A consensus statement on detection of hippocampal sharp wave ripples and differentiation from other fast oscillations

Learning, Fast and Slow: Single- and Many-Shot Learning in the Hippocampus

The hippocampus is critical for memory and spatial navigation. The ability to map novel environments, as well as more abstract conceptual relationships, is fundamental to the cognitive flexibility that humans and other animals require to survive in a dynamic world. In this review, we survey recent advances in our understanding of how this flexibility is implemented anatomically and functionally by hippocampal circuitry, during both active exploration (online) and rest (offline). We discuss the advantages and limitations of spike timing-dependent plasticity and the more recently discovered behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity in supporting distinct learning modes in the hippocampus. Finally, we suggest complementary roles for these plasticity types in explaining many-shot and single-shot learning in the hippocampus and discuss how these rules could work together to support the learning of cognitive maps.

Circuit dynamics of superficial and deep CA1 pyramidal cells and inhibitory cells in freely moving macaques

Diverse neuron classes in hippocampal CA1 have been identified through the heterogeneity of their cellular/molecular composition. How these classes relate to hippocampal function and the network dynamics that support cognition in primates remains unclear. Here, we report inhibitory functional cell groups in CA1 of freely moving macaques whose diverse response profiles to network states and each other suggest distinct and specific roles in the functional microcircuit of CA1. In addition, pyramidal cells that were grouped by their superficial or deep layer position differed in firing rate, burstiness, and sharp-wave ripple-associated firing. They also showed strata-specific spike-timing interactions with inhibitory cell groups, suggestive of segregated neural populations. Furthermore, ensemble recordings revealed that cell assemblies were preferentially organized according to these strata. These results suggest that hippocampal CA1 in freely moving macaques bears a sublayer-specific circuit organization that may shape its role in cognition.

Brain oscillations: Hippocampal-prefrontal ripples unfolded

Memory consolidation is the process of translating memory traces from the hippocampus to the cortex. Hippocampal ripples are key in driving this transfer. A new study now shows that independent cortical ripples can suppress this communication. What could be the underlying mechanisms?

Spike ripples localize the epileptogenic zone best: an international intracranial study

We evaluated whether spike ripples, the combination of epileptiform spikes and ripples, provide a reliable and improved biomarker for the epileptogenic zone compared with other leading interictal biomarkers in a multicentre, international study. We first validated an automated spike ripple detector on intracranial EEG recordings. We then applied this detector to subjects from four centres who subsequently underwent surgical resection with known 1-year outcomes. We evaluated the spike ripple rate in subjects cured after resection [International League Against Epilepsy Class 1 outcome (ILAE 1)] and those with persistent seizures (ILAE 2-6) across sites and recording types. We also evaluated available interictal biomarkers: spike, spike-gamma, wideband high frequency oscillation (HFO, 80-500 Hz), ripple (80-250 Hz) and fast ripple (250-500 Hz) rates using previously validated automated detectors. The proportion of resected events was computed and compared across subject outcomes and biomarkers. Overall, 109 subjects were included. Most spike ripples were removed in subjects with ILAE 1 outcome (P < 0.001), and this was qualitatively observed across all sites and for depth and subdural electrodes (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). Among ILAE 1 subjects, the mean spike ripple rate was higher in the resected volume (0.66/min) than in the non-removed tissue (0.08/min, P < 0.001). A higher proportion of spike ripples were removed in subjects with ILAE 1 outcomes compared with ILAE 2-6 outcomes (P = 0.06). Among ILAE 1 subjects, the proportion of spike ripples removed was higher than the proportion of spikes (P < 0.001), spike-gamma (P < 0.001), wideband HFOs (P < 0.001), ripples (P = 0.009) and fast ripples (P = 0.009) removed. At the individual level, more subjects with ILAE 1 outcomes had the majority of spike ripples removed (79%, 38/48) than spikes (69%, P = 0.12), spike-gamma (69%, P = 0.12), wideband HFOs (63%, P = 0.03), ripples (45%, P = 0.01) or fast ripples (36%, P < 0.001) removed. Thus, in this large, multicentre cohort, when surgical resection was successful, the majority of spike ripples were removed. Furthermore, automatically detected spike ripples localize the epileptogenic tissue better than spikes, spike-gamma, wideband HFOs, ripples and fast ripples.

Local field potential sharp waves with diversified impact on cortical neuronal encoding of haptic input

Cortical sensory processing is greatly impacted by internally generated activity. But controlling for that activity is difficult since the thalamocortical network is a high-dimensional system with rapid state changes. Therefore, to unwind the cortical computational architecture there is a need for physiological 'landmarks' that can be used as frames of reference for computational state. Here we use a waveshape transform method to identify conspicuous local field potential sharp waves (LFP-SPWs) in the somatosensory cortex (S1). LFP-SPW events triggered short-lasting but massive neuronal activation in all recorded neurons with a subset of neurons initiating their activation up to 20 ms before the LFP-SPW onset. In contrast, LFP-SPWs differentially impacted the neuronal spike responses to ensuing tactile inputs, depressing the tactile responses in some neurons and enhancing them in others. When LFP-SPWs coactivated with more distant cortical surface (ECoG)-SPWs, suggesting an involvement of these SPWs in global cortical signaling, the impact of the LFP-SPW on the neuronal tactile response could change substantially, including inverting its impact to the opposite. These cortical SPWs shared many signal fingerprint characteristics as reported for hippocampal SPWs and may be a biomarker for a particular type of state change that is possibly shared byboth hippocampus and neocortex.

Open Data In Neurophysiology: Advancements, Solutions & Challenges

Across the life sciences, an ongoing effort over the last 50 years has made data and methods more reproducible and transparent. This openness has led to transformative insights and vastly accelerated scientific progress1,2. For example, structural biology3 and genomics4,5 have undertaken systematic collection and publication of protein sequences and structures over the past half-century, and these data have led to scientific breakthroughs that were unthinkable when data collection first began (e.g.6). We believe that neuroscience is poised to follow the same path, and that principles of open data and open science will transform our understanding of the nervous system in ways that are impossible to predict at the moment. To this end, new social structures along with active and open scientific communities are essential7 to facilitate and expand the still limited adoption of open science practices in our field8. Unified by shared values of openness, we set out to organize a symposium for Open Data in Neuroscience (ODIN) to strengthen our community and facilitate transformative neuroscience research at large. In this report, we share what we learned during this first ODIN event. We also lay out plans for how to grow this movement, document emerging conversations, and propose a path toward a better and more transparent science of tomorrow.

Multivariate sharp-wave ripples in schizophrenia during awake state

AIMS

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a brain disorder characterized by psychotic symptoms and cognitive dysfunction. Recently, irregularities in sharp-wave ripples (SPW-Rs) have been reported in SZ. As SPW-Rs play a critical role in memory, their irregularities can cause psychotic symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in patients with SZ. In this study, we investigated the SPW-Rs in human SZ.

METHODS

We measured whole-brain activity using magnetoencephalography (MEG) in patients with SZ (n = 20) and sex- and age-matched healthy participants (n = 20) during open-eye rest. We identified SPW-Rs and analyzed their occurrence and time-frequency traits. Furthermore, we developed a novel multivariate analysis method, termed "ripple-gedMEG" to extract the global features of SPW-Rs. We also examined the association between SPW-Rs and brain state transitions. The outcomes of these analyses were modeled to predict the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) scores of SZ.

RESULTS

We found that SPW-Rs in the SZ (1) occurred more frequently, (2) the delay of the coupling phase (3) appeared in different brain areas, (4) consisted of a less organized spatiotemporal pattern, and (5) were less involved in brain state transitions. Finally, some of the neural features associated with the SPW-Rs were found to be PANSS-positive, a pathological indicator of SZ. These results suggest that widespread but disorganized SPW-Rs underlies the symptoms of SZ.

CONCLUSION

We identified irregularities in SPW-Rs in SZ and confirmed that their alternations were strongly associated with SZ neuropathology. These results suggest a new direction for human SZ research.

Interaction of acetylcholine and oxytocin neuromodulation in the hippocampus

A postulated role of subcortical neuromodulators is to control brain states. Mechanisms by which different neuromodulators compete or cooperate at various temporal scales remain an open question. We investigated the interaction of acetylcholine (ACh) and oxytocin (OXT) at slow and fast timescales during various brain states. Although these neuromodulators fluctuated in parallel during NREM packets, transitions from NREM to REM were characterized by a surge of ACh but a continued decrease of OXT. OXT signaling lagged behind ACh. High ACh was correlated with population synchrony and gamma oscillations during active waking, whereas minimum ACh predicts sharp-wave ripples (SPW-Rs). Optogenetic control of ACh and OXT neurons confirmed the active role of these neuromodulators in the observed correlations. Synchronous hippocampal activity consistently reduced OXT activity, whereas inactivation of the lateral septum-hypothalamus path attenuated this effect. Our findings demonstrate how cooperative actions of these neuromodulators allow target circuits to perform specific functions.

Circuit dynamics of superficial and deep CA1 pyramidal cells and inhibitory cells in freely-moving macaques

Diverse neuron classes in hippocampal CA1 have been identified through the heterogeneity of their cellular/molecular composition. How these classes relate to hippocampal function and the network dynamics that support cognition in primates remains unclear. Here we report inhibitory functional cell groups in CA1 of freely-moving macaques whose diverse response profiles to network states and each other suggest distinct and specific roles in the functional microcircuit of CA1. In addition, pyramidal cells that were segregated into superficial and deep layers differed in firing rate, burstiness, and sharp-wave ripple-associated firing. They also showed strata-specific spike-timing interactions with inhibitory cell groups, suggestive of segregated neural populations. Furthermore, ensemble recordings revealed that cell assemblies were preferentially organized according to these strata. These results suggest sublayer-specific circuit organization in hippocampal CA1 of the freely-moving macaques that may underlie its role in cognition.

Hippocampal sharp-wave ripples correlate with periods of naturally occurring self-generated thoughts in humans

Core features of human cognition highlight the importance of the capacity to focus on information distinct from events in the here and now, such as mind wandering. However, the brain mechanisms that underpin these self-generated states remain unclear. An emerging hypothesis is that self-generated states depend on the process of memory replay, which is linked to sharp-wave ripples (SWRs), which are transient high-frequency oscillations originating in the hippocampus. Local field potentials were recorded from the hippocampus of 10 patients with epilepsy for up to 15 days, and experience sampling was used to describe their association with ongoing thought patterns. The SWR rates were higher during extended periods of time when participants' ongoing thoughts were more vivid, less desirable, had more imaginable properties, and exhibited fewer correlations with an external task. These data suggest a role for SWR in the patterns of ongoing thoughts that humans experience in daily life.

Spontaneous HFO Sequences Reveal Propagation Pathways for Precise Delineation of Epileptogenic Networks

Epilepsy, a neurological disorder affecting millions worldwide, poses great challenges in precisely delineating the epileptogenic zone - the brain region generating seizures - for effective treatment. High-frequency oscillations (HFOs) are emerging as promising biomarkers; however, the clinical utility is hindered by the difficulties in distinguishing pathological HFOs from non- epileptiform activities at single electrode and single patient resolution and understanding their dynamic role in epileptic networks. Here, we introduce an HFO-sequencing approach to analyze spontaneous HFOs traversing cortical regions in 40 drug-resistant epilepsy patients. This data- driven method automatically detected over 8.9 million HFOs, pinpointing pathological HFO- networks, and unveiled intricate millisecond-scale spatiotemporal dynamics, stability, and functional connectivity of HFOs in prolonged intracranial EEG recordings. These HFO sequences demonstrated a significant improvement in localization of epileptic tissue, with an 818.47% increase in concordance with seizure-onset zone (mean error: 2.92 mm), compared to conventional benchmarks. They also accurately predicted seizure outcomes for 90% AUC based on pre-surgical information using generalized linear models. Importantly, this mapping remained reliable even with short recordings (mean standard deviation: 3.23 mm for 30-minute segments). Furthermore, HFO sequences exhibited distinct yet highly repetitive spatiotemporal patterns, characterized by pronounced synchrony and predominant inward information flow from periphery towards areas involved in propagation, suggesting a crucial role for excitation-inhibition balance in HFO initiation and progression. Together, these findings shed light on the intricate organization of epileptic network and highlight the potential of HFO-sequencing as a translational tool for improved diagnosis, surgical targeting, and ultimately, better outcomes for vulnerable patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

One Sentence Summary

Pathological fast brain oscillations travel like traffic along varied routes, outlining recurrently visited neural sites emerging as critical hotspots in epilepsy network.

Pathological and Physiological High-frequency Oscillations on Electroencephalography in Patients with Epilepsy

High-frequency oscillations (HFOs) encompass ripples (80 Hz-200 Hz) and fast ripples (200 Hz-600 Hz), serving as a promising biomarker for localizing the epileptogenic zone in epilepsy. Spontaneous fast ripples are always pathological, while ripples may be physiological or pathological. Distinguishing physiological from pathological ripples is important not only for designating epileptogenic brain regions, but also for investigations that study ripples in the context of memory encoding, consolidation, and recall in patients with epilepsy. Many studies have sought to identify distinguishing features between pathological and physiological ripples over the past two decades. Physiological and pathological ripples differ with respect to their spatial location, cellular mechanisms, morphology, and coupling with background electroencephalographic activity. Retrospective studies have demonstrated that differentiating between pathological and physiological ripples can improve surgical outcome prediction. In this review, we summarize the characteristics, differences, and applications of pathological and physiological HFOs and discuss strategies for their clinical translation.

Intracerebral Dynamics of Sleep Arousals: A Combined Scalp-Intracranial EEG Study

As an intrinsic component of sleep architecture, sleep arousals represent an intermediate state between sleep and wakefulness and are important for sleep-wake regulation. They are defined in an all-or-none manner, whereas they actually present a wide range of scalp-electroencephalography (EEG) activity patterns. It is poorly understood how these arousals differ in their mechanisms. Stereo-EEG (SEEG) provides the unique opportunity to record intracranial activities in superficial and deep structures in humans. Using combined polysomnography and SEEG, we quantitatively categorized arousals during nonrapid eye movement sleep into slow wave (SW) and non-SW arousals based on whether they co-occurred with a scalp-EEG SW event. We then investigated their intracranial correlates in up to 26 brain regions from 26 patients (12 females). Across both arousal types, intracranial theta, alpha, sigma, and beta activities increased in up to 25 regions (p < 0.05; d = 0.06-0.63), while gamma and high-frequency (HF) activities decreased in up to 18 regions across the five brain lobes (p < 0.05; d = 0.06-0.44). Intracranial delta power widely increased across five lobes during SW arousals (p < 0.05 in 22 regions; d = 0.10-0.39), while it widely decreased during non-SW arousals (p < 0.05 in 19 regions; d = 0.10-0.30). Despite these main patterns, unique activities were observed locally in some regions such as the hippocampus and middle cingulate cortex, indicating spatial heterogeneity of arousal responses. Our results suggest that non-SW arousals correspond to a higher level of brain activation than SW arousals. The decrease in HF activities could potentially explain the absence of awareness and recollection during arousals.

The generative neural microdynamics of cognitive processing

The entorhinal cortex and hippocampus form a recurrent network that informs many cognitive processes, including memory, planning, navigation, and imagination. Neural recordings from these regions reveal spatially organized population codes corresponding to external environments and abstract spaces. Aligning the former cognitive functionalities with the latter neural phenomena is a central challenge in understanding the entorhinal-hippocampal circuit (EHC). Disparate experiments demonstrate a surprising level of complexity and apparent disorder in the intricate spatiotemporal dynamics of sequential non-local hippocampal reactivations, which occur particularly, though not exclusively, during immobile pauses and rest. We review these phenomena with a particular focus on their apparent lack of physical simulative realism. These observations are then integrated within a theoretical framework and proposed neural circuit mechanisms that normatively characterize this neural complexity by conceiving different regimes of hippocampal microdynamics as neuromarkers of diverse cognitive computations.

Neural and behavioural state switching during hippocampal dentate spikes

Distinct brain and behavioural states are associated with organized neural population dynamics that are thought to serve specific cognitive functions1-3. Memory replay events, for example, occur during synchronous population events called sharp-wave ripples in the hippocampus while mice are in an 'offline' behavioural state, enabling cognitive mechanisms such as memory consolidation and planning4-11. But how does the brain re-engage with the external world during this behavioural state and permit access to current sensory information or promote new memory formation? Here we found that the hippocampal dentate spike, an understudied population event that frequently occurs between sharp-wave ripples12, may underlie such a mechanism. We show that dentate spikes are associated with distinctly elevated brain-wide firing rates, primarily observed in higher order networks, and couple to brief periods of arousal. Hippocampal place coding during dentate spikes aligns to the mouse's current spatial location, unlike the memory replay accompanying sharp-wave ripples. Furthermore, inhibiting neural activity during dentate spikes disrupts associative memory formation. Thus, dentate spikes represent a distinct brain state and support memory during non-locomotor behaviour, extending the repertoire of cognitive processes beyond the classical offline functions.

Ripple-locked coactivity of stimulus-specific neurons and human associative memory

Associative memory enables the encoding and retrieval of relations between different stimuli. To better understand its neural basis, we investigated whether associative memory involves temporally correlated spiking of medial temporal lobe (MTL) neurons that exhibit stimulus-specific tuning. Using single-neuron recordings from patients with epilepsy performing an associative object-location memory task, we identified the object-specific and place-specific neurons that represented the separate elements of each memory. When patients encoded and retrieved particular memories, the relevant object-specific and place-specific neurons activated together during hippocampal ripples. This ripple-locked coactivity of stimulus-specific neurons emerged over time as the patients' associative learning progressed. Between encoding and retrieval, the ripple-locked timing of coactivity shifted, suggesting flexibility in the interaction between MTL neurons and hippocampal ripples according to behavioral demands. Our results are consistent with a cellular account of associative memory, in which hippocampal ripples coordinate the activity of specialized cellular populations to facilitate links between stimuli.

Human Hippocampal Ripples Signal Encoding of Episodic Memories

Direct human brain recordings have confirmed the presence of high-frequency oscillatory events, termed ripples, during awake behavior. While many prior studies have focused on medial temporal lobe (MTL) ripples during memory retrieval, here we investigate ripples during memory encoding. Specifically, we ask whether ripples during encoding predict whether and how memories are subsequently recalled. Detecting ripples from MTL electrodes implanted in 116 neurosurgical participants (n = 61 male) performing a verbal episodic memory task, we find that encoding ripples do not distinguish recalled from not recalled items in any MTL region, even as high-frequency activity during encoding predicts recall in these same regions. Instead, hippocampal ripples increase during encoding of items that subsequently lead to recall of temporally and semantically associated items during retrieval, a phenomenon known as clustering. This subsequent clustering effect arises specifically when hippocampal ripples co-occur during encoding and retrieval, suggesting that ripples mediate both encoding and reinstatement of episodic memories.

Scalp and hippocampal sleep correlates of memory function in drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy

Seminal animal studies demonstrated the role of sleep oscillations such as cortical slow waves, thalamocortical spindles, and hippocampal ripples in memory consolidation. In humans, whether ripples are involved in sleep-related memory processes is less clear. Here, we explored the interactions between sleep oscillations (measured as traits) and general episodic memory abilities in 26 adults with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy who performed scalp-intracranial electroencephalographic recordings and neuropsychological testing, including two analogous hippocampal-dependent verbal and nonverbal memory tasks. We explored the relationships between hemispheric scalp (spindles, slow waves) and hippocampal physiological and pathological oscillations (spindles, slow waves, ripples, and epileptic spikes) and material-specific memory function. To differentiate physiological from pathological ripples, we used multiple unbiased data-driven clustering approaches. At the individual level, we found material-specific cerebral lateralization effects (left-verbal memory, right-nonverbal memory) for all scalp spindles (rs > 0.51, ps < 0.01) and fast spindles (rs > 0.61, ps < 0.002). Hippocampal epileptic spikes and short pathological ripples, but not physiological oscillations, were negatively (rs > -0.59, ps < 0.01) associated with verbal learning and retention scores, with left lateralizing and antero-posterior effects. However, data-driven clustering failed to separate the ripple events into defined clusters. Correlation analyses with the resulting clusters revealed no meaningful or significant associations with the memory scores. Our results corroborate the role of scalp spindles in memory processes in patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. Yet, physiological and pathological ripples were not separable when using data-driven clustering, and thus our findings do not provide support for a role of sleep ripples as trait-like characteristics of general memory abilities in epilepsy.

Pathological neurons generate ripples at the UP-DOWN transition disrupting information transfer

OBJECTIVE

To confirm and investigate why pathological high-frequency oscillations (pHFOs), including ripples (80-200 Hz) and fast ripples (200-600 Hz), are generated during the UP-DOWN transition of the slow wave and if information transmission mediated by ripple temporal coupling is disrupted in the seizure-onset zone (SOZ).

METHODS

We isolated 217 total units from 175.95 intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) contact-hours of synchronized macro- and microelectrode recordings from 6 patients. Sleep slow oscillation (.1-2 Hz) epochs were identified in the iEEG recording. iEEG HFOs that occurred superimposed on the slow wave were transformed to phasors and adjusted by the phase of maximum firing in nearby units (i.e., maximum UP). We tested whether, in the SOZ, HFOs and associated action potentials (APs) occur more often at the UP-DOWN transition. We also examined ripple temporal correlations using cross-correlograms.

RESULTS

At the group level in the SOZ, HFO and HFO-associated AP probability was highest during the UP-DOWN transition of slow wave excitability (p < < .001). In the non-SOZ, HFO and HFO-associated AP was highest during the DOWN-UP transition (p < < .001). At the unit level in the SOZ, 15.6% and 20% of units exhibited more robust firing during ripples (Cohen's d = .11-.83) and fast ripples (d = .36-.90) at the UP-DOWN transition (p < .05 f.d.r. corrected), respectively. By comparison, also in the SOZ, 6.6% (d = .14-.30) and 8.5% (d = .33-.41) of units had significantly less firing during ripples and fast ripples at the UP-DOWN transition, respectively. Additional data shows that ripple and fast ripple temporal correlations, involving global slow waves, between the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and parahippocampal gyrus were reduced by >50% in the SOZ compared to the non-SOZ (N = 3).

SIGNIFICANCE

The UP-DOWN transition of slow wave excitability facilitates the activation of pathological neurons to generate pHFOs. Ripple temporal correlations across brain regions may be important in memory consolidation and are disrupted in the SOZ, perhaps by pHFO generation.

Awake ripples enhance emotional memory encoding in the human brain

Enhanced memory for emotional experiences is hypothesized to depend on amygdala-hippocampal interactions during memory consolidation. Here we show using intracranial recordings from the human amygdala and the hippocampus during an emotional memory encoding and discrimination task increased awake ripples after encoding of emotional, compared to neutrally-valenced stimuli. Further, post-encoding ripple-locked stimulus similarity is predictive of later memory discrimination. Ripple-locked stimulus similarity appears earlier in the amygdala than in hippocampus and mutual information analysis confirms amygdala influence on hippocampal activity. Finally, the joint ripple-locked stimulus similarity in the amygdala and hippocampus is predictive of correct memory discrimination. These findings provide electrophysiological evidence that post-encoding ripples enhance memory for emotional events.

Short-Term Preexposure to Novel Enriched Environment Augments Hippocampal Ripples in Urethane-Anesthetized Mice

Learning and memory are affected by novel enriched environment, a condition where animals play and interact with a variety of toys and conspecifics. Exposure of animals to the novel enriched environments improves memory by altering neural plasticity during natural sleep, a process called memory consolidation. The hippocampus, a pivotal brain region for learning and memory, generates high-frequency oscillations called ripples during sleep, which is required for memory consolidation. Naturally occurring sleep shares characteristics in common with general anesthesia in terms of extracellular oscillations, guaranteeing anesthetized animals suitable to examine neural activity in a sleep-like state. However, it is poorly understood whether the preexposure of animals to the novel enriched environment modulates neural activity in the hippocampus under subsequent anesthesia. To ask this question, we allowed mice to freely explore the novel enriched environment or their standard environment, anesthetized them, and recorded local field potentials in the hippocampal CA1 area. We then compared the characteristics of hippocampal ripples between the two groups and found that the amplitude of ripples and the number of successive ripples were larger in the novel enriched environment group than in the standard environment group, suggesting that the afferent synaptic input from the CA3 area to the CA1 area was higher when the animals underwent the novel enriched environment. These results underscore the importance of prior experience that surpasses subsequent physical states from the neurophysiological point of view.

Epilepsy and Encephalopathy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy encompasses more than the predisposition to unprovoked seizures. In children, epileptic activity during (ictal) and between (interictal) seizures has the potential to disrupt normal brain development. The term "epileptic encephalopathy (EE)" refers to the concept that such abnormal activity may contribute to cognitive and behavioral impairments beyond that expected from the underlying cause of the epileptic activity.

METHODS

In this review, we survey the concept of EE across a diverse selection of syndromes to illustrate its broad applicability in pediatric epilepsy. We review experimental evidence that provides mechanistic insights into how epileptic activity has the potential to impact normal brain processes and the development of neural networks. We then discuss opportunities to improve developmental outcomes in epilepsy now and in the future.

RESULTS

Epileptic activity in the brain poses a threat to normal physiology and brain development.

CONCLUSION

Until we have treatments that reliably target and effectively treat the underlying causes of epilepsy, a major goal of management is to prevent epileptic activity from worsening developmental outcomes.

A cognitive map for value-guided choice in ventromedial prefrontal cortex

The prefrontal cortex is crucial for economic decision-making and representing the value of options. However, how such representations facilitate flexible decisions remains unknown. We reframe economic decision-making in prefrontal cortex in line with representations of structure within the medial temporal lobe because such cognitive map representations are known to facilitate flexible behaviour. Specifically, we framed choice between different options as a navigation process in value space. Here we show that choices in a 2D value space defined by reward magnitude and probability were represented with a grid-like code, analogous to that found in spatial navigation. The grid-like code was present in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) local field potential theta frequency and the result replicated in an independent dataset. Neurons in vmPFC similarly contained a grid-like code, in addition to encoding the linear value of the chosen option. Importantly, both signals were modulated by theta frequency - occurring at theta troughs but on separate theta cycles. Furthermore, we found sharp-wave ripples - a key neural signature of planning and flexible behaviour - in vmPFC, which were modulated by accuracy and reward. These results demonstrate that multiple cognitive map-like computations are deployed in vmPFC during economic decision-making, suggesting a new framework for the implementation of choice in prefrontal cortex.

Topological analysis of sharp-wave ripple waveforms reveals input mechanisms behind feature variations

The reactivation of experience-based neural activity patterns in the hippocampus is crucial for learning and memory. These reactivation patterns and their associated sharp-wave ripples (SWRs) are highly variable. However, this variability is missed by commonly used spectral methods. Here, we use topological and dimensionality reduction techniques to analyze the waveform of ripples recorded at the pyramidal layer of CA1. We show that SWR waveforms distribute along a continuum in a low-dimensional space, which conveys information about the underlying layer-specific synaptic inputs. A decoder trained in this space successfully links individual ripples with their expected sinks and sources, demonstrating how physiological mechanisms shape SWR variability. Furthermore, we found that SWR waveforms segregated differently during wakefulness and sleep before and after a series of cognitive tasks, with striking effects of novelty and learning. Our results thus highlight how the topological analysis of ripple waveforms enables a deeper physiological understanding of SWRs.

A scoping review of the relationship between alcohol, memory consolidation and ripple activity: An overview of common methodologies to analyse ripples

Alcohol abuse is not only responsible for 5.3% of the total deaths in the world but also has a substantial impact on neurological and memory disabilities throughout the population. One extensively studied brain area involved in cognitive functions is the hippocampus. Evidence in several rodent models has shown that ethanol produces cognitive impairment in hippocampal-dependent tasks and that the damage is varied according to the stage of development at which the rodent was exposed to ethanol and the dose. To the authors' knowledge, there is a biomarker for cognitive processes in the hippocampus that remains relatively understudied in association with memory impairment by alcohol administration. This biomarker is called sharp wave-ripples (SWRs) which are synchronous neuronal population events that are well known to be involved in memory consolidation. Methodologies for facilitated or automatic identification of ripples and their analysis have been reported for a wider bandwidth than SWRs. This review is focused on communicating the state of the art about the relationship between alcohol, memory consolidation and ripple activity, as well as the use of the common methodologies to identify SWRs automatically.

Interictal epileptiform discharges in Alzheimer's disease: prevalence, relevance, and controversies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and remains an incurable, progressive disease with limited disease-modifying interventions available. In patients with AD, interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) have been identified in up to 54% of combined cohorts of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or mild dementia and are a marker of a more aggressive disease course. Studies assessing the role of IEDs in AD are limited by the lack of standardization in the definition of IEDs or the different neurophysiologic techniques used to capture them. IEDs are an appealing treatment target given the availability of EEG and anti-seizure medications. There remains uncertainty regarding when to treat IEDs, the optimal drug and dose for treatment, and the impact of treatment on disease course. This review covers the state of knowledge of the field of IEDs in AD, and the steps needed to move the field forward.

Fast ripples reflect increased excitability that primes epileptiform spikes

The neuronal circuit disturbances that drive inter-ictal and ictal epileptiform discharges remain elusive. Using a combination of extra-operative macro-electrode and micro-electrode inter-ictal recordings in six pre-surgical patients during non-rapid eye movement sleep, we found that, exclusively in the seizure onset zone, fast ripples (200-600 Hz), but not ripples (80-200 Hz), frequently occur <300 ms before an inter-ictal intra-cranial EEG spike with a probability exceeding chance (bootstrapping, P < 1e-5). Such fast ripple events are associated with higher spectral power (P < 1e-10) and correlated with more vigorous neuronal firing than solitary fast ripple (generalized linear mixed-effects model, P < 1e-9). During the intra-cranial EEG spike that follows a fast ripple, action potential firing is lower than during an intra-cranial EEG spike alone (generalized linear mixed-effects model, P < 0.05), reflecting an inhibitory restraint of intra-cranial EEG spike initiation. In contrast, ripples do not appear to prime epileptiform spikes. We next investigated the clinical significance of pre-spike fast ripple in a separate cohort of 23 patients implanted with stereo EEG electrodes, who underwent resections. In non-rapid eye movement sleep recordings, sites containing a high proportion of fast ripple preceding intra-cranial EEG spikes correlate with brain areas where seizures begin more than solitary fast ripple (P < 1e-5). Despite this correlation, removal of these sites does not guarantee seizure freedom. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that fast ripple preceding EEG spikes reflect an increase in local excitability that primes EEG spike discharges preferentially in the seizure onset zone and that epileptogenic brain regions are necessary, but not sufficient, for initiating inter-ictal epileptiform discharges.

Pontine Waves Accompanied by Short Hippocampal Sharp Wave-Ripples During Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Ponto-geniculo-occipital or pontine (P) waves have long been recognized as an electrophysiological signature of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. However, P-waves can be observed not just during REM sleep, but also during non-REM (NREM) sleep. Recent studies have uncovered that P-waves are functionally coupled with hippocampal sharp wave ripples (SWRs) during NREM sleep. However, it remains unclear to what extent P-waves during NREM sleep share their characteristics with P-waves during REM sleep and how the functional coupling to P-waves modulates SWRs. Here, we address these issues by performing multiple types of electrophysiological recordings and fiber photometry in both sexes of mice. P-waves during NREM sleep share their waveform shapes and local neural ensemble dynamics at a short (~100 milliseconds) timescale with their REM sleep counterparts. However, the dynamics of mesopontine cholinergic neurons are distinct at a longer (~10 seconds) timescale: although P-waves are accompanied by cholinergic transients, the cholinergic tone gradually reduces before P-wave genesis during NREM sleep. While P-waves are coupled to hippocampal theta rhythms during REM sleep, P-waves during NREM sleep are accompanied by a rapid reduction in hippocampal ripple power. SWRs coupled with P-waves are short-lived and hippocampal neural firing is also reduced after P-waves. These results demonstrate that P-waves are part of coordinated sleep-related activity by functionally coupling with hippocampal ensembles in a state-dependent manner.

Linking temporal coordination of hippocampal activity to memory function

Oscillations in neural activity are widespread throughout the brain and can be observed at the population level through the local field potential. These rhythmic patterns are associated with cycles of excitability and are thought to coordinate networks of neurons, in turn facilitating effective communication both within local circuits and across brain regions. In the hippocampus, theta rhythms (4-12 Hz) could contribute to several key physiological mechanisms including long-range synchrony, plasticity, and at the behavioral scale, support memory encoding and retrieval. While neurons in the hippocampus appear to be temporally coordinated by theta oscillations, they also tend to fire in sequences that are developmentally preconfigured. Although loss of theta rhythmicity impairs memory, these sequences of spatiotemporal representations persist in conditions of altered hippocampal oscillations. The focus of this review is to disentangle the relative contribution of hippocampal oscillations from single-neuron activity in learning and memory. We first review cellular, anatomical, and physiological mechanisms underlying the generation and maintenance of hippocampal rhythms and how they contribute to memory function. We propose candidate hypotheses for how septohippocampal oscillations could support memory function while not contributing directly to hippocampal sequences. In particular, we explore how theta rhythms could coordinate the integration of upstream signals in the hippocampus to form future decisions, the relevance of such integration to downstream regions, as well as setting the stage for behavioral timescale synaptic plasticity. Finally, we leverage stimulation-based treatment in Alzheimer's disease conditions as an opportunity to assess the sufficiency of hippocampal oscillations for memory function.

Pathological neurons generate ripples at the UP-DOWN transition disrupting information transfer

Objective

To confirm and investigate why pathological HFOs (pHFOs), including Ripples [80-200 Hz] and fast ripples [200-600 Hz], are generated during the UP-DOWN transition of the slow wave and if pHFOs interfere with information transmission.

Methods

We isolated 217 total units from 175.95 iEEG contact-hours of synchronized macro- and microelectrode recordings from 6 patients. Sleep slow oscillation (0.1-2 Hz) epochs were identified in the iEEG recording. iEEG HFOs that occurred superimposed on the slow wave were transformed to phasors and adjusted by the phase of maximum firing in nearby units (i.e., maximum UP). We tested whether, in the seizure onset zone (SOZ), HFOs and associated action potentials (AP) occur more often at the UP-DOWN transition. We also examined ripple temporal correlations using cross correlograms.

Results

At the group level in the SOZ, HFO and HFO-associated AP probability was highest during the UP-DOWN transition of slow wave excitability (p<<0.001). In the non-SOZ, HFO and HFO-associated AP was highest during the DOWN-UP transition (p<<0.001). At the unit level in the SOZ, 15.6% and 20% of units exhibited more robust firing during ripples (Cohen's d=0.11-0.83) and fast ripples (d=0.36-0.90) at the UP-DOWN transition (p<0.05 f.d.r corrected), respectively. By comparison, also in the SOZ, 6.6% (d=0.14-0.30) and 8.5% (d=0.33-0.41) of units had significantly less firing during ripples and fast ripples at the UP-DOWN transition, respectively. Additional data shows ripple temporal correlations, involving global slow waves, between the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and parahippocampal gyrus were reduced by ~50-80% in the SOZ compared to the non-SOZ (N=3).

Significance

The UP-DOWN transition of slow wave excitability facilitates the activation of pathological neurons to generate pHFOs. The pathological neurons and pHFOs disrupt ripple temporal correlations across brain regions that transfer information and may be important in memory consolidation.

How coupled slow oscillations, spindles and ripples coordinate neuronal processing and communication during human sleep

Learning and plasticity rely on fine-tuned regulation of neuronal circuits during offline periods. An unresolved puzzle is how the sleeping brain, in the absence of external stimulation or conscious effort, coordinates neuronal firing rates (FRs) and communication within and across circuits to support synaptic and systems consolidation. Using intracranial electroencephalography combined with multiunit activity recordings from the human hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe (MTL) areas, we show that, governed by slow oscillation (SO) up-states, sleep spindles set a timeframe for ripples to occur. This sequential coupling leads to a stepwise increase in (1) neuronal FRs, (2) short-latency cross-correlations among local neuronal assemblies and (3) cross-regional MTL interactions. Triggered by SOs and spindles, ripples thus establish optimal conditions for spike-timing-dependent plasticity and systems consolidation. These results unveil how the sequential coupling of specific sleep rhythms orchestrates neuronal processing and communication during human sleep.

A non-oscillatory, millisecond-scale embedding of brain state provides insight into behavior

Sleep and wake are understood to be slow, long-lasting processes that span the entire brain. Brain states correlate with many neurophysiological changes, yet the most robust and reliable signature of state is enriched in rhythms between 0.1 and 20 Hz. The possibility that the fundamental unit of brain state could be a reliable structure at the scale of milliseconds and microns has not been addressed due to the physical limits associated with oscillation-based definitions. Here, by analyzing high resolution neural activity recorded in 10 anatomically and functionally diverse regions of the murine brain over 24 h, we reveal a mechanistically distinct embedding of state in the brain. Sleep and wake states can be accurately classified from on the order of 100 to 101 ms of neuronal activity sampled from 100 μm of brain tissue. In contrast to canonical rhythms, this embedding persists above 1,000 Hz. This high frequency embedding is robust to substates and rapid events such as sharp wave ripples and cortical ON/OFF states. To ascertain whether such fast and local structure is meaningful, we leveraged our observation that individual circuits intermittently switch states independently of the rest of the brain. Brief state discontinuities in subsets of circuits correspond with brief behavioral discontinuities during both sleep and wake. Our results suggest that the fundamental unit of state in the brain is consistent with the spatial and temporal scale of neuronal computation, and that this resolution can contribute to an understanding of cognition and behavior.

Extracting electromyographic signals from multi-channel LFPs using independent component analysis without direct muscular recording

Electromyography (EMG) has been commonly used for the precise identification of animal behavior. However, it is often not recorded together with in vivo electrophysiology due to the need for additional surgeries and setups and the high risk of mechanical wire disconnection. While independent component analysis (ICA) has been used to reduce noise from field potential data, there has been no attempt to proactively use the removed "noise," of which EMG signals are thought to be one of the major sources. Here, we demonstrate that EMG signals can be reconstructed without direct EMG recording using the "noise" ICA component from local field potentials. The extracted component is highly correlated with directly measured EMG, termed IC-EMG. IC-EMG is useful for measuring an animal's sleep/wake, freezing response, and non-rapid eye movement (NREM)/REM sleep states consistently with actual EMG. Our method has advantages in precise and long-term behavioral measurement in wide-ranging in vivo electrophysiology experiments.

An evolutionary conserved division-of-labor between archicortical and neocortical ripples organizes information transfer during sleep

Systems-level memory consolidation during sleep depends on the temporally precise interplay between cardinal sleep oscillations. Specifically, hippocampal ripples constitute a key substrate of the hippocampal-neocortical dialogue underlying memory formation. Recently, it became evident that ripples are not unique to archicortex, but constitute a wide-spread neocortical phenomenon. To date, little is known about the morphological similarities between archi- and neocortical ripples. Moreover, it remains undetermined if neocortical ripples fulfill distinct functional roles. Leveraging intracranial recordings from the human medial temporal lobe (MTL) and neocortex during sleep, our results reveal region-specific functional specializations, albeit a near-uniform morphology. While MTL ripples synchronize the memory network to trigger directional MTL-to-neocortical information flow, neocortical ripples reduce information flow to minimize interference. At the population level, MTL ripples confined population dynamics to a low-dimensional subspace, while neocortical ripples diversified the population response; thus, constituting an effective mechanism to functionally uncouple the MTL-neocortical network. Critically, we replicated the key findings in rodents, where the same division-of-labor between archi- and neocortical ripples was evident. In sum, these results uncover an evolutionary preserved mechanism where the precisely coordinated interplay between MTL and neocortical ripples temporally segregates MTL information transfer from subsequent neocortical processing during sleep.

Hippocampal output profoundly impacts the interpretation of tactile input patterns in SI cortical neurons

Due to continuous state variations in neocortical circuits, individual somatosensory cortex (SI) neurons in vivo display a variety of intracellular responses to the exact same spatiotemporal tactile input pattern. To manipulate the internal cortical state, we here used brief electrical stimulation of the output region of the hippocampus, which preceded the delivery of specific tactile afferent input patterns to digit 2 of the anesthetized rat. We find that hippocampal output had a diversified, remarkably strong impact on the intracellular response types displayed by each neuron in the primary SI to each given tactile input pattern. Qualitatively, this impact was comparable to that previously described for cortical output, which was surprising given the widely assumed specific roles of the hippocampus, such as in cortical memory formation. The findings show that hippocampal output can profoundly impact the state-dependent interpretation of tactile inputs and hence influence perception, potentially with affective and semantic components.

Augmenting hippocampal-prefrontal neuronal synchrony during sleep enhances memory consolidation in humans

Memory consolidation during sleep is thought to depend on the coordinated interplay between cortical slow waves, thalamocortical sleep spindles and hippocampal ripples, but direct evidence is lacking. Here, we implemented real-time closed-loop deep brain stimulation in human prefrontal cortex during sleep and tested its effects on sleep electrophysiology and on overnight consolidation of declarative memory. Synchronizing the stimulation to the active phases of endogenous slow waves in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) enhanced sleep spindles, boosted locking of brain-wide neural spiking activity to MTL slow waves, and improved coupling between MTL ripples and thalamocortical oscillations. Furthermore, synchronized stimulation enhanced the accuracy of recognition memory. By contrast, identical stimulation without this precise time-locking was not associated with, and sometimes even degraded, these electrophysiological and behavioral effects. Notably, individual changes in memory accuracy were highly correlated with electrophysiological effects. Our results indicate that hippocampo-thalamocortical synchronization during sleep causally supports human memory consolidation.

Ramelteon administration enhances novel object recognition and spatial working memory in mice

Ramelteon is used to ameliorate sleep disorders that negatively affect memory performance; however, it remains unknown whether ramelteon strengthens neutral memories, which do not involve reward or punishment. To address this, we monitored behavior of mice treated with vehicle/ramelteon while they performed a novel object recognition task and a spontaneous alternation task. Object memory performance in the novel object recognition task was improved only if ramelteon was injected before training, suggesting that ramelteon specifically enhances the acquisition of object recognition memory. Ramelteon also enhanced spatial working memory in the spontaneous alternation task. Altogether, acute ramelteon treatment enhances memory in quasi-natural contexts.

Hippocampal ripples correlate with memory performance in humans

Memory performance evaluation has generally been based on behavioral tests in the past decades. However, its neural correlates remain largely unknown, particularly in humans. Here we addressed this question using intracranial electroencephalography in patients with refractory epilepsy, performing an episodic memory test. We used the presurgical Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) test to assess the memory performance of each patient. We found that hippocampal ripples significantly exhibited a transient increase during visual stimulation or before verbal recall. This increase in hippocampal ripples positively correlated with memory performance. By contrast, memory performance is negatively correlated with hippocampal interictal epileptic discharges (IEDs) or epileptic ripples in the memory task. However, these correlations were not present during quiet wakefulness. Thus, our findings uncover the neural correlates of memory performance in addition to traditional behavioral tests.

How our understanding of memory replay evolves

Memory reactivations and replay, widely reported in the hippocampus and cortex across species, have been implicated in memory consolidation, planning, and spatial and skill learning. Technological advances in electrophysiology, calcium imaging, and human neuroimaging techniques have enabled neuroscientists to measure large-scale neural activity with increasing spatiotemporal resolution and have provided opportunities for developing robust analytic methods to identify memory replay. In this article, we first review a large body of historically important and representative memory replay studies from the animal and human literature. We then discuss our current understanding of memory replay functions in learning, planning, and memory consolidation and further discuss the progress in computational modeling that has contributed to these improvements. Next, we review past and present analytic methods for replay analyses and discuss their limitations and challenges. Finally, looking ahead, we discuss some promising analytic methods for detecting nonstereotypical, behaviorally nondecodable structures from large-scale neural recordings. We argue that seamless integration of multisite recordings, real-time replay decoding, and closed-loop manipulation experiments will be essential for delineating the role of memory replay in a wide range of cognitive and motor functions.

Neural ensembles in navigation: From single cells to population codes

The brain can represent behaviorally relevant information through the firing of individual neurons as well as the coordinated firing of ensembles of neurons. Neurons in the hippocampus and associated cortical regions participate in a variety of types of ensembles to support navigation. These ensemble types include single cell codes, population codes, time-compressed sequences, behavioral sequences, and engrams. We present the physiological basis and behavioral relevance of ensemble firing. We discuss how these traditional definitions of ensembles can constrain or expand potential analyses due to the underlying assumptions and abstractions made. We highlight how coding can change at the ensemble level while underlying single cell codes remain intact. Finally, we present how ensemble definitions could be broadened to better understand the full complexity of the brain.

Alterations in theta-gamma coupling and sharp wave-ripple, signs of prodromal hippocampal network impairment in the TgF344-AD rat model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder caused by the accumulation of toxic proteins, amyloid-beta (Aβ) and tau, which eventually leads to dementia. Disease-modifying therapies are still lacking, due to incomplete insights into the neuropathological mechanisms of AD. Synaptic dysfunction is known to occur before cognitive symptoms become apparent and recent studies have demonstrated that imbalanced synaptic signaling drives the progression of AD, suggesting that early synaptic dysfunction could be an interesting therapeutic target. Synaptic dysfunction results in altered oscillatory activity, which can be detected with electroencephalography and electrophysiological recordings. However, the majority of these studies have been performed at advanced stages of AD, when extensive damage and cognitive symptoms are already present. The current study aimed to investigate if the hippocampal oscillatory activity is altered at pre-plaque stages of AD. The rats received stereotactic surgery to implant a laminar electrode in the CA1 layer of the right hippocampus. Electrophysiological recordings during two consecutive days in an open field were performed in 4-5-month-old TgF344-AD rats when increased concentrations of soluble Aβ species were observed in the brain, in the absence of Aβ-plaques. We observed a decreased power of high theta oscillations in TgF344-AD rats compared to wild-type littermates. Sharp wave-ripple (SWR) analysis revealed an increased SWR power and a decreased duration of SWR during quiet wake in TgF344-AD rats. The alterations in properties of SWR and the increased power of fast oscillations are suggestive of neuronal hyperexcitability, as has been demonstrated to occur during presymptomatic stages of AD. In addition, decreased strength of theta-gamma coupling, an important neuronal correlate of memory encoding, was observed in the TgF344-AD rats. Theta-gamma phase amplitude coupling has been associated with memory encoding and the execution of cognitive functions. Studies have demonstrated that mild cognitive impairment patients display decreased coupling strength, similar to what is described here. The current study demonstrates altered hippocampal network activity occurring at pre-plaque stages of AD and provides insights into prodromal network dysfunction in AD. The alterations observed could aid in the detection of AD during presymptomatic stages.