Reassessing the conservation status of the giant panda using remote sensing

Habitat connectivity drives panda recovery

Globally, the majority of habitat loss is irreversible, and most species will never recover their former ranges. We have learned a great deal about what leads to population decline and extinction, but less about recovery. The recently downlisted giant panda provides a unique opportunity to understand the mechanisms of species recovery. In our study, we estimate giant panda suitable habitats, population density, and gene flow across landscapes to fully investigate the direct and indirect ecological mechanisms underlying bold conservation strategies. We found that the Giant Panda National Survey has modestly but systematically underestimated population size. China's effort to mitigate anthropogenic disturbances was associated with increased panda population density through improving habitat quality and reducing habitat fragmentation. Enhanced landscape connectivity reduced inbreeding via gene flow but indirectly increased inbreeding temporarily due to high local panda density. Although the panda's recovery has been geographically uneven, we provide evidence for improving connectivity and gene flow resulting from conservation efforts. If these processes can be sustained and improved, the panda's path to recovery will be less encumbered by loss of genetic diversity, fostering hope that the present rate of recovery will not be stalled. Findings from this study will not only help guide future giant panda conservation management but also provide a model for how a more mechanistic examination of the genetic processes underlying species recovery can foster the development of more effective strategies for endangered species recovery.

Large-scale genome sequencing of giant pandas improves the understanding of population structure and future conservation initiatives

The extinction risk of the giant panda has been demoted from "endangered" to "vulnerable" on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, but its habitat is more fragmented than ever before, resulting in 33 isolated giant panda populations according to the fourth national survey released by the Chinese government. Further comprehensive investigations of the genetic background and in-depth assessments of the conservation status of wild populations are still necessary and urgently needed. Here, we sequenced the genomes of 612 giant pandas with an average depth of ~26× and generated a high-resolution map of genomic variation with more than 20 million variants covering wild individuals from six mountain ranges and captive representatives in China. We identified distinct genetic clusters within the Minshan population by performing a fine-grained genetic structure. The estimation of inbreeding and genetic load associated with historical population dynamics suggested that future conservation efforts should pay special attention to the Qinling and Liangshan populations. Releasing captive individuals with a genetic background similar to the recipient population appears to be an advantageous genetic rescue strategy for recovering the wild giant panda populations, as this approach introduces fewer deleterious mutations into the wild population than mating with differentiated lineages. These findings emphasize the superiority of large-scale population genomics to provide precise guidelines for future conservation of the giant panda.

Systematic conservation planning considering ecosystem services can optimize the conservation system in the Qinling-Daba Mountains

Protected area are the cornerstone of biodiversity and ecosystem service conservation at the local, regional, and global levels. In 2019, China proposed the establishment of a nature reserve system (NRS)centered on national parks, integrating and improving various existing protected areas. This study focuses on the Qinling‒Daba Mountains, an area crucial for both biodiversity and ecosystem services. Through assessments of carbon storage (CS), water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), and habitat quality (HQ), different conservation scenarios are considered in the context of Systematic conservation planning (SCP). An optimization scheme for the NRS in the Qinling-Daba Mountains is proposed, incorporating ecosystem services and comparing them with the existing system. Research indicates that the main protected areas are concentrated in the Min Mountain‒Motian Mountain‒Longmen Mountain region, the central Qinling region, and the Shennongjia‒Daba Mountain region. Compared with the original system, the area of protected regions in the NRS expanded by 52,000 km2 after the SCP scheme was incorporated. The number of patches decreased to 50, and the patch density reduced from 2.1 × 10-4(/100 ha) to 1.7 × 10-4(/100 ha), thereby reducing the fragmentation of the conservation system. Additionally, the optimized scheme achieved a conservation ratio of over 30% for CS, WY, SC, and HQ, with the conservation efficiency for WY and HQ increasing by 0.18 and 0.22, respectively. The study results provide support for optimizing the Qinling-Daba Mountains NRS and offer a reference for constructing NRSs in other regions. Considering ecosystem services in the optimization of the NRS helps enhance the supply capacity of ecological products, maintain national ecological security, and achieve harmonious coexistence and sustainable development between humans and nature.

Rethinking ecological niches and geographic distributions in face of pervasive human influence in the Anthropocene

Species are distributed in predictable ways in geographic spaces. The three principal factors that determine geographic distributions of species are biotic interactions (B), abiotic conditions (A), and dispersal ability or mobility (M). A species is expected to be present in areas that are accessible to it and that contain suitable sets of abiotic and biotic conditions for it to persist. A species' probability of presence can be quantified as a combination of responses to B, A, and M via ecological niche modeling (ENM; also frequently referred to as species distribution modeling or SDM). This analytical approach has been used broadly in ecology and biogeography, as well as in conservation planning and decision-making, but commonly in the context of 'natural' settings. However, it is increasingly recognized that human impacts, including changes in climate, land cover, and ecosystem function, greatly influence species' geographic ranges. In this light, historical distinctions between natural and anthropogenic factors have become blurred, and a coupled human-natural landscape is recognized as the new norm. Therefore, B, A, and M (BAM) factors need to be reconsidered to understand and quantify species' distributions in a world with a pervasive signature of human impacts. Here, we present a framework, termed human-influenced BAM (Hi-BAM, for distributional ecology that (i) conceptualizes human impacts in the form of six drivers, and (ii) synthesizes previous studies to show how each driver modifies the natural BAM and species' distributions. Given the importance and prevalence of human impacts on species distributions globally, we also discuss implications of this framework for ENM/SDM methods, and explore strategies by which to incorporate increasing human impacts in the methodology. Human impacts are redefining biogeographic patterns; as such, future studies should incorporate signals of human impacts integrally in modeling and forecasting species' distributions.

Measuring ecosystem services and ecological sensitivity for comprehensive conservation in Giant Panda National Park

China announced the development of its first 5 national parks in 2021, the primary objective of which is to conserve the natural state and integrity of natural ecosystems. As such, ecosystem services and biodiversity levels are crucial assessment factors for the parks. For Giant Panda National Park (GPNP), we evaluated ecological sensitivity based on water and soil erosion and rocky desertification; ecosystem services based on headwater conservation, soil and water conservation, and biodiversity conservation; and presence of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and sympatric species (e.g., takin [Budorcas taxicolor], Asiatic black bear [Ursus thibetanus]) habitat suitability derived from niche modeling to identify the ecosystem status and assess ecological problems within the park. From our results, we proposed ecologically critical areas to target to meet the park's goals. The suitable habitat for pandas and sympatric species encompassed 62.98% of the park and occurred mainly in the Minshan Mountains. One quarter of the total area (25.67%) contained areas important for ecosystem services. Ecologically sensitive and extremely sensitive areas covered 88.78% of the park and were distributed mainly in Qionglaishan and Minshan Mountains. This coverage indicated that there was much habitat for pandas and sympatric species but that the ecosystems in GPNP are vulnerable. Therefore, ecologically critical areas encompassed all suitable habitats for all the species examined and areas important and extremely important to ecosystem service provision,ecologically sensitive and extremely sensitive areas, encompassed 15.17% of panda habitat, accounted for 16.37% of the GPNP area, and were distributed mainly in the Minshan Mountains. Our results indicated where conservation efforts should be focused in the park and that by identifying ecologically critical areas managers can provide targeted protection for wildlife habitat and ecosystems and effectively and efficiently protect the composite ecosystem. Additionally, our methods can be used to inform development of new national parks.

Giant pandas in captivity undergo short-term adaptation in nerve-related pathways

BACKGROUND

Behaviors in captive animals, including changes in appetite, activity level, and social interaction, are often seen as adaptive responses. However, these behaviors may become progressively maladaptive, leading to stress, anxiety, depression, and other negative reactions in animals.

RESULTS

In this study, we investigated the whole-genome sequencing data of 39 giant panda individuals, including 11 in captivity and 28 in the wild. To eliminate the mountain range effect and focus on the factor of captivity only, we first performed a principal component analysis. We then enumerated the 21,474,180 combinations of wild giant pandas (11 chosen from 28) and calculated their distances from the 11 captive individuals. The 11 wild individuals with the closest distances were used for the subsequent analysis. The linkage disequilibrium (LD) patterns demonstrated that the population was almost eliminated. We identified 505 robust selected genomic regions harboring at least one SNP, and the absolute frequency difference was greater than 0.6 between the two populations. GO analysis revealed that genes in these regions were mainly involved in nerve-related pathways. Furthermore, we identified 22 GO terms for which the selection strength significantly differed between the two populations, and there were 10 nerve-related pathways among them. Genes in the differentially abundant regions were involved in nerve-related pathways, indicating that giant pandas in captivity underwent minor genomic selection. Additionally, we investigated the relationship between genetic variation and chromatin conformation structures. We found that nucleotide diversity (θπ) in the captive population was correlated with chromatin conformation structures, which included A/B compartments, topologically associated domains (TADs) and TAD-cliques. For each GO term, we then compared the expression level of genes regulated by the above four factors (AB index, TAD intactness, TAD clique and PEI) with the corresponding genomic background. The retained 10 GO terms were all coordinately regulated by the four factors, and three of them were associated with nerve-related pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that giant pandas in captivity undergo short-term adaptation in nerve-related pathways. Furthermore, it provides new insights into the molecular mechanism of gene expression regulation under short-term adaptation to environmental change.

Giant panda-focused conservation has limited value in maintaining biodiversity and carbon sequestration

Biodiversity and climate are interconnected through carbon. Drivers of climate change and biodiversity loss interact in complex ways to produce outcomes that may be synergistic, and biodiversity loss and climate change reinforce each other. Prioritizing the conservation of flagship and umbrella species is often used as a surrogate strategy for broader conservation goals, but it is unclear whether these efforts truly benefit biodiversity and carbon stocks. Conservation of the giant panda offers a paradigm to test these assumptions. Here, using the benchmark estimates of ecosystem carbon stocks and species richness, we investigated the relationships among the giant panda, biodiversity, and carbon stocks and assessed the implications of giant panda conservation for biodiversity and carbon-focused conservation efforts. We found that giant panda density and species richness were significantly positively correlated, while no correlation was found between giant panda density and soil carbon or total carbon density. The established nature reserves protect 26 % of the giant panda conservation region, but these areas contain <21 % of the ranges of other species and <21 % of total carbon stocks. More seriously, giant panda habitats are still facing high risks of habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation is negatively correlated with giant panda density, species richness, and total carbon density. The ongoing giant panda habitat fragmentation is likely to cause an additional 12.24 Tg C of carbon emissions over 30 years. Thus, giant panda-focused conservation efforts have effectively prevented giant panda extinction but have been less effective in maintaining biodiversity and high‑carbon ecosystems. It is urgent for China to contribute to the development of an effective and representative national park system that integrates climate change issues into national biodiversity strategies and vice versa in dealing with the dual environmental challenges of biodiversity loss and climate change under a post-2020 framework.

Assessing the effectiveness of protected areas for panda conservation under future climate and land use change scenarios

While the relatively stable land use and land cover (LULC) patterns is an important feature of protected areas (PAs), the influence of this feature on future species distribution and the effectiveness of the PAs has rarely been explored. Here, we assessed the role of land use patterns within PAs on the projected range of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) by comparing projections inside and outside of PAs for four model configurations: (1) only climate covariates, (2) climate and dynamic land use covariates, (3) climate and static land use covariates and (4) climate and hybrid dynamic-static land use covariates. Our objectives were twofold: to understand the role of protected status on projected panda habitat suitability and evaluate the relative efficacy of different climate modeling approaches. The climate and land use change scenarios used in the models include two shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) scenarios: SSP126 [an optimistic scenario] and SSP585 [a pessimistic scenario]. We found that models including land-use covariates performed significantly better than climate-only models and that these projected more suitable habitat than climate-only models. Static land-use models projected more suitable habitat than both the dynamic and hybrid models under SSP126, while these models did not differ under SSP585. China's panda reserve system was projected to effectively maintain suitable habitat inside PAs. Panda dispersal ability also significantly impacted outcomes, with most models assuming unlimited dispersal forecasting range expansion and models assuming zero dispersal consistently forecasting range contraction. Our findings highlight that policies targeting improved land-use practices should be an effective means for offsetting some of the negative effects of climate change on pandas. As the effectiveness of PAs is projected to be maintained, we recommend the judicious management and expansion of the PA system to ensure the resilience of panda populations into the future.

A snapshot of climate drivers and temporal variation of Ixodes ovatus abundance from a giant panda living in the wild

Ticks and tick-borne diseases have negative impacts on the health of wild animals including endangered and vulnerable species. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), a vulnerable and iconic flagship species, is threatened by tick infestation as well. Not only can ticks cause anemia and immunosuppression in the giant panda, but also bacterial and viral diseases. However, previous studies regarding tick infestation on giant pandas were limited in scope as case reports from sick or dead animals. In this study, an investigation focusing on the tick infestation of a reintroduced giant panda at the Daxiangling Reintroduction Base in Sichuan, China was conducted. Ticks were routinely collected and identified from the ears of the giant panda from March to September in 2021. A linear model was used to test the correlation between tick abundance and climate factors. All ticks were identified as Ixodes ovatus. Tick abundance was significantly different among months. Results from the linear model showed temperature positively correlated to tick abundance, while air pressure had a negative correlation with tick abundance. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first reported investigation of tick species and abundance on a healthy giant panda living in the natural environment, and provides important information for the conservation of giant pandas and other species sharing the same habitat.

The Factors Influencing Wildlife to Use Existing Bridges and Culverts in Giant Panda National Park

Roads, acting as barriers, hamper wildlife movements and disrupt habitat connectivity. Bridges and culverts are common structures on roads, and some of them can function to allow wildlife passage. This study investigated the effects of traffic, the surrounding landscape, human disturbance, and bridge and culvert structures on the utilization of bridges and culverts as dedicated passages by wildlife, using motion-activated infrared camera traps along a 64 km road in Giant Panda National Park, Sichuan, China. The results show that both species richness and counts of wildlife recorded at the bridge and culvert were significantly lower than those observed at sites distant from roads. No large-sized wildlife was recorded at the bridges and culverts. Human activities and traffic volume significantly and negatively affect medium-sized wildlife utilization of bridges and culverts. We conclude that bridges and culverts serve as wildlife crossings, but their efficacy is weak. This emphasizes the necessity of retrofitting bridges and culverts via mitigation facilities such as noise and light barriers, and vegetation restoration on both sides of the roads in Giant Panda National Park.

Surprising leopard restoration in fragmented ecosystems reveals connections as the secret to conservation success

The Chinese Loess Plateau has been the cradle of Chinese civilization and the main human settlement in China for thousands of years, where anthropogenic activities are believed to have deeply eroded natural landscapes. After decades of minimal leopard sighting in forests of northern China, due to serious human interference, we recently discovered that the leopard population is recovering. This finding provides hope for successful biodiversity conservation in human-dominated ecosystems. To understand the mechanism of leopard return into such a highly fragmented landscape, we applied the concept of ecological networks (ENs) to identify key factors promoting leopard restoration and quantify the ecological links among habitats. We first determined the existence of a healthy leopard population in the study area based on the size of its home range and presence of breeding individuals. We then innovatively used the relationship between species richness and top predators to generate ENs, and found that the connectivity of ENs had a significant positive interaction with leopard survival. Our study validates the effectiveness of establishing ecologically connected habitats for leopard protection, and highlights the importance of applying ENs for conservation planning in highly fragmented ecosystems. This study provides a successful case for the protection of top predators in human-dominated landscapes.

Giant Panda Microhabitat Study in the Daxiangling Niba Mountain Corridor

Habitat reduction and increased fragmentation are urgent issues for the survival and recovery of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). However, changes in the distribution and microhabitat selection of giant panda habitats in different seasons in the same region have rarely been assessed. To further understand giant panda habitat requirements, this study analyzed the giant panda habitat selection characteristics and differences using the sample data of the giant panda occurrence sites collected during 2020-2022. The results showed that the giant panda in both seasons selected medium altitudes (2000-2400 m), southeastern slopes, slopes less than 15°, taller tree layers (8-15 m) with a larger diameter at breast height (17-25 cm) and medium density (25-55%), shorter shrub layers (<4 m) with sparse density (<30%), and taller bamboo (>2 m) with high density (>35%). The giant panda microhabitat survey in the Niba Mountain corridor clarified the characteristics of suitable habitat selection for the giant panda in the corridor. The findings of the study can provide scientific references for the development of practical habitat conservation and management measures for giant pandas in the study area.

A review of the habitat restoration of giant pandas from 2012 to 2021: Research topics and advances

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a flagship species in nature conservation. Habitat degradation and fragmentation threaten the sustainable survival of giant pandas, and thus degraded habitats need to be restored and fragmented habitats require connection. In the past ten years, some new studies have emerged on the habitat restoration of giant pandas, yet no specialized reviews of this topic have been published. This paper reviews the habitat restoration of giant pandas based on related articles published between 2012 and 2021. Three principal research topics are identified and summarized: restoration effect, restoration requirements, and restoration considerations. The review demonstrates that some measures, such as protection projects and policies, controlling human disturbances and impacts, and natural recovery, contribute to the habitat restoration of giant pandas. Many issues related to artificial forests need to be addressed to clarify their role in habitat restoration. Many habitats with clear locations and types need restoration, especially those that are disturbed or threatened by human activities and some that are disturbed by natural disturbances such as earthquakes. To integrate consideration factors, a reference habitat should be established and well described. In addition, social and economic factors should not be ignored. More targeted studies of the habitat restoration of giant pandas are urgently needed, including theoretical, cross-scale, interdisciplinary, multi-factor, and long-term monitoring studies. This review provides a reference for future research work and a source of information for future restoration of giant panda habitat.

Space use and microhabitat selection of wild giant pandas in Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve, China

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a special rare and endangered species in China and is the flagship species for global biodiversity conservation. This study used different methods including Kernel density, statistical analysis, and logistic regression analysis to investigated the spatial distribution, migration in different seasons and different distribution areas, as well as the foraging patch selection strategies of wild giant pandas in Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve in the Liangshan Mountains. The results demonstrated that, in the study area, giant pandas were mainly distributed in the Wahei-Yizi Yakou Habitat Corridor with an activity area of 144.93 km2, which accounted for 28.59% of the whole reserve. The core distribution area of the species was 92.07 km2 and the population density was 0.24 pcs km–2. There were two significant seasonal domains for the activities of giant pandas: the low-altitude winter habitat of Yushania maculata Yi and Yushania ailuropodina Yi bamboo species, as well as the high-altitude summer habitat of Bashania fangiana species. With seasonal changes, giant pandas migrated among different bamboo distribution regions. Giant pandas were mainly distributed in high-altitude areas that had secondary forest, tall trees with a large diameter at breast height (DBH) and bamboo forest. The spatial distribution pattern and microhabitat selection of giant pandas in Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve were determined. The findings of this study provide scientific implications for the local conservation and management of the habitat of wild giant pandas.

Predicting range shifts of the giant pandas under future climate and land use scenarios

Understanding and predicting how species will respond to global environmental change (i.e., climate and land use change) is essential to efficiently inform conservation and management strategies for authorities and managers. Here, we assessed the combined effect of future climate and land use change on the potential range shifts of the giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in Sichuan Province, China. We used species distribution models (SDMs) to forecast range shifts of the giant pandas by the 2050s and 2070s under four combined climate and land use change scenarios. We also compared the differences in distributional changes of giant pandas among the five mountains in the study area. Our SDMs exhibited good model performance and were not overfitted, with a mean Boyce index of 0.960± 0.015 and a mean omission rate of 0.002± 0.003, and suggested that precipitation seasonality, annual mean temperature, the proportion of forest cover, and total annual precipitation are the most important factors in shaping the current distribution pattern of the giant pandas. Our projections of future species distribution also suggested a range expansion under an optimistic greenhouse gas emission, while suggesting a range contraction under a pessimistic greenhouse gas emission. Moreover, we found that there is considerable variation in the projected range change patterns among the five mountains in the study area. Especially, the suitable habitat of the giant panda is predicted to increase under all scenarios in the Minshan mountains, while is predicted to decrease under all scenarios in Daxiangling and Liangshan mountains, indicating the vulnerability of the giant pandas at low latitudes. Our findings highlight the importance of an integrated approach that combines climate and land use change to predict the future species distribution and the need for a spatial explicit consideration of the projected range change patterns of target species for guiding conservation and management strategies.

Landscape-scale giant panda conservation based on metapopulations within China's national park system

Historically, giant panda conservation in China has been compromised by disparate management of protected areas. It is thus crucial to address how giant panda populations can be managed cohesively on a landscape scale, an opportunity offered by China's newly established Giant Panda National Park. Here, we evaluated giant panda populations in a metapopulation context, based on range-wide data from the Fourth National Giant Panda Survey. We delineated metapopulations by geographic range, relative abundance, and relative density and assessed the extent of human disturbance each metapopulation faced. We found density-dependent and disturbance-influenced effects on habitat selection across metapopulations. We determined the main effects faced by each metapopulation regarding area sensitivity, population size, intraspecific competition, and disturbance. To enhance the landscape-scale conservation of giant pandas and various other wildlife across China's national park system, we propose that metapopulation management incorporates population status along with density-dependent and disturbance-related effects on habitat selection.

Effectiveness of the Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve of China in Reducing Human Impacts

The management effectiveness of protected areas plays a key role in biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation. We evaluated the effectiveness of Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve (QMNR) in reducing human footprint (HF). Four dominant human activity factors, including population density, land use, road distribution, and night light, were incorporated for HF mapping. Comparisons of the HF value between inside and outside QMNR and its four functional zones were conducted. The results show that both the HF inside and outside of QMNR were increasing, but the difference between them was increasing, indicating partial management effectiveness. The north part of the central reserve has a good effect in reducing human impacts, while the effectiveness was poor at both ends of the reserve. The HF value of the most strictly managed core and buffer zones increased by 10.50 and 6.68%, respectively, for 2010–2020. The QMNR was effective in controlling population density and land use, but ineffective in reducing road construction, mining, and construction of hydropower facilities.

Have China's national forest reserves designated since 1990 conserved forests effectively?

China's forests were severely degraded by human activities during the latter half of the 20th century. Therefore, China enacted ambitious programs of natural forest protection and afforestation to protect and expand forests. Yet it is unclear how the programs, especially the designation of forest reserves, have affected forest cover and fragmentation. We evaluated the effectiveness of China's national forest reserves designated since 1990 in conserving forests, by analyzing four forest metrics (i.e., percentage forest cover, mean forest patch size, mean forest patch radius of gyration, and forest patch cohesion index) derived from a newly produced 30 m annual China land cover dataset from 1990 to 2019. We found that overall forest cover increased and fragmentation decreased from baseline years, when reserves were designated, to 2019 in both reserves and their surrounding areas, and only the increase in forest cover relative to baseline was significantly greater in reserves than in surrounding areas. The designation time of reserves under national protection had no considerable effect on changes in the four metrics, but for zonation, the core zone showed a significantly higher increase in forest patch cohesion index relative to baseline than the buffer and transition zones. Nevertheless, forest cover declined and fragmentation increased in highly forested reserves, suggesting destructive human activities and ineffective management. Thus, forest protection and regeneration programs were moderately successful. We recommend that there is significant improvement needed to ensure greater protection of existing forests and reduction of threats to promote effective management.

Selection of both habitat and genes in specialized and endangered caribou

Genetic mechanisms determining habitat selection and specialization of individuals within species have been hypothesized, but not tested at the appropriate individual level in nature. In this work, we analyzed habitat selection for 139 GPS-collared caribou belonging to three declining ecotypes sampled throughout Northwestern Canada. We used Resource Selection Functions (RSFs) comparing resources at used and available locations. We found that the three caribou ecotypes differed in their use of habitat suggesting specialization. On expected grounds, we also found differences in habitat selection between summer and winter, but also, originally, among the individuals within an ecotype. We next obtained Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) for the same caribou individuals, we detected those associated to habitat selection, and then identified genes linked to these SNPs. These genes had functions related in other organisms to habitat and dietary specializations, and climatic adaptations. We therefore suggest that individual variation in habitat selection was based on genotypic variation in the SNPs of individual caribou, indicating that genetic forces underlie habitat and diet selection in the species. We also suggest that the associations between habitat and genes that we detected may lead to lack of resilience in the species, thus contributing to caribou endangerment. Our work emphasizes that similar mechanisms may exist for other specialized, endangered species. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Identifying core habitats and corridors for giant pandas by combining multiscale random forest and connectivity analysis

Habitat loss and fragmentation are widely acknowledged as the main driver of the decline of giant panda populations. The Chinese government has made great efforts to protect this charming species and has made remarkable achievements, such as population growth and habitat expansion. However, habitat fragmentation has not been reversed. Protecting giant pandas in a large spatial extent needs to identify core habitat patches and corridors connecting them. This study used an equal-sampling multiscale random forest habitat model to predict a habitat suitability map for the giant panda. Then, we applied the resistant kernel method and factorial least-cost path analysis to identify core habitats connected by panda dispersal and corridors among panda occurrences, respectively. Finally, we evaluated the effectiveness of current protected areas in representing core habitats and corridors. Our results showed high scale dependence of giant panda habitat selection. Giant pandas strongly respond to bamboo percentage and elevation at a relatively fine scale (1 km), whereas they respond to anthropogenic factors at a coarse scale (≥2 km). Dispersal ability has significant effects on core habitats extent and population fragmentation evaluation. Under medium and high dispersal ability scenarios (12,000 and 20,000 cost units), most giant panda habitats in the Qionglai mountain are predicted to be well connected by dispersal. The proportion of core habitats covered by protected areas varied between 38% and 43% under different dispersal ability scenarios, highlighting significant gaps in the protected area network. Similarly, only 43% of corridors that connect giant panda occurrences were protected. Our results can provide crucial information for conservation managers to develop wise strategies to safeguard the long-term viability of the giant panda population.

Spatial models of giant pandas under current and future conditions reveal extinction risks

In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, demographic processes-the vagaries of births, deaths and sex ratio fluctuations-pose substantial threats to wild giant panda populations. Additionally, climate change and plans for the Giant Panda National Park may influence (in opposing directions) the extinction risk for wild giant pandas. The Fourth National Giant Panda Census showed pandas living in 33 isolated populations. An estimated 259 animals live in 25 of these groups, ~14% of the total population. We used individual-based models to simulate time series of these small populations for 100 years. We analysed the spatial pattern of their risk of extinction under current conditions and multiple climate change models. Furthermore, we consider the impact of the proposed Giant Panda National Park. Results showed that 15 populations face a risk >90%, and for 3 other populations the risk is >50%. Of the 15 most at-risk populations, national parks can protect only 3. Under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 climate change scenario, the 33 populations will probably further divide into 56 populations. Some 41 of them will face a risk >50% and 35 face a risk >90%. Although national parks will probably connect some fragmented habitats, 26 populations will be outside national park planning. Our study gives practical advice for conservation policies and management and has implications for the conservation of other species in the world that live in isolated, fragmented habitats.

Range-wide assessment of the impact of China's nature reserves on giant panda habitat quality

Protected areas (PAs) form the backbone of global conservation efforts. Although many studies have evaluated the impact of PAs on land cover, human disturbances, and people's welfare, PAs' impact on wildlife habitat quality remains poorly understood. By integrating wildlife habitat mapping and information of 2183 rural households, we assessed the impacts of nature reserves (a type of PAs) across the entire geographic range of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) on panda habitat suitability change between 2001 and 2013 using the matching approach. We found the impact of nature reserves is concentrated in areas susceptible to human pressure, where 65% of the habitat suitability increase is attributable to the nature reserves' protection. The impact of nature reserves has spilled over to nearby unprotected areas and enhanced habitat suitability there. Nature reserves supported by the central government showed higher performance in improving habitat suitability than their counterparts supported by local governments. Older nature reserves perform better than those established more recently. Our results also show that local households' participation in tourism and labor migration (people temporarily leaving to work in cities) enhanced the ability of nature reserves to improve habitat suitability. These results and methods provide valuable information and tools to support effective management of PAs to enhance the habitat quality of giant pandas and other wildlife species in China and elsewhere.

A review of the impacts of four identified major human disturbances on the habitat and habitat use of wild giant pandas from 2015 to 2020

Human disturbance poses a serious threat to the survival of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), but few systematic and specialized reviews on the impacts of human disturbance on pandas and their habitats have been published. After the fourth giant panda survey (2011-2014), some new studies and important findings have emerged. To update the understanding of the impacts of human disturbance, research on the impacts of major human disturbances on the habitat and habitat use of wild giant pandas from 2015 to 2020 was reviewed based on 33 publications (including three books and 30 articles). The major human disturbances in panda habitat included livestock grazing, roads, herb collection, and logging. Livestock affects panda habitat by occupying, disturbing, and defecating in it, and the time and intensity of habitat use by horses are greater than the time and intensity at which pandas use their habitats. Roads affect nearby habitats by disturbing the vegetation and causing pollution, and the effect of roads extends far beyond the roads themselves and varies with road type. The impacts of logging on the forest structure and bamboo in panda habitat are long-term. Pandas avoid habitats disturbed by livestock grazing, roads, and logging. The impacts of herb collection are not known, because they have received little attention. Findings suggested a need for further research on human disturbance to giant pandas, focusing on comprehensive evaluations of the interactions between different disturbances.

Priority areas for conservation of and research focused on terrestrial vertebrates

Effective conservation policies require comprehensive knowledge of biodiversity. However, knowledge shortfalls still remain, hindering possibilities to improve decision making and built such policies. During the last 2 decades, conservationists have made great efforts to allocate resources as efficiently as possible but have rarely considered the idea that if research investments are also strategically allocated, it would likely fill knowledge gaps while simultaneously improving conservation actions. Therefore, prioritizing areas where both conservation and research actions could be conducted becomes a critical endeavor that can further maximize return on investment. We used Zonation, a conservation planning tool and geographical distributions of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles to suggest and compare priority areas for conservation and research of terrestrial vertebrates worldwide. We also evaluated the degree of human disturbance in both types of priority areas by describing the value of the human footprint index within such areas. The spatial concordance between priority conservation and research areas was low: 0.36% of the world's land area. In these areas, we found it would be possible to protect almost half of the currently threatened species and to gather information on nearly 42% of data-deficient (DD) species. We also found that 6199 protected areas worldwide are located in such places, although only 35% of them have strict conservation purposes. Areas of consensus between conservation and research areas represent an opportunity for simultaneously conserving and acquiring knowledge of threatened and DD species of vertebrates. Although the picture is not the most encouraging, joint conservation and research efforts are possible and should be fostered to save vertebrate species from our own ignorance and extinction.

Transcriptome Profiling across Five Tissues of Giant Panda

Gene differential expression studies can serve to explore and understand the laws and characteristics of animal life activities, and the difference in gene expression between different animal tissues has been well demonstrated and studied. However, for the world-famous rare and protected species giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), only the transcriptome of the blood and spleen has been reported separately. Here, in order to explore the transcriptome differences between the different tissues of the giant panda, transcriptome profiles of the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney from five captive giant pandas were constructed with Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform. The comparative analysis of the intertissue gene expression patterns was carried out based on the generated RNA sequencing datasets. Analyses of Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment, and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network were performed according to the identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs). We generated 194.52 GB clean base data from twenty-five sequencing libraries and identified 18,701 genes, including 3492 novel genes. With corrected p value <0.05 and |log₂FoldChange| >2, we finally obtained 921, 553, 574, 457, and 638 tissue-specific DEGs in the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney, respectively. In addition, we identified TTN, CAV3, LDB3, TRDN, and ACTN2 in the heart; FGA, AHSG, and SERPINC1 in the liver; CD19, CD79B, and IL21R in the spleen; NKX2-4 and SFTPB in the lung; GC and HRG in the kidney as hub genes in the PPI network. The results of the analyses showed a similar gene expression pattern between the spleen and lung. This study provided for the first time the heart, liver, lung, and kidney's transcriptome resources of the giant panda, and it provided a valuable resource for further genetic research or other potential research.

Retreat of large carnivores across the giant panda distribution range

As both a flagship and umbrella species, the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is one of the most heavily invested species in conservation. Here, we report the wide distribution range retreat of the leopard (Panthera pardus, 81% loss), snow leopard (P. uncia, 38%), wolf (Canis lupus, 77%) and dhole (Cuon alpinus, 95%) from protected areas in the giant panda distribution range since the 1960s. The present findings indicate the insufficiency of giant panda conservation for protecting these large carnivore species and suggest that future conservation efforts should target restoring ecosystems with high trophic complexity to facilitate the recovery of large carnivore populations.

Characteristics and impacts of solid waste on giant panda habitat in Wanglang Nature Reserve

Systematic research on solid waste pollution in giant panda habitat is lacking. To fill in this gap in the literature, a survey for solid waste was conducted in Wanglang Nature Reserve in July and August of 2018 and 2019. A total of 16 transects, 16 giant panda habitat plots, 16 livestock habitat plots, and 16 common habitat plots were surveyed. We analyzed the type and distribution of solid waste and the possible impacts of typical solid waste. Results showed that 133 solid waste samples from the five categories (livestock feces, plastic waste, metal waste, construction waste, and paper waste) were detected. Livestock feces accounted for the highest proportion of solid waste at 82.7%, while the remaining types of waste accounted for only 17.3% of the solid waste observed. Livestock feces were distributed relatively evenly within 400 m from roads, while 69.6% of non-livestock fecal waste were distributed 0-100 m away from roads. Giant panda habitat and common habitat (shared by giant pandas and livestock) did not significantly differ in habitat characteristics, but livestock habitat was significantly different from them in the number of trees and the height of bamboo. Specifically, livestock habitat had more trees and shorter bamboo. Based on the short bamboo located in livestock habitat, we predicted that bamboo in the common habitat has a high probability of being damaged by livestock. To limit solid waste pollution, livestock should be forbidden from entering giant panda habitat. In addition, tourism and infrastructure construction activities should be strictly controlled. To ensure the effectiveness of conservation, the needs and possible contributions of residents in surrounding communities should be taken into account in the giant panda conservation plan, and routine monitoring of solid waste should be performed.

Climate change and landscape-use patterns influence recent past distribution of giant pandas

Climate change is one of the most pervasive threats to biodiversity globally, yet the influence of climate relative to other drivers of species depletion and range contraction remain difficult to disentangle. Here, we examine climatic and non-climatic correlates of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) distribution using a large-scale 30 year dataset to evaluate whether a changing climate has already influenced panda distribution. We document several climatic patterns, including increasing temperatures, and alterations to seasonal temperature and precipitation. We found that while climatic factors were the most influential predictors of panda distribution, their importance diminished over time, while landscape variables have become relatively more influential. We conclude that the panda's distribution has been influenced by changing climate, but conservation intervention to manage habitat is working to increasingly offset these negative consequences.

Evaluating the effects of roads on giant panda habitat at two scales in a typical nature reserve

Little is known about how roads affect the habitats of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), this study aimed to provide a scientific basis to better understand this question, and to formulate targeted measures to reduce the adverse effects of roads. To evaluate the effects of roads on giant panda habitat, a field survey was carried out in the Wanglang Nature Reserve at two scales, 400 m² and 100 m², in July and August of every year from 2015 to 2019. We compared the community characteristics of roadside habitats, giant panda habitats and the local environment by using difference tests and multiple comparison methods. The results showed that, at the 400 m² scale, the significant differences in number of bamboo clumps and regeneration size among different habitats were related to roads. At the 100 m² scale, the significant difference in number of bamboo clumps was also related to roads. Roads may affect the number of bamboo clumps and regeneration size, which alters important characteristics of giant panda habitat. The roadside habitat had fewer bamboo clumps and smaller regeneration sizes than the giant panda habitat, and this lack of food may be why giant pandas seldom use the roadside habitat. To improve the suitability of the roadside habitats, more bamboo should be planted and protective measures should be taken to ensure the normal growth of bamboo and regeneration species. This study provides reference methods for future studies on the effects of roads in other regions.

Leukocyte and Platelet Characteristics of the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): Morphological, Cytochemical, and Ultrastructural Features

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a vulnerable species and a charismatic member of zoological collections worldwide. Despite its importance as a representative species for global wildlife conservation efforts, no studies to date have described normal cell morphology or cytoplasmic constituents by traditional techniques such as cytochemical staining and evaluation of ultrastructural features. The objective of this study was to accurately identify and characterize the leukocytes and platelets of clinically healthy giant pandas using routine Wright-Giemsa stain, eight cytochemical stains, immunocytochemistry (CD3), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to further the collective understanding of normal cellular morphological features, cytochemical reactivity, and cytoplasmic contents found in health. Voluntary venipuncture was performed on four healthy individual animals (two adults and two juveniles), as part of routine preventive health evaluation. Blood was collected for routine and cytochemical stains, and into 2.5% glutaraldehyde for TEM. On Wright-Giemsa-stained blood films, leukocytes were differentiated into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and mononuclear cells (lymphocytes, monocytes). Cytochemical staining revealed similar leukocyte and platelet staining patterns to those reported in other mammals, with some notable differences. By TEM, leukocytes with nuclear and cytoplasmic features of mononuclear cells were readily differentiated from granulocytes, and platelets had similar ultrastructural features to those reported in other mammals. Neutrophils were the predominant cell type followed by lymphocytes, while basophils were rare. Rare large or reactive lymphocytes, rare reactive monocytes, and rare large platelets were noted in apparently healthy giant pandas of this study. A unique mononuclear cell, with a moderately indented nucleus and shared cytochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of lymphocytes and monocytes, was discovered in this species. The combined cytochemical, immunocytochemical (CD3), and ultrastructural features of these unique cells more closely resemble those of monocytes, but the definitive cell lineage remains unknown at this time. This study provides novel information on giant panda leukocyte morphology and cellular constituents in health, shows the importance of manual blood film review, has important implications for hemogram interpretation in future clinical cases and research, and provides a baseline for future characterization and understanding of hemogram changes in response to disease.

Assessing the Effectiveness of China's Panda Protection System

Protected areas form the backbone of biodiversity conservation, yet their effectiveness is often not known nor even evaluated [1-3]. China-best known for its record of ecological degradation in the face of rapidly increasing gross domestic product and resource consumption [4]-has in recent years enacted a series of policies and programs to conserve its natural resources. Chief among them is an ambitious protected area system covering 17% of its terrestrial land mass [4, 5]. An important early impetus for the establishment of this reserve system was the protection of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) [5-8]. Using data from two previous large-scale surveys [9, 10] separated by a decade, and including over 50,000 habitat plots, we examined the panda population and habitat trends inside and outside reserves. Despite ambitious ecocompensation programs in panda habitat outside reserves [11-13], the protection provided by reserves reduced most classes of human disturbance compared to outside reserves, and most disturbances decreased through time more strongly inside than outside reserves. Reserves also contained more and increasing suitable panda than found outside reserves [14, 15]. Comparing reserve performance, reserves with increasing older forests and bamboo correlated with increasing panda populations. Together these findings indicate that China's panda reserves have been effective and that they are functioning better over time, conserving more and better habitats and containing more pandas. While China's protected area system still has much room for improvement [4, 5], including to support pandas [16], these findings underscore the progress made in China's nascent environmental movement.

Loss of functional connectivity in migration networks induces population decline in migratory birds

Migratory birds rely on a habitat network along their migration routes by temporarily occupying stopover sites between breeding and non-breeding grounds. Removal or degradation of stopover sites in a network might impede movement and thereby reduce migration success and survival. The extent to which the breakdown of migration networks, due to changes in land use, impacts the population sizes of migratory birds is poorly understood. We measured the functional connectivity of migration networks of waterfowl species that migrate over the East Asian-Australasian Flyway from 1992 to 2015. We analysed the relationship between changes in non-breeding population sizes and changes in functional connectivity, while taking into account other commonly considered species traits, using a phylogenetic linear mixed model. We found that population sizes significantly declined with a reduction in the functional connectivity of migration networks; no other variables were important. We conclude that the current decrease in functional connectivity, due to habitat loss and degradation in migration networks, can negatively and crucially impact population sizes of migratory birds. Our findings provide new insights into the underlying mechanisms that affect population trends of migratory birds under environmental changes. Establishment of international agreements leading to the creation of systematic conservation networks associated with migratory species' distributions and stopover sites may safeguard migratory bird populations.

Giant panda protection: challenges and hopes

In this paper, we discussed some major issues that hinder giant panda protection, such as diverse and mixed threats, habitat fragmentation, as well as the survey method to be improved, and some new protection actions appeared, such as the pilot program for the giant panda national park system and the administration of the giant panda national park was established. These information could provide important information for giant panda protection.

Which Species Should We Focus On? Umbrella Species Assessment in Southwest China

In conservation biology, umbrella species are often used as agents for a broader set of species, or as representatives of an ecosystem, and their conservation is expected to benefit a large number of naturally co-occurring species. Southwest China is home to not only global biodiversity hotspots, but also rapid economic and population growth and extensive changes in land use. However, because of the large regional span, the diverse species distributions, and the difficulty of field investigations, traditional methods used to assess umbrella species are not suitable for implementation in Southwest China. In the current study, we assessed 810 key protected species from seven taxa by indicator value analysis, correlation analysis, and factor analysis. We selected 32 species as umbrella species, whose habitats overlapped the habitats of 97% of the total species. Furthermore, the selected species were significantly correlated with 70% of all species in the study area. A total of 16 out of 19 selected animal species have been previously mentioned as umbrella species, compared with only 3 out of 13 plants species; this is despite plants accounting for a large proportion of the total species in Southwest China. We discuss the roles of indicator species and co-occurring species, and provide suggestions for species protection in Southwest China based on the current results. Our research provides valuable scientific information for research on umbrella conservation species over large geographical scales, and related fields of biodiversity conservation.

Population genetics reveals high connectivity of giant panda populations across human disturbance features in key nature reserve

The giant panda is an example of a species that has faced extensive historical habitat fragmentation, and anthropogenic disturbance and is assumed to be isolated in numerous subpopulations with limited gene flow between them. To investigate the population size, health, and connectivity of pandas in a key habitat area, we noninvasively collected a total of 539 fresh wild giant panda fecal samples for DNA extraction within Wolong Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Seven validated tetra-microsatellite markers were used to analyze each sample, and a total of 142 unique genotypes were identified. Nonspatial and spatial capture-recapture models estimated the population size of the reserve at 164 and 137 individuals (95% confidence intervals 153-175 and 115-163), respectively. Relatively high levels of genetic variation and low levels of inbreeding were estimated, indicating adequate genetic diversity. Surprisingly, no significant genetic boundaries were found within the population despite the national road G350 that bisects the reserve, which is also bordered with patches of development and agricultural land. We attribute this to high rates of migration, with four giant panda road-crossing events confirmed within a year based on repeated captures of individuals. This likely means that giant panda populations within mountain ranges are better connected than previously thought. Increased development and tourism traffic in the area and throughout the current panda distribution pose a threat of increasing population isolation, however. Maintaining and restoring adequate habitat corridors for dispersal is thus a vital step for preserving the levels of gene flow seen in our analysis and the continued conservation of the giant panda meta-population in both Wolong and throughout their current range.

Comprehensive Breeding Techniques for the Giant Panda

The dramatic growth of the captive giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) population exemplifies how the application of scientific findings to animal care and reproductive management can improve conservation breeding outcomes. Detailed behavioral studies of giant panda estrus, pregnancy and cub rearing have demonstrated the importance of husbandry management that supports natural reproductive behavior to enhance breeding success. Natural breeding has been valuably augmented by the development of assisted reproductive techniques founded through detailed studies of the reproductive physiology of the giant panda and outlining fundamental information about reproductive seasonality, male fertility and characterization of the estrous cycle. The resultant holistic understanding of giant panda reproduction has improved reproductive success in the captive population to such an extent that it is now self-sustaining and provides surplus animals for reintroduction. Despite these significant advances, there are knowledge gaps and remaining challenges to be addressed. Pregnancy detection remains the single biggest challenge when determining if natural mating or assisted breeding have been successful. Because pregnancy can only be determined in the few weeks prior to parturition, there are gaps in understanding and detecting delayed implantation and early embryonic loss. Additionally, dynamic management practices and standard of care for reproductive assistance needs to be developed. Only large breeding centers in China have the ability to promote normal reproductive behaviors and allow mate choice for the giant panda. These challenges need to be addressed in the near future in order to maintain a self-sustaining, genetically diverse and behaviorally competent captive population. This chapter documents the development of successful giant panda managed breeding programs by focusing on three key areas, (1) the development of science-driven reproductive techniques to improve fecundity in a species where the mating system was poorly understood, (2) how targeted research and adaptive management of social settings surrounding estrus and breeding improved reproductive success, and (3) insights and solutions to challenges faced across the program's history with future directions for research.

Sustainable harvest, people and pandas: Assessing a decade of managed wild harvest and trade in Schisandra sphenanthera

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Endemic to China, the distribution of Schisandra sphenanthera Rehder & E.H. Wilson includes giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca David, 1869) habitats in forests of the Minshan and Qinling Mountains, both inside and outside conservation areas. The fruit is used in indigenous medicines of the Qiang, Tibetan and Yi ethnic minorities of Sichuan. Also used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), indications for use are prescribed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. For continued access and medical use, survival of healthy populations depends on forests. Biodiversity conservation programmes implemented in forests within the panda landscapes that also benefit rural and indigenous communities, link future access to wild medicinal plants with survival of the panda and resilient rural economies.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study aimed at assessing the project activities, institutional-level outcomes and achievements, 10 years on, of the 5-year (2007-2011) UNDP- and WWF- supported EU-China Biodiversity Programme for sustainable, "panda-friendly" schisandra.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our study combined analysis of quantitative data such as purchase records coupled with qualitative data obtained from field work, project documents, site-visit reports, certification documents and published articles about the project.

RESULTS

At start of project, interested companies were identified to support economic viability of the sustainable wild harvesting and a "panda friendly" pro-conservation model that provided an incentive to maintain habitat outside formal protected areas. Criteria of relevant sustainability standards, the Organic Wild-crop Harvesting Practice Standard and FairWild Standard, were applied while a new standard was drafted, the Giant Panda Friendly Products Standard. The initial pilot project involving 1 village determined feasibility leading to formation of the Pingwu Shuijing TCM Cooperative which, by 2016, scaled out to membership of 22 villages. From the cooperative's first commercial sale of S. sphenanthera Rehder & E.H.Wilson fruits of 0.5 MT in 2009, annual quantities steadily increased up to 30 MT sold in 2017. The cooperative achieved organic certification in 2012. In 2016, governmental authorisation for the certification of Chinese operations implementing the FairWild Standard was granted. In 2017, the Giant Panda Friendly Products Standard became an official Chinese standard with the cooperative becoming the first panda-friendly certified operation in 2018.

CONCLUSIONS

A decade after the project first started, there is strong evidence for the pro-conservation micro- and small enterprise model. For example, through the establishment of a TCM cooperative with members in 22 villages engaged in sustainable resource management, harvesting and equitable trade of TCM ingredients with organic and panda-friendly branding. The project benefited from multi-disciplinary collaboration of experts in ethnoecology, TCM, panda biology and habitat, nature conservation, sustainability standards and international trade. Inviting interested companies at the start enabled a transition from a funded-project to annual contracts for sustainably harvested TCM herbal drugs. At end of project (2011), the companies and NGOs remained engaged and motivating for completion of activities started during the project. Major eventual outcomes rooted in the initial project included Chinese government authorisation of the FairWild Standard (2016) and Giant Panda Friendly Products Standard (2017).

Deep Sequencing of Fosmid Clones Indicates Gene Conversion in the Male-Specific Region of the Giant Panda Y Chromosome

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is popular around the world and is widely recognized as a symbol of nature conservation. A draft genome of the giant panda is now available, but its Y chromosome has not been sequenced. Y chromosome data are necessary for study of sex chromosome evolution, male development, and spermatogenesis. Thus, in the present study, we sequenced two parts of the giant panda Y chromosome utilizing a male giant panda fosmid library. The sequencing data were assembled into two contigs, each ∼100 kb in length with no gaps, providing high-quality resources for studying the giant panda Y chromosome. Annotation and transposable element comparison indicates varied evolutionary pressure in different regions of the Y chromosome. Two genes, zinc finger protein, Y-linked (ZFY) and lysine demethylase 5D (KDM5D), were annotated and gene conversion was observed for ZFY exon 7. Phylogenetic analysis also revealed that this gene conversion event happened independently in multiple mammalian lineages, indicating a putative mechanism to maintain the function of this particular gene on the Y chromosome. Furthermore, a transposition event, discovered through comparative alignment with the giant panda X chromosome sequence, may be involved in the process of gaining new genes on the Y chromosome. Thus, these newly obtained Y chromosome sequences provide valuable insights into the genomic patterns of the giant panda.

The Value of Ecosystem Services from Giant Panda Reserves

Ecosystem services (the benefits to humans from ecosystems) are estimated globally at $125 trillion/year [1, 2]. Similar assessments at national and regional scales show how these services support our lives [3]. All valuations recognize the role of biodiversity, which continues to decrease around the world in maintaining these services [4, 5]. The giant panda epitomizes the flagship species [6]. Its unrivalled public appeal translates into support for conservation funding and policy, including a tax on foreign visitors to support its conservation [7]. The Chinese government has established a panda reserve system, which today numbers 67 reserves [8, 9]. The biodiversity of these reserves is among the highest in the temperate world [10], covering many of China's endemic species [11]. The panda is thus also an umbrella species [12]-protecting panda habitat also protects other species. Despite the benefits derived from pandas, some journalists have suggested that it would be best to let the panda go extinct. With the recent downlisting of the panda from Endangered to Vulnerable, it is clear that society's investment has started to pay off in terms of panda population recovery [13, 14]. Here, we estimate the value of ecosystem services of the panda and its reserves at between US$2.6 and US$6.9 billion/year in 2010. Protecting the panda as an umbrella species and the habitat that supports it yields roughly 10-27 times the cost of maintaining the current reserves, potentially further motivating expansion of the reserves and other investments in natural capital in China.