatric surgery on the function of the two sub-regions has been poorly investigated. METHODS Thirty-eight subjects with obesity and 34 age- and sex-matched normal-weight controls were included. Seventeen of the 38 subjects underwent laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data and metabolic parameters were collected to investigate functional connectivity networks of the two hypothalamic sub-regions as well as the influence of sleeve gastrectomy on the two networks in subjects with obesity. RESULTS Compared to normal-weight controls, pre-surgical subjects had increased functional connectivity (FC) in the reward region (putamen) within the LH network, and increased FC in somatosensory cortical area (insula), as well as decreased FC in the cognitive control regions (prefrontal regions) within the MH network. After the surgery, post-surgical FC of the putamen within the LH network changed towards the patterns found in the control group. Furthermore, the changes in fasting glucose before and after the surgery were associated with the changes in FC of the putamen within the LH network. CONCLUSIONS The FC within the LH and MH networks were changed in subjects with obesity. Part of these altered FC was rescued after the surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panlong Li
- Department of Physics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China.,Division of Nuclear Technology and Applications, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Radiographic Techniques and Equipment, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Han Shan
- Department of Radiology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Binbin Nie
- Division of Nuclear Technology and Applications, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Radiographic Techniques and Equipment, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Hua Liu
- Division of Nuclear Technology and Applications, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Radiographic Techniques and Equipment, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Guanglong Dong
- Department of General Surgery, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yulin Guo
- Department of General Surgery, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Du
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hongkai Gao
- Department of General Surgery, The General Hospital of Chinese People's Armed Police Forces, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Lin Ma
- Department of Radiology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
| | - Demin Li
- Department of Physics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China.
| | - Baoci Shan
- Division of Nuclear Technology and Applications, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Radiographic Techniques and Equipment, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China. .,School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China. .,CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Shanghai, China.
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23
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Shao X, Zhu G. Associations Among Monoamine Neurotransmitter Pathways, Personality Traits, and Major Depressive Disorder. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:381. [PMID: 32477180 PMCID: PMC7237722 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a complex psychiatric disease requiring multidisciplinary approaches to identify specific risk factors and establish more efficacious treatment strategies. Although the etiology and pathophysiology of MDD are not clear until these days, it is acknowledged that they are almost certainly multifactorial and comprehensive. Monoamine neurotransmitter system dysfunction and specific personality traits are independent risk factors for depression and suicide. These factors also demonstrate complex interactions that influence MDD pathogenesis and symptom expression. In this review, we assess these relationships with the aim of providing a reference for the development of precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Shao
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Gang Zhu
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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24
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Alger SJ, Kelm-Nelson CA, Stevenson SA, Juang C, Gammie SC, Riters LV. Complex patterns of dopamine-related gene expression in the ventral tegmental area of male zebra finches relate to dyadic interactions with long-term female partners. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2019; 19:e12619. [PMID: 31634415 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to multiple efferent targets are implicated in pair bonding, yet the role of the VTA in the maintenance of long-term pair bonds is not well characterized. Complex interactions between numerous neuromodulators modify activity in the VTA, suggesting that individual differences in patterns of gene expression in this region may explain individual differences in long-term social interactions in bonded pairs. To test this hypothesis we used RNA-seq to measure expression of over 8000 annotated genes in male zebra finches in established male-female pairs. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified a gene module that contained numerous dopamine-related genes with TH found to be the most connected gene of the module. Genes in this module related to male agonistic behaviors as well as bonding-related behaviors produced by female partners. Unsupervised learning approaches identified two groups of males that differed with respect to expression of numerous genes. Enrichment analyses showed that many dopamine-related genes and modulators differed between these groups, including dopamine receptors, synthetic and degradative enzymes, the avian dopamine transporter and several GABA- and glutamate-related genes. Many of the bonding-related behaviors closely associated with VTA gene expression in the two male groups were produced by the male's partner, rather than the male himself. Collectively, results highlight numerous candidate genes in the VTA that can be explored in future studies and raise the possibility that the molecular/genetic organization of the VTA may be strongly shaped by a social partner and/or the strength of the pair bond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Alger
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Stevens Point, Wisconsin
| | - Cynthia A Kelm-Nelson
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Sharon A Stevenson
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Charity Juang
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Stephen C Gammie
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Lauren V Riters
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
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25
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Immunochemical Identification of Melanocortin and Leptin Receptors on Serotoninergic Neurons in the Rat Midbrain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11055-019-00809-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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26
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West KS, Lu C, Olson DP, Roseberry AG. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone increases the activity of melanocortin-3 receptor-expressing neurons in the ventral tegmental area. J Physiol 2019; 597:3217-3232. [PMID: 31054267 DOI: 10.1113/jp277193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) is an anorexigenic peptide. Injection of the α-MSH analog MTII into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) decreases food and sucrose intake and food reward. Melanocortin-3 receptors (MC3R) are highly expressed in the VTA, suggesting that the effects of intra-VTA α-MSH may be mediated by α-MSH changing the activity of MC3R-expressing VTA neurons. α-MSH increased the firing rate of MC3R VTA neurons in acute brain slices from mice, although it did not affect the firing rate of non-MC3R VTA neurons. The α-MSH induced increase in MC3R neuron firing rate is probably activity-dependent, and was independent of fast synaptic transmission and intracellular Ca2+ levels. These results help us to better understand how α-MSH acts in the VTA to affect feeding and other dopamine-dependent behaviours. ABSTRACT The mesocorticolimbic dopamine system, the brain's reward system, regulates multiple behaviours, including food intake and food reward. There is substantial evidence that the melanocortin system of the hypothalamus, an important neural circuit controlling feeding and body weight, interacts with the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system to affect feeding, food reward and body weight. For example, melanocortin-3 receptors (MC3Rs) are expressed in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and our laboratory previously showed that intra-VTA injection of the MC3R agonist, MTII, decreases home-cage food intake and operant responding for sucrose pellets. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of intra-VTA alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) on feeding and food reward are unknown. To determine how α-MSH acts in the VTA to affect feeding, we performed electrophysiological recordings in acute brain slices from mice expressing enhanced yellow fluorescent protein in MC3R neurons to test how α-MSH affects the activity of VTA MC3R neurons. α-MSH significantly increased the firing rate of VTA MC3R neurons without altering the activity of non-MC3R expressing VTA neurons. In addition, the α-MSH-induced increase in MC3R neuron activity was independent of fast synaptic transmission and intracellular Ca2+ levels. Finally, we show that the effect of α-MSH on MC3R neuron firing rate is probably activity-dependent. Overall, these studies provide an important advancement in the understanding of how α-MSH acts in the VTA to affect feeding and food reward.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chunxia Lu
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - David P Olson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Aaron G Roseberry
- Department of Biology.,Neuroscience Institute, , Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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27
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Barko K, Paden W, Cahill KM, Seney ML, Logan RW. Sex-Specific Effects of Stress on Mood-Related Gene Expression. MOLECULAR NEUROPSYCHIATRY 2019; 5:162-175. [PMID: 31312637 DOI: 10.1159/000499105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD). Recent studies report distinct molecular changes in depressed men and women across mesocorticolimbic brain regions. However, it is unclear which sex-related factors drive distinct MDD-associated pathology. The goal of this study was to use mouse experimental systems to investigate sex-specific mechanisms underlying the distinct molecular profiles of MDD in men and women. We used unpredictable chronic mild stress to induce an elevated anxiety-/depressive-like state and "four core genotypes" (FCG) mice to probe for sex-specific mechanisms. As predicted, based on previous implications in mood, stress impacted the expression of several dopamine-, GABA-, and glutamate-related genes. Some of these effects, specifically in the prefrontal cortex, were genetic sex-specific, with effects in XX mice but not in XY mice. Stress also impacted gene expression differently across the mesocorticolimbic circuit, with increased expression of mood-related genes in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens, but decreased expression in basolateral amygdala. Our results suggest that females are sensitive to the effects of chronic stress, partly due to their genetic sex, independent of gonadal hormones. Furthermore, these results point to the prefrontal cortex as the node in the mesocorticolimbic circuitry with the strongest female-specific effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Barko
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - William Paden
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kelly M Cahill
- Department of Biostatistics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Marianne L Seney
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ryan W Logan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, USA
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28
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Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) and 5-Hydroxytryptamine 2c (5-HT 2c) Receptor Agonists in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) Inhibit Ghrelin-Stimulated Appetitive Reward. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20040889. [PMID: 30791361 PMCID: PMC6412472 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Current literature indicates that the orexigenic peptide ghrelin increases appetitive motivation via signaling in the mesolimbic reward system. Another gastric peptide, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and the neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), are both known to suppress operant responding for food by acting on key mesolimbic nuclei, including the ventral tegmental area (VTA). In order to investigate the interaction effects of ghrelin, GLP-1, and 5-HT within the VTA, we measured operant responding for sucrose pellets after the administration of ghrelin, the GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4 (Ex-4), and the 5-HT2c receptor agonist Ro60-0175 in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Following training on a progressive ratio 3 (PR3) schedule, animals were first injected with ghrelin into the VTA at doses of 3 to 300 pmol. In subsequent testing, separate rats were administered intraperitoneal (IP) Ex-4 (0.1–1.0 µg/kg) or VTA Ex-4 (0.01–0.1 µg) paired with 300 pmol ghrelin. In a final group of rats, the 5-HT2c agonist Ro60-0175 was injected IP (0.25–1.0 mg/kg) or into the VTA (1.5–3.0 µg), and under both conditions paired with 300 pmol ghrelin delivered into the VTA. Our results indicated that ghrelin administration increased operant responding for food reward and that this effect was attenuated by IP and VTA Ex-4 pretreatment as well as pre-administration of IP or VTA Ro60-0175. These data provide compelling evidence that mesolimbic GLP-1 and serotonergic circuitry interact with the ghrelinergic system to suppress ghrelin’s effects on the mediation of food reinforcement.
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29
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Luo P, He G, Liu D. HCN channels: New targets for the design of an antidepressant with rapid effects. J Affect Disord 2019; 245:764-770. [PMID: 30448761 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent neuropsychiatric disease that carries a staggering global burden. Although numerous antidepressants are available on the market, unfortunately, many patients die by committing suicide as a result of the therapeutic lag between treatment initiation and the improvement of depressive symptoms. This therapeutic lag highlights the need for new antidepressants that provide rapid relief of depressive symptoms. METHOD In this review, we discuss the seminal researches on hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels in animal models of depression and highlight the substantial evidence supporting the development of rapid-acting antidepressants targeting HCN channels. RESULTS HCN channels are associated with the risk of depression and targeting HCN channels or its auxiliary subunit tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b-interacting protein (TRIP8b) function may exert a rapid antidepressant-like effect. CONCLUSIONS Compounds acting on HCN subunits or the TRIP8b-HCN interaction site may be excellent candidates for development into effective drugs with rapid antidepressant action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Luo
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - GuoFang He
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Dong Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
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30
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Immunoglobulin G modulation of the melanocortin 4 receptor signaling in obesity and eating disorders. Transl Psychiatry 2019; 9:87. [PMID: 30755592 PMCID: PMC6372612 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0422-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) plays a key role in regulation of appetite activated by its main ligand α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in both central and peripheral targets. α-MSH also binds to circulating immunoglobulins (Igs) but the functional significance of such immune complexes (ICs) in MC4R signaling in normal and pathological conditions of altered appetite has remained unknown. To address this question, we analyzed plasma levels, affinity kinetics, and binding epitopes of α-MSH-reactive IgG extracted from plasma samples of female patients with hyperphagic obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and healthy controls. Ability of α-MSH/IgG IC to bind and activate human MC4R were studied in vitro and to influence feeding behavior in vivo in rodents. We found that α-MSH-reactive IgG were low in obese but increased in anorectic and bulimic patients and displayed different epitope and kinetics of IC formation. Importantly, while α-MSH/IgG IC from all subjects were binding and activating MC4R, the receptor binding affinity was decreased in obesity. Additionally, α-MSH/IgG IC had lower MC4R-mediated cAMP activation threshold as compared with α-MSH alone in all but not obese subjects. Furthermore, the cellular internalization rate of α-MSH/IgG IC by MC4R-expressing cells was decreased in obese but increased in patients with anorexia nervosa. Moreover, IgG from obese patients prevented central anorexigenic effect of α-MSH. These findings reveal that MC4R is physiologically activated by IC formed by α-MSH/IgG and that different levels and molecular properties of α-MSH-reactive IgG underlie biological activity of such IC relevant to altered appetite in obesity and eating disorders.
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31
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Ekimova IV, Gazizova AR, Karpenko MN, Plaksina DV. [Signs of anhedonia and destructive changes in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain in the model of the preclinical Parkinson's disease stage in experiment]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2018; 118:61-67. [PMID: 30335074 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro201811809161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of incurable socially significant diseases. Success in the PD treatment is associated with the development of the technology of preclinical diagnosis and neuroprotective treatment of the disease. In the experimental model of the preclinical PD stage in rats created by intranasal administration of the proteasome inhibitor lactacystin, signs of depression as an anhedonia symptom were detected for the first time. Anhedonia was combined with the death of about one third of dopamine (DA)-ergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain and their axons in the ventral striatum; and a decrease of dopamine concentration in the ventral striatum (by 40%) and the tyrosine hydroxylase level in surviving DA-ergic neurons. The signs of depression may be an early marker of PD, signaling the onset of neurodegeneration in the mesolimbic brain system and increasing functional deficit of the DA-ergic transmission in the ventral striatum. The study results can be applied to the development of the technology of preclinical PD diagnosis and pathogenetic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- I V Ekimova
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - A R Gazizova
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - M N Karpenko
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - D V Plaksina
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
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32
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The Leptin, Dopamine and Serotonin Receptors in Hypothalamic POMC-Neurons of Normal and Obese Rodents. Neurochem Res 2018; 43:821-837. [PMID: 29397535 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2485-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-expressing neurons of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) are involved in the control of food intake and metabolic processes. It is assumed that, in addition to leptin, the activity of these neurons is regulated by serotonin and dopamine, but only subtype 2C serotonin receptors (5-HT2CR) was identified earlier on the POMC-neurons. The aim of this work was a comparative study of the localization and number of leptin receptors (LepR), types 1 and 2 dopamine receptors (D1R, D2R), 5-HT1BR and 5-HT2CR on the POMC-neurons and the expression of the genes encoding them in the ARC of the normal and diet-induced obese (DIO) rodents and the agouti mice (A y /a) with the melanocortin obesity. As shown by immunohistochemistry (IHC), all the studied receptors were located on the POMC-immunopositive neurons, and their IHC-content was in agreement with the expression of their genes. In DIO rats the number of D1R and D2R in the POMC-neurons and their expression in the ARC were reduced. In DIO mice the number of D1R and D2R did not change, while the number of LepR and 5-HT2CR was increased, although to a small extent. In the POMC-neurons of agouti mice the number of LepR, D2R, 5-HT1BR and 5-HT2CR was increased, and the D1R number was reduced. Thus, our data demonstrates for the first time the localization of different types of the serotonin and dopamine receptors on the POMC-neurons and a specific pattern of the changes of their number and expression in the DIO and melanocortin obesity.
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34
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Sominsky L, Ziko I, Nguyen TX, Quach J, Spencer SJ. Hypothalamic effects of neonatal diet: reversible and only partially leptin dependent. J Endocrinol 2017; 234:41-56. [PMID: 28455431 DOI: 10.1530/joe-16-0631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Early life diet influences metabolic programming, increasing the risk for long-lasting metabolic ill health. Neonatally overfed rats have an early increase in leptin that is maintained long term and is associated with a corresponding elevation in body weight. However, the immediate and long-term effects of neonatal overfeeding on hypothalamic anorexigenic pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and orexigenic agouti-related peptide (AgRP)/neuropeptide Y (NPY) circuitry, and if these are directly mediated by leptin, have not yet been examined. Here, we examined the effects of neonatal overfeeding on leptin-mediated development of hypothalamic POMC and AgRP/NPY neurons and whether these effects can be normalised by neonatal leptin antagonism in male Wistar rats. Neonatal overfeeding led to an acute (neonatal) resistance of hypothalamic neurons to exogenous leptin, but this leptin resistance was resolved by adulthood. While there were no effects of neonatal overfeeding on POMC immunoreactivity in neonates or adults, the neonatal overfeeding-induced early increase in arcuate nucleus (ARC) AgRP/NPY fibres was reversed by adulthood so that neonatally overfed adults had reduced NPY immunoreactivity in the ARC compared with controls, with no further differences in AgRP immunoreactivity. Short-term neonatal leptin antagonism did not reverse the excess body weight or hyperleptinaemia in the neonatally overfed, suggesting factors other than leptin may also contribute to the phenotype. Our findings show that changes in the availability of leptin during early life period influence the development of hypothalamic connectivity short term, but this is partly resolved by adulthood indicating an adaptation to the metabolic mal-programming effects of neonatal overfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ilvana Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thai-Xinh Nguyen
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julie Quach
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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35
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Altered sucrose self-administration following injection of melanocortin receptor agonists and antagonists into the ventral tegmental area. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1683-1692. [PMID: 28243712 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4570-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (αMSH) and agouti-related protein (AgRP) are antagonistic neuropeptides that play an important role in the control of feeding and body weight through their central actions on the melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-4 receptors. Increasing evidence indicates that αMSH and AgRP can interact with the mesolimbic dopamine system to regulate feeding as well as other behaviors. For example, we have shown previously that injection of melanocortin receptor agonists and antagonists into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) alters both normal home-cage feeding and the intake of sucrose solutions, but it remains unknown whether αMSH and AgRP can also act in the VTA to affect reward-related feeding. METHODS We tested whether injection of the melanocortin receptor agonist, MTII, or the melanocortin receptor antagonist, SHU9119, directly into the VTA affected operant responding maintained by sucrose pellets in self-administration assays. RESULTS Injection of MTII into the VTA decreased operant responding maintained by sucrose pellets on both fixed ratio and progressive ratio schedules of reinforcement, whereas SHU9119 increased operant responding under fixed ratio, but not progressive ratio schedules. MTII also increased and SHU9119 decreased 24-h home-cage food intake. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that αMSH and AgRP act in the VTA to affect sucrose self-administration. Thus, it adds critical information to the growing literature showing that in addition to their well-characterized role in controlling "need-based" feeding, αMSH and AgRP can also act on the mesolimbic dopamine system to control reward-related behavior.
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36
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Xu P, Zhu L, Saito K, Yang Y, Wang C, He Y, Yan X, Hyseni I, Tong Q, Xu Y. Melanocortin 4 receptor is not required for estrogenic regulations on energy homeostasis and reproduction. Metabolism 2017; 70:152-159. [PMID: 28403939 PMCID: PMC5407306 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain estrogen receptor-α (ERα) is essential for estrogenic regulation of energy homeostasis and reproduction. We previously showed that ERα expressed by pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons mediates estrogen's effects on food intake, body weight, negative regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG axis) and fertility. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS We report here that global deletion of a key downstream receptor for POMC peptide, the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R), did not affect normal negative feedback regulation of estrogen on the HPG axis, estrous cyclicity and female fertility. Furthermore, loss of the MC4R did not influence estrogenic regulation on food intake and body weight. These results indicate that the MC4R is not required for estrogen's effects on metabolic and reproductive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingwen Xu
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030.
| | - Liangru Zhu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, People's Republic of China
| | - Kenji Saito
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Yongjie Yang
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Chunmei Wang
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Yanlin He
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Xiaofeng Yan
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Ilirjana Hyseni
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Qingchun Tong
- Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Yong Xu
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030.
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Ferré S. Hormones and Neuropeptide Receptor Heteromers in the Ventral Tegmental Area. Targets for the Treatment of Loss of Control of Food Intake and Substance Use Disorders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 4:167-183. [PMID: 28580231 PMCID: PMC5432584 DOI: 10.1007/s40501-017-0109-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Hormones and neuropeptides represent biological correlates of internal homeostatic signals detected and integrated in the hypothalamus, which establishes a robust functional connection with the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The hypothalamus-VTA connection determines the ability of these signals to influence central dopaminergic neurotransmission and, therefore, their ability to increase responsiveness to their reward-associated stimuli and to establish appropriate associative learning. The hypothalamus also provides the main source of the multiple neuropeptides that are released in the VTA. With volume transmission of neuropeptides and hormones, extrasynaptic receptors within the VTA provide a fine-tune mechanism, which depends on the ability of molecularly different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to form heteromers. GPCR heteromer is defined as a macromolecular complex composed of at least two different receptor units (protomers) with biochemical properties that are demonstrably different from those of its individual components. GPCR heteromers can provide unique allosteric properties to specific ligands, which provides new avenues for drug development. We have identified specific GPCR heteromers in the VTA that integrate orexin and CRF neurotransmission and opioid and galanin neurotransmission, which play a very significant role in the modulation of dopaminergic neuronal activity and which can constitute targets for the treatment of loss of control of food intake and substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Ferré
- Integrative Neurobiology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Triad Technology Building, 333 Cassell Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
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Clarifying the Ghrelin System's Ability to Regulate Feeding Behaviours Despite Enigmatic Spatial Separation of the GHSR and Its Endogenous Ligand. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18040859. [PMID: 28422060 PMCID: PMC5412441 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18040859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin is a hormone predominantly produced in and secreted from the stomach. Ghrelin is involved in many physiological processes including feeding, the stress response, and in modulating learning, memory and motivational processes. Ghrelin does this by binding to its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), a receptor found in relatively high concentrations in hypothalamic and mesolimbic brain regions. While the feeding and metabolic effects of ghrelin can be explained by the effects of this hormone on regions of the brain that have a more permeable blood brain barrier (BBB), ghrelin produced within the periphery demonstrates a limited ability to reach extrahypothalamic regions where GHSRs are expressed. Therefore, one of the most pressing unanswered questions plaguing ghrelin research is how GHSRs, distributed in brain regions protected by the BBB, are activated despite ghrelin’s predominant peripheral production and poor ability to transverse the BBB. This manuscript will describe how peripheral ghrelin activates central GHSRs to encourage feeding, and how central ghrelin synthesis and ghrelin independent activation of GHSRs may also contribute to the modulation of feeding behaviours.
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Gene Expression Profiling with Cre-Conditional Pseudorabies Virus Reveals a Subset of Midbrain Neurons That Participate in Reward Circuitry. J Neurosci 2017; 37:4128-4144. [PMID: 28283558 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3193-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The mesolimbic dopamine pathway receives inputs from numerous regions of the brain as part of a neural system that detects rewarding stimuli and coordinates a behavioral response. The capacity to simultaneously map and molecularly define the components of this complex multisynaptic circuit would thus advance our understanding of the determinants of motivated behavior. To accomplish this, we have constructed pseudorabies virus (PRV) strains in which viral propagation and fluorophore expression are activated only after exposure to Cre recombinase. Once activated in Cre-expressing neurons, the virus serially labels chains of presynaptic neurons. Dual injection of GFP and mCherry tracing viruses simultaneously illuminates nigrostriatal and mesolimbic circuitry and shows no overlap, demonstrating that PRV transmission is confined to synaptically connected neurons. To molecularly profile mesolimbic dopamine neurons and their presynaptic inputs, we injected Cre-conditional GFP virus into the NAc of (anti-GFP) nanobody-L10 transgenic mice and immunoprecipitated translating ribosomes from neurons infected after retrograde tracing. Analysis of purified RNA revealed an enrichment of transcripts expressed in neurons of the dorsal raphe nuclei and lateral hypothalamus that project to the mesolimbic dopamine circuit. These studies identify important inputs to the mesolimbic dopamine pathway and further show that PRV circuit-directed translating ribosome affinity purification can be broadly applied to identify molecularly defined neurons comprising complex, multisynaptic circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The mesolimbic dopamine circuit integrates signals from key brain regions to detect and respond to rewarding stimuli. To further define this complex multisynaptic circuit, we constructed a panel of Cre recombinase-activated pseudorabies viruses (PRVs) that enabled retrograde tracing of neural inputs that terminate on Cre-expressing neurons. Using these viruses and Retro-TRAP (translating ribosome affinity purification), a previously reported molecular profiling method, we developed a novel technique that provides anatomic as well as molecular information about the neural components of polysynaptic circuits. We refer to this new method as PRV-Circuit-TRAP (PRV circuit-directed TRAP). Using it, we have identified major projections to the mesolimbic dopamine circuit from the lateral hypothalamus and dorsal raphe nucleus and defined a discrete subset of transcripts expressed in these projecting neurons, which will allow further characterization of this important pathway. Moreover, the method we report is general and can be applied to the study of other neural circuits.
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Gydesen S, Hjuler ST, Freving Z, Andreassen KV, Sonne N, Hellgren LI, Karsdal MA, Henriksen K. A novel dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist, KBP-089, induces weight loss through a reduction in fat, but not lean mass, while improving food preference. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:591-602. [PMID: 28109166 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Obesity and associated co-morbidities, such as type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are major health challenges. Hence, there is an important need to develop weight loss therapies with the ability to reduce the co-morbidities. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effect of the dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist (DACRA), KBP-089, on body weight, glucose homeostasis and fatty acid accumulation in liver and muscle tissue and on food preference was investigated. Furthermore, we elucidated weight-independent effects of KBP-089 using a weight-matched group. KEY RESULTS Rats fed a high-fat diet were treated, s.c., with KBP-089 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 μg·kg-1 or vehicle. KB-089 induced in a dose-dependent and sustained weight loss (~17% by 2.5 μg·kg-1 ). Moreover, KBP-089 reduced fat depot size and reduced lipid accumulation in muscle and liver. In Zucker Diabetic Fatty rats, KBP-089 improved glucose homeostasis through improved insulin action. To obtain a weight-matched group, significantly less food was offered (9% less than in the KBP-089 group). Weight matching led to improved glucose homeostasis by reducing plasma insulin; however, these effect were inferior compared to those of KBP-089. In the food preference test, rats fed a normal diet obtained 74% of their calories from chocolate. KBP-089 reduced total caloric intake and induced a relative increase in chow consumption while drastically reducing chocolate consumption compared with vehicle. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The novel DACRA, KBP-089, induces a sustained weight loss, leading to improved metabolic parameters including food preference, and these are beyond those observed simply by diet-induced weight loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Gydesen
- Nordic Bioscience, Herlev, Denmark.,Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | | - Lars I Hellgren
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
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Morales M, Margolis EB. Ventral tegmental area: cellular heterogeneity, connectivity and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci 2017; 18:73-85. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 594] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Hill JW, Faulkner LD. The Role of the Melanocortin System in Metabolic Disease: New Developments and Advances. Neuroendocrinology 2017; 104:330-346. [PMID: 27728914 PMCID: PMC5724371 DOI: 10.1159/000450649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is increasing in prevalence across all sectors of society, and with it a constellation of associated ailments including hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and eating disorders. The melanocortin system is a critical neural system underlying the control of body weight and other functions. Deficits in the melanocortin system may promote or exacerbate the comorbidities of obesity. This system has therefore generated great interest as a potential target for treatment of obesity. However, drugs targeting melanocortin receptors are plagued by problematic side effects, including undesirable increases in sympathetic nervous system activity, heart rate, and blood pressure. Circumnavigating this roadblock will require a clearer picture of the precise neural circuits that mediate the functions of melanocortins. Recent, novel experimental approaches have significantly advanced our understanding of these pathways. We here review the latest advances in our understanding of the role of melanocortins in food intake, reward pathways, blood pressure, glucose control, and energy expenditure. The evidence suggests that downstream melanocortin-responsive circuits responsible for different physiological actions do diverge. Ultimately, a more complete understanding of melanocortin pathways and their myriad roles should allow treatments tailored to the mix of metabolic disorders in the individual patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer W Hill
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
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43
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Tapinc DE, Ilgin R, Kaya E, Gozen O, Ugur M, Koylu EO, Kanit L, Keser A, Balkan B. Gene expression of pro-opiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptors is regulated in the hypothalamus and mesocorticolimbic system following nicotine administration. Neurosci Lett 2017; 637:75-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Dore R, Levata L, Lehnert H, Schulz C. Nesfatin-1: functions and physiology of a novel regulatory peptide. J Endocrinol 2017; 232:R45-R65. [PMID: 27754932 DOI: 10.1530/joe-16-0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nesfatin-1 was identified in 2006 as a potent anorexigenic peptide involved in the regulation of homeostatic feeding. It is processed from the precursor-peptide NEFA/nucleobindin 2 (NUCB2), which is expressed both in the central nervous system as well as in the periphery, from where it can access the brain via non-saturable transmembrane diffusion. In hypothalamus and brainstem, nesfatin-1 recruits the oxytocin, the melancortin and other systems to relay its anorexigenic properties. NUCB2/nesfatin-1 peptide expression in reward-related areas suggests that nesfatin-1 might also be involved in hedonic feeding. Besides its initially discovered anorexigenic properties, over the last years, other important functions of nesfatin-1 have been discovered, many of them related to energy homeostasis, e.g. energy expenditure and glucose homeostasis. Nesfatin-1 is not only affecting these physiological processes but also the alterations of the metabolic state (e.g. fat mass, glycemic state) have an impact on the synthesis and release of NUCB2 and/or nesfatin-1. Furthermore, nesfatin-1 exerts pleiotropic actions at the level of cardiovascular and digestive systems, as well as plays a role in stress response, behavior, sleep and reproduction. Despite the recent advances in nesfatin-1 research, a putative receptor has not been identified and furthermore potentially distinct functions of nesfatin-1 and its precursor NUCB2 have not been dissected yet. To tackle these open questions will be the major objectives of future research to broaden our knowledge on NUCB2/nesfatin-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Dore
- Department of Internal Medicine ICenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Luka Levata
- Department of Internal Medicine ICenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hendrik Lehnert
- Department of Internal Medicine ICenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Carla Schulz
- Department of Internal Medicine ICenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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Ziko I, Sominsky L, Nguyen TX, Yam KY, De Luca S, Korosi A, Spencer SJ. Hyperleptinemia in Neonatally Overfed Female Rats Does Not Dysregulate Feeding Circuitry. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:287. [PMID: 29123503 PMCID: PMC5662871 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal overfeeding during the first weeks of life in male rats is associated with a disruption in the peripheral and central leptin systems. Neonatally overfed male rats have increased circulating leptin in the first 2 weeks of life, which corresponds to an increase in body weight compared to normally fed counterparts. These effects are associated with a short-term disruption in the connectivity of neuropeptide Y (NPY), agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons within the regions of the hypothalamus responsible for control of energy balance and food intake. Female rats that are overfed during the first weeks of their life experience similar changes in circulating leptin levels as well as in their body weight. However, it has not yet been studied whether these metabolic changes are associated with the same central effects as observed in males. Here, we hypothesized that hyperleptinemia associated with neonatal overfeeding would lead to changes in central feeding circuitry in females as it does in males. We assessed hypothalamic NPY, AgRP, and POMC gene expression and immunoreactivity at 7, 12, or 14 days of age, as well as neuronal activation in response to exogenous leptin in neonatally overfed and control female rats. Neonatally overfed female rats were hyperleptinemic and were heavier than controls. However, these metabolic changes were not mirrored centrally by changes in hypothalamic NPY, AGRP, and POMC fiber density. These findings are suggestive of sex differences in the effects of neonatal overfeeding and of differences in the ability of the female and male central systems to respond to changes in the early life nutritional environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilvana Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Thai-Xinh Nguyen
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kit-Yi Yam
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Simone De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Aniko Korosi
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sarah J. Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Sarah J. Spencer,
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Abstract
Many of the neurocircuits and hormones known to underlie the sensations of hunger and satiety also substantially alter the activity of the dopaminergic reward system. Much interest lies in the ways that hunger, satiety, and reward tie together, as the epidemic of obesity seems tied to the recent development and mass availability of highly palatable foods. In this review, we will first discuss the basic neurocircuitry of the midbrain and basal forebrain reward system. We will elaborate how several important mediators of hunger-the agouti-related protein neurons of the arcuate nucleus, the lateral hypothalamic nucleus, and ghrelin-enhance the sensitivity of the dopaminergic reward system. Then, we will elaborate how mediators of satiety-the nucleus tractus solitarius, pro-opiomelanocortin neurons of the arcuate nucleus, and its peripheral hormonal influences such as leptin-reduce the reward system sensitivity. We hope to provide a template by which future research may identify the ways in which highly rewarding foods bypass this balanced system to produce excessive food consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Michael Cassidy
- Brown Foundation of the Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases of McGovern Medical School, Neuroscience Program MD Anderson Cancer Center and UTHealth Graduate School of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
- *Correspondence: Ryan Michael Cassidy,
| | - Qingchun Tong
- Brown Foundation of the Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases of McGovern Medical School, Neuroscience Program MD Anderson Cancer Center and UTHealth Graduate School of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Beloate LN, Omrani A, Adan RA, Webb IC, Coolen LM. Ventral Tegmental Area Dopamine Cell Activation during Male Rat Sexual Behavior Regulates Neuroplasticity and d-Amphetamine Cross-Sensitization following Sex Abstinence. J Neurosci 2016; 36:9949-61. [PMID: 27656032 PMCID: PMC6705564 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0937-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Experience with sexual behavior causes cross-sensitization of amphetamine reward, an effect dependent on a period of sexual reward abstinence. We previously showed that ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a key mediator of this cross-sensitization, potentially via dopamine receptor activation. However, the role of mesolimbic dopamine for sexual behavior or cross-sensitization between natural and drug reward is unknown. This was tested using inhibitory designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs in ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine cells. rAAV5/hSvn-DIO-hm4D-mCherry was injected into the VTA of TH::Cre adult male rats. Males received clozapine N-oxide (CNO) or vehicle injections before each of 5 consecutive days of mating or handling. Following an abstinence period of 7 d, males were tested for amphetamine conditioned place preference (CPP). Next, males were injected with CNO or vehicle before mating or handling for analysis of mating-induced cFos, sex experience-induced ΔFosB, and reduction of VTA dopamine soma size. Results showed that CNO did not affect mating behavior. Instead, CNO prevented sexual experience-induced cross-sensitization of amphetamine CPP, ΔFosB in the NAc and medial prefrontal cortex, and decreases in VTA dopamine soma size. Expression of hm4D-mCherry was specific to VTA dopamine cells and CNO blocked excitation and mating-induced cFos expression in VTA dopamine cells. These findings provide direct evidence that VTA dopamine activation is not required for initiation or performance of sexual behavior. Instead, VTA dopamine directly contributes to increased vulnerability for drug use following loss of natural reward by causing neuroplasticity in the mesolimbic pathway during the natural reward experience. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Drugs of abuse act on the neural pathways that mediate natural reward learning and memory. Exposure to natural reward behaviors can alter subsequent drug-related reward. Specifically, experience with sexual behavior, followed by a period of abstinence from sexual behavior, causes increased reward for amphetamine in male rats. This study demonstrates that activation of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons during sexual experience regulates cross-sensitization of amphetamine reward. Finally, ventral tegmental area dopamine cell activation is essential for experience-induced neural adaptations in the nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and ventral tegmental area. These findings demonstrate a role of mesolimbic dopamine in the interaction between natural and drug rewards, and identify mesolimbic dopamine as a key mediator of changes in vulnerability for drug use after loss of natural reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N Beloate
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, Graduate Program in Neuroscience, and
| | - Azar Omrani
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roger A Adan
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ian C Webb
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences
| | - Lique M Coolen
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi 39216, and
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48
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Grace AA. Dysregulation of the dopamine system in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and depression. Nat Rev Neurosci 2016; 17:524-32. [PMID: 27256556 PMCID: PMC5166560 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 669] [Impact Index Per Article: 83.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The dopamine system is unique among the brain's modulatory systems in that it has discrete projections to specific brain regions involved in motor behaviour, cognition and emotion. Dopamine neurons exhibit several activity patterns - including tonic and phasic firing - that are determined by a combination of endogenous pacemaker conductances and regulation by multiple afferent systems. Emerging evidence suggests that disruptions in these regulatory systems may underlie the pathophysiology of several psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Grace
- Departments of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Psychology, Department of Neuroscience, A210 Langley Hall, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
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Mavrikaki M, Girardet C, Kern A, Faruzzi Brantley A, Miller CA, Macarthur H, Marks DL, Butler AA. Melanocortin-3 receptors in the limbic system mediate feeding-related motivational responses during weight loss. Mol Metab 2016; 5:566-579. [PMID: 27408780 PMCID: PMC4921936 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Appetitive responses to weight loss are mediated by a nutrient-sensing neural network comprised of melanocortin neurons. The role of neural melanocortin-3 receptors (MC3R) in mediating these responses is enigmatic. Mc3r knockout mice exhibit a paradoxical phenotype of obesity and reduced feeding-related behaviors in situations of nutrient scarcity. Here we examined whether MC3Rs expressed in mesolimbic neurons regulate feeding-related motivational responses. Methods Interactions between Mc3r genotype, cognitive function and energy balance on food self-administration were assessed using operant conditioning with fixed- and progressive ratio (FR1/PR1) settings. Inhibition of Mc3r transcription by a loxP-flanked transcriptional blocker (TB) in C57BL/6JN mice (Mc3rTB/TB) was reversed in mesolimbic neurons using DAT-Cre (DAT-MC3R). Results Caloric restriction (CR) caused 10–15% weight loss and increased motivation to acquire food rewards during training sessions. c-Fos-expression in the nucleus accumbens was increased 1 h following food presentation. While exhibiting weight loss, total food self-administration, enhanced motivation to self-administer food rewards in training sessions held during CR and c-Fos-activation in the nucleus accumbens following re-feeding were all markedly attenuated in Mc3rTB/TB mice. In contrast, cognitive abilities were normal in Mc3rTB/TB mice. Total food self-administration during FR1 sessions was not rescued in DAT-MC3R mice, however enhanced motivational responses to self-administer food rewards in PR1 conditions were restored. The nutrient-partitioning phenotype observed with Mc3r-deficiency was not rescued in DAT-MC3R mice. Conclusions Mesolimbic MC3Rs mediate enhanced motivational responses during CR. However, they are insufficient to restore normal caloric loading when food is presented during CR and do not affect metabolic conditions altering nutrient partitioning. Food-related motivational responses in mice increase with caloric restriction (CR). Melanocortin-3 receptors (MC3R) are required for food-related motivational responses. MC3Rs role in food-related motivational responses depends on metabolic condition. Mesolimbic MC3Rs increase food-related motivational responses during CR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mavrikaki
- Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Clemence Girardet
- Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Andras Kern
- Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Alicia Faruzzi Brantley
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Behavioral Core, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Courtney A Miller
- Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Heather Macarthur
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Daniel L Marks
- Papé Family Pediatric Research Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Andrew A Butler
- Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA.
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