M2 macrophage-mediated interleukin-4 signalling induces myofibroblast phenotype during the progression of benign prostatic hyperplasia

Androgen receptor deficiency-induced TUG1 in suppressing ferroptosis to promote benign prostatic hyperplasia through the miR-188-3p/GPX4 signal pathway

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), characterized by the non-malignant enlargement of the prostate, exhibits a pronounced association with inflammation resulting from androgen receptor (AR) deficiency. Ferroptosis, a cell death mechanism triggered by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and closely linked to inflammation, has yet to be fully understood in the context of BPH. Using RNA sequencing, we observed a significant elevation of taurine-upregulated gene 1 (TUG1) long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in BPH tissues compared to normal prostate tissue. High levels of TUG1 exhibited a discernible correlation with both prostate volume and the extent of inflammatory infiltration in BPH patients. The suppression of TUG1 not only led to a reduction in prostate size but also ameliorated AR-deficiency-induced prostatic hyperplasia. Mechanistically, a decrease in AR in prostate luminal cells prompted macrophage aggregation and the release of IL-1β, subsequently fostering the transcription of TUG1 via MYC. Induced TUG1, through competitive binding with miR-188-3p, facilitated the expression of GPX4, thereby diminishing intracellular ROS levels and impeding ferroptosis in prostate luminal cells. Notably, the ferroptosis inducer JKE-1674 alleviated inflammation-induced prostatic hyperplasia in vivo. Together, these findings suggest that AR deficiency crucially inhibits ferroptosis, promoting BPH via the TUG1/miR-188-3p/GPX4 signaling axis, and making ferroptosis induction a promising therapeutic strategy for BPH patients with AR deficiency.

Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor tadalafil reduces prostatic fibrosis via MiR-3126-3p/FGF9 axis in benign prostatic hyperplasia

Myofibroblast buildup and prostatic fibrosis play a crucial role in the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Treatments specifically targeting myofibroblasts could be a promising approach for treating BPH. Tadalafil, a phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor, holds the potential to intervene in this biological process. This study employs prostatic stromal fibroblasts to induce myofibroblast differentiation through TGFβ1 stimulation. As a result, tadalafil significantly inhibited prostatic stromal fibroblast proliferation and fibrosis process, compared to the control group. Furthermore, our transcriptome sequencing results revealed that tadalafil inhibited FGF9 secretion and simultaneously improved miR-3126-3p expression via TGFβ1 suppression. Overall, TGFβ1 can trigger pro-fibrotic signaling through miR-3126-3p in the prostatic stroma, and the use of tadalafil can inhibit this process.

High-dose methylprednisolone mediates YAP/TAZ-TEAD in vocal fold fibroblasts with macrophages

The pro-fibrotic effects of glucocorticoids may lead to a suboptimal therapeutic response for vocal fold (VF) pathology. Targeting macrophage-fibroblast interactions is an interesting therapeutic strategy; macrophages alter their phenotype to mediate both inflammation and fibrosis. In the current study, we investigated concentration-dependent effects of methylprednisolone on the fibrotic response, with an emphasis on YAP/TAZ-TEAD signaling, and inflammatory gene expression in VF fibroblasts in physical contact with macrophages. We sought to provide foundational data to optimize therapeutic strategies for millions of patients with voice/laryngeal disease-related disability. Following induction of inflammatory (M(IFN/LPS)) and fibrotic (M(TGF)) phenotypes, THP-1-derived macrophages were seeded onto HVOX vocal fold fibroblasts. Cells were co-cultured +/-0.3-3000nM methylprednisolone +/- 3μM verteporfin, a YAP/TAZ inhibitor. Inflammatory (CXCL10, TNF, PTGS2) and fibrotic genes (ACTA2, CCN2, COL1A1) in fibroblasts were analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction after cell sorting. Ser211-phosphorylated glucocorticoid receptor (S211-pGR) was assessed by Western blotting. Nuclear localization of S211-pGR and YAP/TAZ was analyzed by immunocytochemistry. Methylprednisolone decreased TNF and PTGS2 in fibroblasts co-cultured with M(IFN/LPS) macrophages and increased ACTA2 and CCN2 in fibroblasts co-cultured with M(IFN/LPS) and M(TGF). Lower concentrations were required to decrease TNF and PTGS2 expression and to increase S211-pGR than to increase ACTA2 and CCN2 expression and nuclear localization of S211-pGR. Methylprednisolone also increased YAP/TAZ nuclear localization. Verteporfin attenuated upregulation of CCN2, but not PTGS2 downregulation. High concentration methylprednisolone induced nuclear localization of S211-pGR and upregulated fibrotic genes mediated by YAP/TAZ activation.

Essential growth factor receptors for fibroblast homeostasis and activation: Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor (FGFR), Platelet Derived Growth Factor Receptor (PDGFR), and Transforming Growth Factor β Receptor (TGFβR)

Fibroblasts are cells of mesenchymal origin that are found throughout the body. While these cells have several functions, their integral roles include maintaining tissue architecture through the production of key extracellular matrix components, and participation in wound healing after injury. Fibroblasts are also key mediators in disease progression during fibrosis, cancer, and other inflammatory diseases. Under these perturbed states, fibroblasts can activate into inflammatory fibroblasts or contractile myofibroblasts. Fibroblasts require various growth factors and mitogenic molecules for survival, proliferation, and differentiation. While the activity of mitogenic growth factors on fibroblasts in vitro was characterized as early as the 1970s, the proliferation and differentiation effects of growth factors on these cells in vivo are unclear. Recent work exploring the heterogeneity of fibroblasts raises questions as to whether all fibroblast cell states exhibit the same growth factor requirements. Here, we will examine and review existing studies on the influence of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs), platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs), and transforming growth factor β receptor (TGFβR) on fibroblast cell states.

Activation of the cGMP/PKG/ERK signaling pathway associated with PDE5Is inhibits fibroblast activation by downregulating autophagy in early progressive benign prostatic hyperplasia

PURPOSE

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is one of the most prevalent diseases affecting aging males. However, approximately, 8% of the BPH patients under 50-year-old experience remarkably early progression, for reasons that remain elusive. Among the various factors implicated in promoting BPH advancement, the activation of fibroblasts and autophagy hold particular importance. Our research endeavors to explore the mechanisms behind the accelerated progression in these patients.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were performed to detect the expression levels of LC3, p62, PDE5, and α-SMA in diverse BPH tissues and prostate stromal cells. The autophagy activator rapamycin, the autophagy suppressor chloroquine, and siRNA transfection were used to identify the impact of autophagy on fibroblast activation.

RESULTS

Prostatic stromal fibroblasts in early progressive BPH tissues displayed activation of autophagy with an upregulation of LC3 and a concurrent downregulation of p62. After starvation or rapamycin treatment to a heightened level of autophagy, fibroblasts exhibited activation. Conversely, chloroquine treatment and ATG-7-knockdown effectively suppressed the level of autophagy and fibroblast activation. High expression of PDE5 was found in early progressive BPH stromal cells. The administration of PDE5 inhibitors (PDE5Is) hindered fibroblast activation through suppressing autophagy by inhibiting the ERK signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that autophagy plays a pivotal role in promoting BPH progression through fibroblast activation, while PDE5Is effectively suppress autophagy and fibroblast activation via the ERK signaling pathway. Nevertheless, further investigations are warranted to comprehensively elucidate the role of autophagy in BPH progression.

Untargeted metabolomics reveals that declined PE and PC in obesity may be associated with prostate hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that obesity may contribute to the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). However, the mechanism of this pathogenesis is not fully understood.

METHODS

A prospective case-control study was conducted with 30 obese and 30 nonobese patients with BPH. Prostate tissues were collected and analyzed using ultra performance liquid chromatography ion mobility coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-IMS-Q-TOF).

RESULTS

A total of 17 differential metabolites (3 upregulated and 14 downregulated) were identified between the obese and nonobese patients with BPH. Topological pathway analysis indicated that glycerophospholipid (GP) metabolism was the most important metabolic pathway involved in BPH pathogenesis. Seven metabolites were enriched in the GP metabolic pathway. lysoPC (P16:0/0:0), PE (20:0/20:0), PE (24:1(15Z)/18:0), PC (24:1(15Z)/14:0), PC (15:0/24:0), PE (24:0/18:0), and PC (16:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) were all significantly downregulated in the obesity group, and the area under the curve (AUC) of LysoPC (P-16:0/0/0:0) was 0.9922. The inclusion of the seven differential metabolites in a joint prediction model had an AUC of 0.9956. Thus, both LysoPC (P-16:0/0/0:0) alone and the joint prediction model demonstrated good predictive ability for obesity-induced BPH mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, obese patients with BPH had a unique metabolic profile, and alterations in PE and PC in these patients be associated with the development and progression of BPH.

Interleukin-4 from curcumin-activated OECs emerges as a central modulator for increasing M2 polarization of microglia/macrophage in OEC anti-inflammatory activity for functional repair of spinal cord injury

Microglia/macrophages are major contributors to neuroinflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) injury and exhibit either pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotypes in response to specific microenvironmental signals. Our latest in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that curcumin-treated olfactory ensheathing cells (aOECs) can effectively enhance neural survival and axonal outgrowth, and transplantation of aOECs improves the neurological outcome after spinal cord injury (SCI). The therapeutic effect is largely attributed to aOEC anti-inflammatory activity through the modulation of microglial polarization from the M1 to M2 phenotype. However, very little is known about what viable molecules from aOECs are actively responsible for the switch of M1 to M2 microglial phenotypes and the underlying mechanisms of microglial polarization. Herein, we show that Interleukin-4 (IL-4) plays a leading role in triggering the M1 to M2 microglial phenotype, appreciably decreasing the levels of M1 markers IL‑1β, IL‑6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and elevating the levels of M2 markers Arg-1, TGF-β, IL-10, and CD206. Strikingly, blockade of IL-4 signaling by siRNA and a neutralizing antibody in aOEC medium reverses the transition of M1 to M2, and the activated microglia stimulated with the aOEC medium lacking IL-4 significantly decreases neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth. In addition, transplantation of aOECs improved the neurological function deficits after SCI in rats. More importantly, the crosstalk between JAK1/STAT1/3/6-targeted downstream signals and NF-κB/SOCS1/3 signaling predominantly orchestrates IL-4-modulated microglial polarization event. These results provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of aOECs driving the M1-to-M2 shift of microglia and shed light on new therapies for SCI through the modulation of microglial polarization.

Transcription factor c-Maf drives macrophages to promote hypertrophic scar formation

BACKGROUND

Hypertrophic scar (HS) is caused by the abnormal proliferation of fibroblasts and excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM). Emerging evidence demonstrates that c-Maf positive M2 macrophages were mainly located in the hypertrophic scar tissues of proliferative phase. But whether c-Maf positive M2 macrophages can promote hypertrophic scar formation through modulating hypertrophic scar fibroblasts remains elusive.

AIMS

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of c-Maf positive M2 macrophages on the biological behaviors and functions of hypertrophic scar fibroblasts and the potential mechanism.

METHODS

HE and Masson trichrome staining were used to examine the histological features of human hypertrophic scar. Immunofluorescence staining was employed to label and quantify the c-Maf+ /CD68+ M2 macrophages. CCK8, wound healing, and transwell assays were utilized to test the effects of c-Maf overexpressed M2 macrophages or the cell culture supernatants on the proliferation and migration of hypertrophic scar derived fibroblasts (HFBs) and normal skin derived fibroblasts (NFBs). Western blot and qPCR were harnessed to test the expressions of COL1, COL3, and α-SMA in the co-cultivated fibroblasts and TGF-β1 in the c-Maf overexpressed M2 macrophages.

RESULTS

Increased number of c-Maf+ /CD68+ M2 macrophages were found in HS in contrast to the normal skin (NS). Elevated proliferation and migration were observed in the HFBs or NFBs co-cultured with c-Maf overexpressed macrophages or the cell culture supernatants. A higher mRNA and protein expressions of COL1, COL3, and α-SMA were recorded in the HFBs co-cultured with c-Maf overexpressed macrophages or treated with its culture supernatants. In addition, augmented mRNA and protein expressions of TGF-β1 were also investigated in the c-Maf overexpressed macrophages.

CONCLUSION

c-Maf positive macrophages promote hypertrophic scar formation through regulating HFBs proliferation, migration, and ECM deposition via the secreted TGF-β1.

Medrysone promotes corneal injury repair by promoting M2-like polarization of macrophages

BACKGROUND

Accumulated evidence suggests that M2-like polarized macrophages plays an important role in reducing inflammation, promoting and accelerating wound healing process and tissue repair. Thus, M2-like TAMs (Tumour-associated macrophages) was an appealing target for therapy intervention.

METHOD

Flow cytometry and RT-PCR assay were used to detect the polarization of macrophages induced by Medrysone, and the rat corneal mechanical injury model was established to evaluate the efficacy of Medrysone in cornel repair.

RESULTS

Here we found that Medrysone enhanced IL-4 induced M2 polarization of macrophages, as illustrated by increased expression of CD206, up-regulation of M2 marker mRNAs. Medrysone promoted VEGF and CCL2 secretion in IL-4 induced M2-like polarization. IL-4 triggered STAT6 activation was further enhanced by Medrysone and silencing of STAT6 partially abrogated the stimulatory effect of Medrysone. Medrysone improved migration-promoting feature of M2-like macrophages, as indicated by increased migration of endothelial cells. Further, Medrysone promoted corneal injury repair by inducing M2 polarization of macrophages in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggest that Medrysone promotes corneal injury repair by inducing the M2 polarization of macrophages, providing a theoretical basis for the application of Medrysone in the treatment of corneal injury.

Concentration Effects of Methylprednisolone in Human Vocal Fold Fibroblast-Macrophage Co-Culture

OBJECTIVE

The diversity of glucocorticoid (GC) properties may underlie variability of clinical efficacy for vocal fold (VF) disease. Optimized therapeutic approaches must account for tissue complexity as well as interactions between cell types. We previously reported that reduced GC concentrations inhibited inflammation without eliciting fibrosis in mono-cultured VF fibroblasts and macrophages. These data suggested that a refined approach to GC concentration may improve outcomes. In the current study, co-culture of VF fibroblasts and macrophages was employed to investigate the effects of different concentrations of methylprednisolone on fibrotic and inflammatory response genes in VF fibroblasts to optimize management paradigms.

STUDY DESIGN

In vitro.

METHODS

THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages were stimulated with interferon-γ (IFN-γ), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), or transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) to induce inflammatory (M(IFN/LPS)) and fibrotic (M(TGF)) phenotypes. Macrophages were then co-cultured with a human VF fibroblast cell line using a 0.4 μm pore membrane with or without 0.1-3000 nM methylprednisolone. Inflammatory (CXCL10, TNF, and PTGS2) and fibrotic (ACTA2, CCN2, and COL1A1) gene expression was quantified in fibroblasts.

RESULTS

Incubating VF fibroblasts with M(IFN/LPS) macrophages increased expression of TNF and PTGS2, and this effect was inhibited by methylprednisolone. Incubation of VF fibroblasts with M(TGF) macrophages increased expression of ACTA2, CCN2, and COL1A1, and this effect was enhanced by methylprednisolone. The concentration of methylprednisolone required to downregulate inflammatory genes (TNF and PTGS2) was lower than that to upregulate fibrotic genes (ACTA2, CCN2, and COL1A1).

CONCLUSION

Reduced concentration of methylprednisolone effectively suppressed inflammatory genes without enhancing fibrotic genes, suggesting that a refined approach to GC concentration may improve clinical outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

N/A Laryngoscope, 133:3116-3122, 2023.

Immune cell-mediated venous thrombus resolution

Herein, we review the current processes that govern experimental deep vein thrombus (DVT) resolution. How the human DVT resolves at the molecular and cellular level is not well known due to limited specimen availability. Experimentally, the thrombus resolution resembles wound healing, with early neutrophil-mediated actions followed by monocyte/macrophage-mediated events, including neovascularization, fibrinolysis, and eventually collagen replacement. Potential therapeutic targets are described, and coupling with site-directed approaches to mitigate off-target effects is the long-term goal. Similarly, timing of adjunctive agents to accelerate DVT resolution is an area that is only starting to be considered. There is much critical research that is needed in this area.

Nrf2-mediated macrophage function in benign prostatic hyperplasia: Novel molecular insights and implications

One of the most common urological diseases is benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), with a high prevalence in the middle-aged and elderly male population. Patient's mental and physical health is affected significantly by this condition, causing them considerable discomfort. During the development of BPH, a synergistic effect occurs in response to inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis induced by the activation of macrophages. The nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway can mediate macrophage activation and inhibit prostate hyperplasia by suppressing pro-inflammatory factors, anti-oxidative stress disorder, and initiating apoptosis. The purpose of this study was to review the mechanism of action of Nrf2 signaling pathway-mediated macrophage activation on the immune microenvironment of BPH and to summarize the Chinese medicine based on Nrf2 to provide an overview of BPH treatment options.

The role of immunosuppressive myofibroblasts in the aging process and age-related diseases

Tissue-resident fibroblasts are mesenchymal cells which control the structural integrity of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Fibroblasts possess a remarkable plasticity to allow them to adapt to the changes in the microenvironment and thus maintain tissue homeostasis. Several stresses, also those associated with the aging process, convert quiescent fibroblasts into myofibroblasts which not only display fibrogenic properties but also act as immune regulators cooperating both with tissue-resident immune cells and those immune cells recruited into affected tissues. TGF-β cytokine and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are major inducers of myofibroblast differentiation in pathological conditions either from quiescent fibroblasts or via transdifferentiation from certain other cell types, e.g., macrophages, adipocytes, pericytes, and endothelial cells. Intriguingly, TGF-β and ROS are also important signaling mediators between immunosuppressive cells, such as MDSCs, Tregs, and M2 macrophages. It seems that in pathological states, myofibroblasts are able to interact with the immunosuppressive network. There is clear evidence that a low-grade chronic inflammatory state in aging tissues is counteracted by activation of compensatory immunosuppression. Interestingly, common enhancers of the aging process, such as oxidative stress, loss of DNA integrity, and inflammatory insults, are inducers of myofibroblasts, whereas anti-aging treatments with metformin and rapamycin suppress the differentiation of myofibroblasts and thus prevent age-related tissue fibrosis. I will examine the reciprocal interactions between myofibroblasts and immunosuppressive cells within aging tissues. It seems that the differentiation of myofibroblasts with age-related harmful stresses enhances the activity of the immunosuppressive network which promotes tissue fibrosis and degeneration in elderly individuals.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Danzhi qing'e decoction inhibits inflammation-associated prostatic hyperplasia via inactivation of ERK1/2 signal pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inflammation plays a critical role during benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) development. Danzhi qing'e (DZQE) decoction is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been widely used for estrogen and androgen-related diseases. However, its effect on inflammation-related BPH remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of DZQE on inhibition of inflammation-related BPH, and further identify the possible mechanism involved.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Experimental autoimmune prostatitis (EAP)-induced BPH was established and then 2.7 g/kg of DZQE was administrated orally for 4 weeks. The prostate sizes, weights and prostate index (PI) values were recorded. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) was performed for pathological analyses. Macrophage infiltrate was evaluated by Immunohistochemical (IHC). The inflammatory cytokine levels were measured by Rt-PCR and ELISA methods. The phosphorylation of ERK1/2 was examined by Western blot. The expression differences of mRNA expressions between EAP-induced and oestrogen/testosterone (E2/T)-induced BPH was investigated by RNA sequencing analyses. In vitro, human prostatic epithelial BPH-1 cells were stimulated with the conditioned medium from monocyte THP-1-derived M2 macrophages (M2CM), followed by treatment of Tanshinone IIA (Tan IIA), Bakuchiol (Ba), ERK1/2 antagonist PD98059 or ERK1/2 agonist C6-Ceramide. The ERK1/2 phosphorylation and cell proliferation were then detected by Western blotting and CCK8 assay.

RESULTS

DZQE significantly inhibited the prostate enlargement and decreased PI value in EAP rats. Pathological analysis showed that DZQE alleviated prostate acinar epithelial cell proliferation by decreasing and reduction of CD68⁺ and CD206⁺ macrophage infiltration in the prostate. The levels of cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17, MCP-1, TGF-β, and IgG in EAP rats' prostate or serum were significantly suppressed by DZQE as well. Moreover, mRNA sequencing data showed that the expressions of inflammation-related genes were elevated in EAP-induced BPH but not in E2/T-induced BPH. ERK1/2-related genes expression has been found in both E2/T and EAP-induced BPH. ERK1/2 is one of the core signal pathways involved in EAP-induced BPH, which was activated in EAP group but inactivated in DZQE group. In vitro, two active components of DZQE Tan IIA and Ba inhibited M2CM-induced BPH-1 cell proliferation, similarly to ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 did. Meanwhile, Tan IIA and Ba inhibited M2CM-induced ERK1/2 signal activation in BPH-1 cells. When re-activated the ERK1/2 by its activator C6-Ceramide, the inhibitory effects of Tan IIA and Ba on BPH-1 cell proliferation were blocked.

CONCLUSION

DZQE suppressed inflammation-associated BPH via regulation of ERK1/2 signal by Tan IIA and Ba.

Identification of biomarkers related to prostatic hyperplasia based on bioinformatics and machine learning

In older adults, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common cause of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). This study aimed to explore the genes with diagnostic value in patients with BPH, reveal the relationship between the expression of diagnosis-related genes and the immune microenvironment, and provide a reference for molecular diagnosis and immunotherapy of BPH. The combined gene expression data of GSE6099, GSE7307 and GSE119195 in the GEO database were used. The differential expression of autophagy-related genes between BPH patients and healthy controls was obtained by differential analysis. Then the genes related to BPH diagnosis were screened by a machine learning algorithm and verified. Finally, five important genes (IGF1, PSIP1, SLC1A3, SLC2A1 and T1A1) were obtained by random forest (RF) algorithm, and their relationships with the immune microenvironment were discussed. Five genes play an essential role in the occurrence and development of BPH and may become new diagnostic markers of BPH. Among them, immune cells have significant correlation with some genes. The signal transduction of IL-4 mediated by M2 macrophages is closely related to the progress of BPH. There are abundant active mast cells in BPH. The adoption and metastasis of regulatory T cells may be an important method to treat BPH.

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 promotes renal fibrosis after acute kidney injury by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition and activation of M2 macrophage polarization

Long-term follow-up data indicates that 1/4 patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) will develop to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Our previous studies have demonstrated that enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) played an important role in AKI and CKD. However, the role and mechanisms of EZH2 in AKI-to-CKD transition are still unclear. Here, we demonstrated EZH2 and H3K27me3 highly upregulated in kidney from patients with ANCA-associated glomerulonephritis, and expressed positively with fibrotic lesion and negatively with renal function. Conditional EZH2 deletion or pharmacological inhibition with 3-DZNeP significantly improved renal function and attenuated pathological lesion in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) or folic acid (FA) mice models (two models of AKI-to-CKD transition). Mechanistically, we used CUT & Tag technology to verify that EZH2 binding to the PTEN promoter and regulating its transcription, thus regulating its downstream signaling pathways. Genetic or pharmacological depletion of EZH2 upregulated PTEN expression and suppressed the phosphorylation of EGFR and its downstream signaling ERK1/2 and STAT3, consequently alleviating the partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), G2/M arrest, and the aberrant secretion of profibrogenic and proinflammatory factors in vivo and vitro experiments. In addition, EZH2 promoted the EMT program induced loss of renal tubular epithelial cell transporters (OAT1, ATPase, and AQP1), and blockade of EZH2 prevented it. We further co-cultured macrophages with the medium of human renal tubular epithelial cells treated with H₂O₂ and found macrophages transferred to M2 phenotype, and EZH2 could regulate M2 macrophage polarization through STAT6 and PI3K/AKT pathways. These results were further verified in two mice models. Thus, targeted inhibition of EZH2 might be a novel therapy for ameliorating renal fibrosis after acute kidney injury by counteracting partial EMT and blockade of M2 macrophage polarization.

Hesperidin ameliorates benign prostatic hyperplasia by attenuating cell proliferation, inflammatory response, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition via the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Excessively activated transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) exacerbates benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) by triggering epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as well as epithelial and stromal cell differentiation. Hesperidin (HSP), a flavanone rich in citrus peels, exhibits a safe anti-cancer activity with few side effects. Although HSP reportedly inhibits cell growth in prostate cancer, studies on BPH have not yet been reported. Thus, this study aimed to figure out the therapeutic effect of HSP and its underlying mechanisms in BPH models in vivo and in vitro. To evaluate the anti-BPH effect of HSP in vivo, rats were injected with testosterone propionate (TP; 10 mg/kg, s.c.), finasteride (5 mg/kg, p.o.), and HSP (50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) for four weeks. The in vitro efficacy of HSP was evaluated using two prostate cell models, BPH-1 and dihydrotestosterone-stimulated WPMY-1 cells, for studying the interaction between epithelial and stromal cells. Both in vivo and in vitro, HSP inhibited prostate cell proliferation by suppressing the expression of androgen receptor-related markers. In addition, HSP reduced the expression levels of inflammatory and mesenchymal markers by blocking TGF-β1 activation. Collectively, HSP alleviated BPH by attenuating prostate cell proliferation, the inflammatory response, and EMT by regulating the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway. Thus, these results provide evidence for a new therapeutic approach against BPH.

Exosomal lncRNA HOTAIR induce macrophages to M2 polarization via PI3K/ p-AKT /AKT pathway and promote EMT and metastasis in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

Exosomes are a new way of the communication between the tumor cell and macrophage in the micro-environment. The macrophage can be induced to different phenotypes according to the different tumors. In the present study, long-chain noncoding RNA HOTAIR (lncRNA HOTAIR) was highly expressed in LSCC and exosomes. The pathway of exosomal lncRNA HOTAIR inducing macrophage to M2 polarization in the LSCC was investigated. The carcinoma tissues and adjacent tissues were collected from 104 LSCC cases, and the positive relationship between CD163-/CD206-M2 macrophage infiltration and clinical phase, lymph node spreading and pathological phase in LSCC was observed. To examine the role of exosomal lncRNA HOTAIR, macrophages were co-cultured with LSCC-exosomes of high lncRNA HOTAIR expression or transferred with HOTAIR mimics. It was suggested that exosomal lncRNA HOTAIR can induce macrophages to M2 polarization by PI3K/p-AKT/AKT signaling pathway. Furthermore, exo-treated M2 macrophages facilitate the migration, proliferation, and EMT of LSCC.

Macrophages alter inflammatory and fibrotic gene expression in human vocal fold fibroblasts

Macrophage phenotypes are simplistically classified as pro-inflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory/pro-fibrotic (M2). Phenotypically different macrophages are putatively involved in vocal fold (VF) fibrosis. The current study investigated interactions between macrophages and VF fibroblasts. THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages were treated with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/IFN-γ, interleukin-10 (IL10), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β), or interleukin-4 (IL4) for 24 h (M(IFN), M(IFN/LPS), M(IL10), M(TGF), and M(IL4), respectively; M(-) denotes untreated macrophages). Differentially activated macrophages and human VF fibroblasts were co-cultured ± direct contact. Expression of CXCL10, CCN2, ACTA2, FN1, TGM2, and LOX was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Type I collagen and smooth muscle actin (SMA) were observed by immunofluorescence. CXCL10 and PTGS2 were upregulated in fibroblasts indirectly co-cultured with M(IFN) and M(IFN/LPS). M(TGF) stimulated CCN2, ACTA2, and FN1 in fibroblasts. Enzymes involved in extracellular matrix crosslinking (TGM2, LOX) were increased in monocultured M(IL4) compared to M(-). Direct co-culture with all macrophages increased type I collagen and SMA in fibroblasts. Macrophage phenotypic shift was consistent with stimulation and had downstream differential effects on VF fibroblasts. Direct contact with macrophages, regardless of phenotype, stimulated a pro-fibrotic response in VF fibroblasts. Collectively, these data suggest meaningful interactions between macrophages and fibroblasts mediate fibrosis.

RNA sequencing and integrative analysis reveal pathways and hub genes associated with TGFβ1 stimulation on prostatic stromal cells

Objective: Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common urological disease in elderly men. The transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) plays an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of BPH stroma. However, it is not clear yet which important pathways and key genes are the downstream of TGFβ1 acting on prostatic stromal cells.

Methods: GSE132714 is currently the newer, available, and best high-throughput sequencing data set for BPH disease and includes the largest number of BPH cases. We examined the TGFβ1 expression level in BPH and normal prostate (NP) by analyzing the GSE132714 data set as well as carrying out immunohistochemistry of 15 BPH and 15 NP samples. Primary prostatic stromal cells (PrSCs) were isolated from five fresh BPH tissues. RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were used to reveal important pathways and hub genes associated with TGFβ1 stimulation on PrSCs.

Results: TGFβ1 was upregulated in BPH stroma compared to NP stroma. A total of 497 genes (244 upregulated and 253 downregulated) were differentially expressed in PrSCs with and without TGFβ1 stimulation. The Gene Ontology revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mainly enriched in progesterone secretion, interleukin-7 receptor binding, and CSF1-CSF1R complex. The Wnt signaling pathway, PI3K−Akt signaling pathway, JAK−STAT signaling pathway, and Hippo signaling pathway were screened based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. FN1, SMAD3, CXCL12, VCAM1, and ICAM1 were selected as hub genes according to the degree of connection from the protein–protein interaction (PPI) network.

Conclusion: This study sheds some new insights into the role of TGFβ1 in BPH stroma and provides some clues for the identification of potential downstream mechanisms and targets.

Estrogen and G protein-coupled estrogen receptor accelerate the progression of benign prostatic hyperplasia by inducing prostatic fibrosis

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common and progressive urological disease in elderly men worldwide. Epidemiological studies have suggested that the speed of disease progression varies among individuals, while the pathophysiological mechanisms of accelerated clinical progression in some BPH patients remain to be elucidated. In this study, we defined patients with BPH as belonging to the accelerated progressive group (transurethral resection of the prostate [TURP] surgery at ≤50 years old), normal-speed progressive group (TURP surgery at ≥70 years old), or non-progressive group (age ≤50 years old without BPH-related surgery). We enrolled prostate specimens from the three groups of patients and compared these tissues to determine the histopathological characteristics and molecular mechanisms underlying BPH patients with accelerated progression. We found that the main histopathological characteristics of accelerated progressive BPH tissues were increased stromal components and prostatic fibrosis, which were accompanied by higher myofibroblast accumulation and collagen deposition. Mechanism dissection demonstrated that these accelerated progressive BPH tissues have higher expression of the CYP19 and G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) with higher estrogen biosynthesis. Estrogen functions via GPER/Gαi signaling to modulate the EGFR/ERK and HIF-1α/TGF-β1 signaling to increase prostatic stromal cell proliferation and prostatic stromal fibrosis. The increased stromal components and prostatic fibrosis may accelerate the clinical progression of BPH. Targeting this newly identified CYP19/estrogen/GPER/Gαi signaling axis may facilitate the development of novel personalized therapeutics to better suppress the progression of BPH.

Roles for macrophage-polarizing interleukins in cancer immunity and immunotherapy

Macrophages are the most abundant and one of the most critical cells of tumor immunity. They provide a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity through releasing cytokines into the tumor microenvironment (TME). A number of interleukin (IL) cytokine family members is involved in shaping the final phenotype of macrophages toward either a classically-activated pro-inflammatory M1 state with anti-tumor activity or an alternatively-activated anti-inflammatory M2 state with pro-tumor activity. Shaping TME macrophages toward the M1 phenotype or recovering this phenotypic state may offer a promising therapeutic approach in patients with cancer. Here, we focus on the impact of macrophage-polarizing ILs on immune cells and IL-mediated cellular cross-interactions within the TME. The key aim of this review is to define therapeutic schedules for addressing ILs in cancer immunotherapy based on their multi-directional impacts in such a milieu. Gathering more knowledge on this area is also important for defining adverse effects related to cytokine therapy and addressing them for reinforcing the efficacy of immunotherapy against cancer.

Influence of Systemic Therapy on the Expression and Activity of Selected STAT Proteins in Prostate Cancer Tissue

Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) proteins have been identified as drivers of prostate cancer (PCa) progression and development of aggressive castration-resistant phenotypes. In particular, STAT3, 5, and 6 have been linked to resistance to androgen receptor inhibition and metastasis in in vitro and in vivo models. This descriptive study aimed to validate these preclinical data in tissue obtained from patients with PCa before and while under androgen-deprivation therapy. Therefore, STAT3, 5, and 6 expressions and activity were assessed by immunohistochemistry. The data revealed that STAT3 and 5 changed in PCa. However, there was no relationship between expression and survival. Moreover, due to the heterogeneous nature of PCa, the preclinical results could not be transferred congruently to the patient’s material. A pilot study with a longitudinal patient cohort could also show this heterogeneous influence of systemic therapy on STAT3, 5, and 6 expressions and activity. Even if the main mechanisms were validated, these data demonstrate the urge for better patient-near preclinical models. Therefore, these data reflect the need for investigations of STAT proteins in a longitudinal patient cohort to identify factors responsible for the diverse influence of system therapy on STAT expression.

Umbelliferone Ameliorates Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia by Inhibiting Cell Proliferation and G1/S Phase Cell Cycle Progression through Regulation of STAT3/E2F1 Axis

Umbelliferone (UMB), also known as 7-hydroxycoumarin, is a derivative of coumarin, which is widely found in many plants such as carrots, coriander, and garden angelica. Although many studies have already revealed the various pharmacological properties of UMB, its effect on benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) remains unclear. Therefore, the present study aimed to elucidate the underlying mechanism of the anti-proliferative effect of UMB in a human benign prostatic hyperplasia cell line (BPH-1), as well as its ameliorative effect on BPH in testosterone propionate (TP)-induced rats. The results showed that UMB exerts an anti-proliferative effect in BPH-1 cells by modulating the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)/E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1) axis. UMB treatment not only inhibited androgen/androgen receptor (AR) signaling-related markers, but also downregulated the overexpression of G1/S phase cell cycle-related markers. In TP-induced rats, UMB administration demonstrated an anti-BPH effect by significantly reducing prostate size, weight, and epithelial thickness. In addition, UMB suppressed cell proliferation by reducing the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and p-STAT3 (Tyr 705) in prostate tissue following TP injection. These findings suggest that UMB has pharmacological effects against BPH.

M2a macrophage can rescue proliferation and gene expression of benign prostate hyperplasia epithelial and stroma cells from insulin-like growth factor 1 knockdown

BACKGROUND

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common disease in elderly men and is often accompanied by chronic inflammation. Macrophages (several subtypes) are the main inflammatory cells that infiltrate the hyperplastic prostate and are found to secrete cytokines and growth factors. The current study aims to explore the effect of M2a macrophages on the development of BPH via insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

METHODS

Human prostate tissues, prostate, and monocyte cell lines (WPMY-1, BPH-1, and THP-1) were used. THP-1 was polarized into several subtypes with cytokines. The expression and localization of IGF-1 and M2 macrophages were determined via immunofluorescent staining, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot analysis. Flow cytometry and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays were used to investigate the effects of different subtypes of macrophages on prostate cells. IGF-1 in WPMY-1 and BPH-1 cells was silenced and cocultured with or without M2a macrophages. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and fibrosis processes were examined.

RESULTS

The polarized subtypes of macrophages were verified by amplifying their specific markers. M2a macrophages enhanced prostate cell proliferation more significantly and CD206 was more expressed in hyperplastic prostate. IGF-1 was localized in both epithelial and stromal components of prostate and upregulated in BPH tissues. M2a macrophages expressed more IGF-1 than other subtypes. Knockdown of IGF-1 in WPMY-1 and BPH-1 cells attenuated cell proliferation, promoted cell apoptosis, retarded cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase, and suppressed the EMT process in BPH-1 cells as well as the fibrotic process in WPMY-1 cells, which was reversible when cocultured with M2a macrophages.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrated that knockdown of IGF-1 expression in cultured BPH epithelial and stromal cells reduces proliferation and increases apoptosis. These effects are reversed by coculture with M2a macrophages.

Mechanosensitive Regulation of Fibrosis

Cells in the human body experience and integrate a wide variety of environmental cues. A growing interest in tissue mechanics in the past four decades has shown that the mechanical properties of tissue drive key biological processes and facilitate disease development. However, tissue stiffness is not only a potent behavioral cue, but also a product of cellular signaling activity. This review explores both roles of tissue stiffness in the context of inflammation and fibrosis, and the important molecular players driving such processes. During inflammation, proinflammatory cytokines upregulate tissue stiffness by increasing hydrostatic pressure, ECM deposition, and ECM remodeling. As the ECM stiffens, cells involved in the immune response employ intricate molecular sensors to probe and alter their mechanical environment, thereby facilitating immune cell recruitment and potentiating the fibrotic phenotype. This powerful feedforward loop raises numerous possibilities for drug development and warrants further investigation into the mechanisms specific to different fibrotic diseases.

Involvement of IL-4, IL-13 and Their Receptors in Pancreatic Cancer

Interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 are known as pleiotropic Th2 cytokines with a wide range of biological properties and functions especially in immune responses. In addition, increasing activities have also been determined in oncogenesis and tumor progression of several malignancies. It is now generally accepted that IL-4 and IL-13 can exert effects on epithelial tumor cells through corresponding receptors. Type II IL-4 receptor (IL-4Rα/IL-13Rα1), predominantly expressed in non-hematopoietic cells, is identified to be the main target for both IL-4 and IL-13 in tumors. Moreover, IL-13 can also signal by binding to the IL-13Rα2 receptor. Structural similarity due to the use of the same receptor complex generated in response to IL-4/IL-13 results in overlapping but also distinct signaling pathways and functions. The aim of this review was to summarize knowledge about IL-4 and IL-13 and their receptors in pancreatic cancer in order understand the implication of IL-4 and IL-13 and their receptors for pancreatic tumorigenesis and progression and for developing possible new diagnostic and therapeutic targets.

Cytokine Analysis: A Fresh Perspective

It is recognized that a balance of different cytokines (synergistic versus antagonistic cytokines) determines the outcome in regulation of different actions such as inflammation, polarization, and secretion of macrophages, induction and secretion of T helper cells, and angiogenesis. It is also known that cytokine secretion is highly variable between individuals. These facts red flag the practice of only comparing absolute values of 1 or 2 cytokines in various studies. It is recognized that ratios of opposing functions yield better quantification of the equilibrium than just observing single values. It is the purpose of this article to (1) emphasize the need to measure a combination of cytokines selected in a manner so that ratios of these may be derived to yield more information about the homeostasis in body and (2) to offer a list of synergistic and antagonistic cytokines from which future investigators may select for more meaningful results.

Targeting Macrophages as a Therapeutic Option in Coronavirus Disease 2019

Immune cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage are characterized by their diversity, plasticity, and variety of functions. Among them, macrophages play a central role in antiviral responses, tissue repair, and fibrosis. Macrophages can be reprogrammed by environmental cues, thus changing their phenotype during an antiviral immune response as the viral infection progresses. While M1-like macrophages are essential for the initial inflammatory responses, M2-like macrophages are critical for tissue repair after pathogen clearance. Numerous reports have evaluated the detrimental effects that coronaviruses, e.g., HCoV-229E, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, have on the antiviral immune response and macrophage functions. In this review, we have addressed the breadth of macrophage phenotypes during the antiviral response and provided an overview of macrophage-coronavirus interactions. We also discussed therapeutic approaches to target macrophage-induced complications, currently under evaluation in clinical trials for coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Additionally, we have proposed alternative approaches that target macrophage recruitment, interferon signaling, cytokine storm, pulmonary fibrosis, and hypercoagulability.

Recent progress on the role of miR-140 in cartilage matrix remodelling and its implications for osteoarthritis treatment

Cartilage matrix remodelling homeostasis is a crucial factor in maintaining cartilage integrity. Loss of cartilage integrity is a typical characteristic of osteoarthritis (OA). Strategies aimed at maintaining cartilage integrity have attracted considerable attention in the OA research field. Recently, a series of studies have suggested dual functions of microRNA-140 (miR-140) in cartilage matrix remodelling. Here, we discuss the significance of miR-140 in promoting cartilage formation and inhibiting degeneration. Additionally, we focused on the role of miR-140 in the chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Of note, we carefully reviewed recent advances in MSC exosomes for miRNA delivery in OA treatment.

The inflammation patterns of different inflammatory cells in histological structures of hyperplasic prostatic tissues

Background

The distribution characteristics of inflammatory cells in hyperplastic prostatic tissue and its influences on disease development remain unknown. We aimed to explore the infiltration characteristics of different inflammatory cells in histological structures of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in combination with clinical data.

Methods

The present study included 76 cases of BPH patients underwent transurethral resection of prostate (TURP). Hematoxylin-eosin staining was performed to identify the degree of general inflammation in prostatic tissues. The infiltration of T-lymphocytes (CD3), B-lymphocytes (CD20), and macrophages (CD68) were recorded by immunohistochemistry.

Results

The present study included 76 BPH patients with the mean age of 69.5 years old (range, 49-83 years) and the mean prostate volume of 91.9 mL (range, 24-218 mL). Periglandular inflammation was the most common pattern, being presented in 94.7% (72/76) patients, followed by stromal inflammation (67/76, 88.2%) and glandular inflammation (57/76, 75.0%). However, the stroma presented the highest rate of severe inflammation (14.6%). And the grades of glandular inflammation and stromal inflammation were independently correlated with prostate volume. T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes and macrophages had different infiltrated patterns in histological structures of prostate. And stromal hyperplasia dominated BPH was only significantly correlated with the T-lymphocytes infiltration condition (P=0.001). Meanwhile, overweight patients had more severe glandular inflammation in the prostate (P=0.010). The grade of glandular inflammation could independently increase prostate-specific antigen (PSA).

Conclusions

We characterized infiltrated patterns of different inflammatory cells in histological structures of hyperplasic prostatic tissues from surgically treated BPH specimens. The role of inflammation in BPH development was highlighted by its correlation with the prostate volume, metabolism and PSA level.

Resolution of Deep Venous Thrombosis: Proposed Immune Paradigms

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a pathology encompassing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) associated with high morbidity and mortality. Because patients often present after a thrombus has already formed, the mechanisms that drive DVT resolution are being investigated in search of treatment. Herein, we review the current literature, including the molecular mechanisms of fibrinolysis and collagenolysis, as well as the critical cellular roles of macrophages, neutrophils, and endothelial cells. We propose two general models for the operation of the immune system in the context of venous thrombosis. In early thrombus resolution, neutrophil influx stabilizes the tissue through NETosis. Meanwhile, macrophages and intact neutrophils recognize the extracellular DNA by the TLR9 receptor and induce fibrosis, a complimentary stabilization method. At later stages of resolution, pro-inflammatory macrophages police the thrombus for pathogens, a role supported by both T-cells and mast cells. Once they verify sterility, these macrophages transform into their pro-resolving phenotype. Endothelial cells both coat the stabilized thrombus, a necessary early step, and can undergo an endothelial-mesenchymal transition, which impedes DVT resolution. Several of these interactions hold promise for future therapy.