Enabling ultra-low-voltage switching in BaTiO3

Size-driven phase evolution in ultrathin relaxor films

Relaxor ferroelectrics (relaxors) are a special class of ferroelectrics with polar nanodomains (PNDs), which present characteristics such as slim hysteresis loops and strong dielectric relaxation. Applications such as nanoelectromechanical systems, capacitive-energy storage and pyroelectric-energy harvesters require thin-film relaxors. Hence, understanding relaxor behaviour in the ultrathin limit is of both fundamental and technological importance. Here the evolution of relaxor phases and PNDs with thickness is explored in prototypical thin relaxor films. Epitaxial 0.68PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3-0.32PbTiO3 films of various nanometre thicknesses are grown by pulsed-laser deposition and characterized by ferroelectric and dielectric measurements, temperature-dependent synchrotron X-ray diffuse scattering, scanning transmission electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. As the film thickness approaches the length of the long axis of the PNDs (25-30 nm), electrostatically driven phase instabilities induce their rotation towards the plane of the films, stabilize the relaxor behaviour and give rise to anisotropic phase evolution along the out-of-plane and in-plane directions. The complex anisotropic evolution of relaxor properties ends in a collapse of the relaxor behaviour when the film thickness reaches the smallest dimension of the PNDs (6-10 nm). These findings establish that PNDs define the critical length scale for the evolution of relaxor behaviour at the nanoscale.

Ferroelectric Polarization Coupling Effect in BiFeO3/α-In2Se3 Ferroelectric Field Effect Transistor for Stable Non-volatile Memory

Ferroelectric field-effect transistors (FeFETs) commonly utilize traditional oxide ferroelectric materials for their strong remanent polarization. Yet, integrating them with the standard complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process is challenging due to the need for lattice matching and the high-temperature rapid thermal annealing process, which are not always compatible with CMOS fabrication. However, the advent of the ferroelectric semiconductor α-In2Se3 offers a compelling solution to these challenges. Its van der Waals layered structure facilitates integration with dielectric oxides, bypassing the lattice mismatch problem. Moreover, the ferroelectric polarization of α-In2Se3 synergizes with the polarization of the ferroelectric dielectric layer. This coupling effect significantly enhances the polarization retention and the data storage capabilities of FeFETs. Here, a dual FeFET is designed that incorporates a BiFeO3 dielectric layer and an α-In2Se3 channel, showing an improvement in performance compared to FeFETs that use MoS2 as the channel material with a BiFeO3 dielectric, or those with an α-In2Se3 channel and a HfO2 dielectric. The dual FeFET exhibits an extended retention time of up to 1000 s at 380 K. Though there is still room for further improvement in data retention capabilities, this achievement paves the way for advancements in non-volatile memory technologies.

2D Van der Waals Sliding Ferroelectrics Toward Novel Electronic Devices

Ferroelectric materials, celebrated for their switchable polarization, have undergone significant evolution since their early discovery in Rochelle salt. Initial challenges, including water solubility and brittleness, are overcome with the development of perovskite ferroelectrics, which enable the creation of stable, high-quality thin films suitable for semiconductor applications. As the demand for miniaturization in nanoelectronics has increased, research has shifted toward low-dimensional materials. Traditional ferroelectrics often lose their properties at the nanoscale; however, 2D van der Waals (vdW) ferroelectrics, including CuInP2S6 and α-In2Se3, have emerged as promising alternatives. The recent discovery of sliding ferroelectricity, where polarization is linked to the polar stacking configuration of originally non-polar monolayers, has significantly broadened the scope of 2D ferroelectrics. This review offers a comprehensive examination of stacking orders in 2D vdW materials, stacking-order-linked ferroelectric polarization structures, and their manifestations in metallic, insulating and semiconducting 2D vdW materials. Additionally, it explores the applications of 2D vdW sliding ferroelectrics, and discusses the future prospects in nanotechnology.

High-κ monocrystalline dielectrics for low-power two-dimensional electronics

The downscaling of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor technology has produced breakthroughs in electronics, but more extreme scaling has hit a wall of device performance degradation. One key challenge is the development of insulators with high dielectric constant, wide bandgap and high tunnel masses. Here, we show that two-dimensional monocrystalline gadolinium pentoxide, which is devised through combining particle swarm optimization algorithm and theoretical calculations and synthesized via van der Waals epitaxy, could exhibit a high dielectric constant of ~25.5 and a wide bandgap simultaneously. A desirable equivalent oxide thickness down to 1 nm with an ultralow leakage current of ~10-4 A cm-2 even at 5 MV cm-1 is achieved. The molybdenum disulfide transistors gated by gadolinium pentoxide exhibit high on/off ratios over 108 and near-Boltzmann-limit subthreshold swing at an operation voltage of 0.5 V. We also constructed inverter circuits with high gain and nanowatt power consumption. This reliable approach to integrating ultrathin monocrystalline insulators paves the way to future nanoelectronics.

Direct growth of ferroelectric orthorhombic ZrO2 on Ru by atomic layer deposition at 300 °C

Fluorite-structured binary oxide ferroelectrics exhibit robust ferroelectricity at a thickness below 10 nm, making them highly scalable and applicable for high-end semiconductor devices. Despite this promising prospect, achieving highly reliable ferroelectrics still demands a significant thermal budget to form a ferroelectric phase, being a hurdle for their use in high-end complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processing. Here, we report a robust ferroelectric behavior of an 8 nm-thick ZrO2 film deposited via plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition at 300 °C on a (002)-oriented Ru without any post-annealing process, demonstrating high compatibility with CMOS processing. We propose that a plausible mechanism for this is the local domain matching epitaxy based on the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and piezoelectric force microscopy results, where the templating effect between [101]-oriented grains of orthorhombic ZrO2 and [010]-oriented grains of Ru enables the direct growth of ferroelectric ZrO2. The 2Pr value is 20 μC cm-2, and it can be further improved by post-annealing at 400 °C to 23 μC cm-2 without showing the wake-up behavior. Ferroelectric switching shows stable endurance for up to 109 cycles, showcasing its high potential in CMOS-compatible applications and nanoelectronics with a low thermal budget.

Direct Imaging of Asymmetric Interfaces and Electrostatic Potentials inside a Hafnia-Zirconia Ferroelectric Nanocapacitor

In hafnia-based thin-film ferroelectric devices, chemical phenomena during growth and processing, such as oxygen vacancy formation and interfacial reactions, appear to strongly affect device performance. However, the correlation between the structure, chemistry, and electrical potentials at the nanoscale in these devices is not fully known, making it difficult to understand their influence on device properties. Here, we directly image the composition and electrostatic potential with nanometer resolution in the cross section of a nanocrystalline W/Hf0.5Zr0.5O2-δ (HZO)/W ferroelectric capacitor using multimodal electron microscopy. This reveals a 1.4 nm wide tungsten suboxide interfacial layer formed at the bottom interface during fabrication, which introduces a potential dip and leads to asymmetric switching fields. Additionally, we compare the measured potentials to DFT calculations and find it is nearly 3 V lower than expected in the HZO, which appears to be caused by oxygen vacancies and a resulting negative built-in potential. These chemical and electrostatic details are important to characterize and tune to achieve high-performance ferroelectric devices.

Enhanced performance of flexible BiFeO3 ferroelectric memory with Mica substrate via SrTiO3 buffer layer

BiFeO3 (BFO) application in flexible wearable devices is garnering interest because of its unique ferroelectric and magnetic properties. However, the integration of high-quality BFO films onto flexible substrates presents significant technical challenges. Here, we successfully fabricated high-quality BFO films on mica substrates by using pulsed laser deposition, and report the fatigue characteristics of BFO films on flexible substrates for the first time. The results demonstrated that, after 108 bipolar switching cycles, the polarization only degraded by 0.28%, indicating superior fatigue characteristics compared to previously reported BFO films. Additionally, the device ferroelectric properties remained largely unchanged, with a bending radius of 3.5 mm. The fabricated flexible Pt/BFO/La0.65Sr0.35MnO3(LSMO)/SrTiO3(STO)/mica non-volatile memory devices exhibited mechanical flexibility and fatigue resistance. These findings not only highlight the potential of flexible BFO films for wearable electronic devices and flexible memory devices, they also provide valuable insight for the future development of high-performance flexible ferroelectric materials.

Ultra-High-k Ferroelectric BaTiO3 Perovskite in the Gate Stack for Two-Dimensional WSe2 p-Type High-Performance Transistors

The experimental demonstration of a p-type 2D WSe2 transistor with a ferroelectric perovskite BaTiO3 gate oxide is presented. The 30 nm thick BaTiO3 gate stack shows a robust ferroelectric hysteresis with a remanent polarization of 20 μC/cm2 and further enables a capacitance equivalent thickness of 0.5 nm in the hybrid WSe2/BaTiO3 stack due to its high dielectric constant of 323. We demonstrate one of the best ON currents for perovskite gate 2D transistors in the literature. This is enabled by high-quality epitaxial growth of BaTiO3 and a single 2D layer transfer based fabrication method that is shown to be amenable to silicon platforms. This demonstration is an important milestone toward the integration of crystalline complex oxides with 2D channel materials for scaled CMOS and low-voltage ferroelectric logic applications.

An enzymolysis-induced energy transfer co-assembled system for spontaneously recoverable supramolecular dynamic memory

The continuing growth of the digital world requires new ways of constructing memory devices to process and store dynamic data, because the current ones suffer from inefficiency, limited reads, and difficulty to manufacture. Here we propose a supramolecular dynamic memory (SDM) strategy based on an enzymolysis-induced energy transfer co-assembly derived from a naphthalene-based cationic monomer and organic dye sulforhodamine 101, enabling the construction of spontaneously recoverable dynamic memory devices. Benefitting from the large exciton migration rate (4.48 × 1015 L mol-1 s-1) between the monomer and sulforhodamine 101, the energy transfer process between the two is effectively achieved. Since alkaline phosphatase can selectively hydrolyze adenosine triphosphate, leading to the disruption of the co-assemblies, an enzyme-mediated time-dependent fluorochromic system is realized. On this basis, a SDM system featuring spontaneous recovery and enabling the memory of dynamic information in optical and electrical modes is successfully constructed. The current study represents a promising step in the nascent development of supramolecular materials for computational systems.

Dimensional Scaling of Ferroelectric Properties of Hafnia-Zirconia Thin Films: Electrode Interface Effects

Hafnia-based ferroelectric (FE) thin films are promising candidates for semiconductor memories. However, a fundamental challenge that persists is the lack of understanding regarding dimensional scaling, including thickness scaling and area scaling, of the functional properties and their heterogeneity in these films. In this work, excellent ferroelectricity and switching endurance are demonstrated in 4 nm-thick Hf0.5Zr0.5O2 (HZO) capacitors with molybdenum electrodes in capacitors as small as 65 nm × 45 nm in size. The HZO layer in these capacitors can be crystallized into the ferroelectric orthorhombic phase at the low temperature of 400 °C, making them compatible for back-end-of-line (BEOL) FE memories. With the benefits of thickness scaling, low operation voltage (1.2 V) is achieved with high endurance (>1010 cycles); however, a significant fatigue regime is noted. We observed that the bottom electrode, rather than the top electrode, plays a dominant role in the thickness scaling of HZO ferroelectric behavior. Furthermore, ultrahigh switched polarization (remanent polarization 2Pr ∼ 108 μC cm-2) is observed in some nanoscale devices. This study advances the understanding of dimensional scaling effects in HZO capacitors for high-performance FE memories.

Hydrogen-induced tunable remanent polarization in a perovskite nickelate

Materials with field-tunable polarization are of broad interest to condensed matter sciences and solid-state device technologies. Here, using hydrogen (H) donor doping, we modify the room temperature metallic phase of a perovskite nickelate NdNiO3 into an insulating phase with both metastable dipolar polarization and space-charge polarization. We then demonstrate transient negative differential capacitance in thin film capacitors. The space-charge polarization caused by long-range movement and trapping of protons dominates when the electric field exceeds the threshold value. First-principles calculations suggest the polarization originates from the polar structure created by H doping. We find that polarization decays within ~1 second which is an interesting temporal regime for neuromorphic computing hardware design, and we implement the transient characteristics in a neural network to demonstrate unsupervised learning. These discoveries open new avenues for designing ferroelectric materials and electrets using light-ion doping.

Dual Polarization Strategy for Boosting Electron-Hole Separation toward Overall Water Splitting within Ferroelectric β-AIBIIIO2 (BIII = P3+, As3+, Sb3+, and Bi3+ for Lone Pairs)

Ferroelectric materials, leveraging an inherent built-in electric field, are excellent in suppressing electron-hole recombination. However, the reliance solely on bulk polarization remains insufficient in enhancing carriers' separation and migration, limiting their practical application in photocatalytic overall water splitting (POWS). To address this, we incorporated cations with ns2 lone pairs (P3+, As3+, Sb3+, and Bi3+) into ferroelectric semiconductors, successfully constructing 44 β-AIBIIIO2 photocatalysts with dual polarization. Through rigorous first-principles calculations and screenings for stability, band characteristics, and polarization, we identified four promising candidates: β-LiSbO2, β-NaSbO2, β-LiBiO2, and β-TlBiO2. Within these materials, lone pairs induce local polarization in the xy-plane. Additionally, out of the plane, there is robust bulk polarization along the z-direction. This synergistic effect of the combined local and bulk polarization significantly improves the separation efficiency of electron-hole pairs. Explicitly, the electron mobility of the four candidates ranges from 105 to 106 cm2 s-1 V-1, while the hole mobility also increases significantly compared to single-phase polarized materials, up to 106 cm2 s-1 V-1. Notably, β-TlBiO2 is predicted to achieve a solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency of 17.2%. This study not only offers insights for water-splitting catalyst screening but also pioneers a path for electron-hole separation through the dual polarization strategy.

Enhanced polarization switching characteristics of HfO2 ultrathin films via acceptor-donor co-doping

In the realm of ferroelectric memories, HfO2-based ferroelectrics stand out because of their exceptional CMOS compatibility and scalability. Nevertheless, their switchable polarization and switching speed are not on par with those of perovskite ferroelectrics. It is widely acknowledged that defects play a crucial role in stabilizing the metastable polar phase of HfO2. Simultaneously, defects also pin the domain walls and impede the switching process, ultimately rendering the sluggish switching of HfO2. Herein, we present an effective strategy involving acceptor-donor co-doping to effectively tackle this dilemma. Remarkably enhanced ferroelectricity and the fastest switching process ever reported among HfO2 polar devices are observed in La3+-Ta5+ co-doped HfO2 ultrathin films. Moreover, robust macro-electrical characteristics of co-doped films persist even at a thickness as low as 3 nm, expanding potential applications of HfO2 in ultrathin devices. Our systematic investigations further demonstrate that synergistic effects of uniform microstructure and smaller switching barrier introduced by co-doping ensure the enhanced ferroelectricity and shortened switching time. The co-doping strategy offers an effective avenue to control the defect state and improve the ferroelectric properties of HfO2 films.

Epitaxial Strain Enhanced Ferroelectric Polarization toward a Giant Tunneling Electroresistance

A substantial ferroelectric polarization is the key for designing high-performance ferroelectric nonvolatile memories. As a promising candidate system, the BaTiO3/La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (BTO/LSMO) ferroelectric/ferromagnetic heterostructure has attracted a lot of attention thanks to the merits of high Curie temperature, large spin polarization, and low ferroelectric coercivity. Nevertheless, the BTO/LSMO heterostructure suffers from a moderate FE polarization, primarily due to the quick film-thickness-driven strain relaxation. In response to this challenge, we propose an approach for enhancing the FE properties of BTO films by using a Sr3Al2O6 (SAO) buffering layer to mitigate the interfacial strain relaxation. The continuously tunable strain allows us to illustrate the linear dependence of polarization on epitaxial strain with a large strain-sensitive coefficient of ∼27 μC/cm2 per percent strain. This results in a giant polarization of ∼80 μC/cm2 on the BTO/LSMO interface. Leveraging this large polarization, we achieved a giant tunneling electroresistance (TER) of ∼105 in SAO-buffered Pt/BTO/LSMO ferroelectric tunnel junctions (FTJs). Our research uncovers the fundamental interplay between strain, polarization magnitude, and device performance, such as on/off ratio, thereby advancing the potential of FTJs for next-generation information storage applications.

Large Enhancement of Polarization in a Layered Hybrid Perovskite Ferroelectric Semiconductor via Molecular Engineering

Switchable spontaneous polarization is the vital property of ferroelectrics, which leads to other key physical properties such as piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity, and nonlinear optical effects, etc. Recently, organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites with 2D layered structure have become an emerging branch of ferroelectric materials. However, most of the 2D hybrid ferroelectrics own relatively low polarizations (<15 µC cm-2 ). Here, a strategy to enhance the polarization of these hybrid perovskites by using ortho-, meta-, para-halogen substitution is developed. Based on (benzylammonium)2 PbCl4 (BZACL), the para-chlorine substituted (4-chlorobenzylammonium)2 PbCl4 (4-CBZACL) ferroelectric semiconductor shows a large spontaneous polarization (23.3 µC cm-2 ), which is 79% larger than the polarization of BZACL. This large enhancement of polarization is successfully explained via ab initio calculations. The study provides a convenient and efficient strategy to promote the ferroelectric property in the hybrid perovskite family.

Quasi-Zero-Dimensional Ferroelectric Polarization Charges-Coupled Resistance Switching with High-Current Density in Ultrascaled Semiconductors

Ferroelectric memristors hold immense promise for advanced memory and neuromorphic computing. However, they face limitations due to low readout current density in conventional designs with low-conductive ferroelectric channels, especially at the nanoscale. Here, we report a ferroelectric-mediated memristor utilizing a 2D MoS2 nanoribbon channel with an ultrascaled cross-sectional area of <1000 nm2, defined by a ferroelectric BaTiO3 nanoribbon stacked on top. Strikingly, the Schottky barrier at the MoS2 contact can be effectively tuned by the charge transfers coupled with quasi-zero-dimensional polarization charges formed at the two ends of the nanoribbon, which results in distinctive resistance switching accompanied by multiple negative differential resistance showing the high-current density of >104 A/cm2. The associated space charges in BaTiO3 are minimized to ∼3.7% of the polarization charges, preserving nonvolatile polarization. This achievement establishes ferroelectric-mediated nanoscale semiconductor memristors with high readout current density as promising candidates for memory and highly energy-efficient in-memory computing applications.

Engineering Relaxor Behavior in (BaTiO3 )n /(SrTiO3 )n Superlattices

Complex-oxide superlattices provide a pathway to numerous emergent phenomena because of the juxtaposition of disparate properties and the strong interfacial interactions in these unit-cell-precise structures. This is particularly true in superlattices of ferroelectric and dielectric materials, wherein new forms of ferroelectricity, exotic dipolar textures, and distinctive domain structures can be produced. Here, relaxor-like behavior, typically associated with the chemical inhomogeneity and complexity of solid solutions, is observed in (BaTiO3 )n /(SrTiO3 )n (n = 4-20 unit cells) superlattices. Dielectric studies and subsequent Vogel-Fulcher analysis show significant frequency dispersion of the dielectric maximum across a range of periodicities, with enhanced dielectric constant and more robust relaxor behavior for smaller period n. Bond-valence molecular-dynamics simulations predict the relaxor-like behavior observed experimentally, and interpretations of the polar patterns via 2D discrete-wavelet transforms in shorter-period superlattices suggest that the relaxor behavior arises from shape variations of the dipolar configurations, in contrast to frozen antipolar stripe domains in longer-period superlattices (n = 16). Moreover, the size and shape of the dipolar configurations are tuned by superlattice periodicity, thus providing a definitive design strategy to use superlattice layering to create relaxor-like behavior which may expand the ability to control desired properties in these complex systems.

Building Block-Inspired Hybrid Perovskite Derivatives for Ferroelectric Channel Layers with Gate-Tunable Memory Behavior

Ferroelectric photovoltaics driven by spontaneous polarization (Ps ) holds a promise for creating the next-generation optoelectronics, spintronics and non-volatile memories. However, photoactive ferroelectrics are quite scarce in single homogeneous phase, owing to the severe Ps fatigue caused by leakage current of photoexcited carriers. Here, through combining inorganic and organic components as building blocks, we constructed a series of ferroelectric semiconductors of 2D hybrid perovskites, (HA)2 (MA)n-1 Pbn Br3n+1 (n=1-5; HA=hexylamine and MA=methylamine). It is intriguing that their Curie temperatures are greatly enhanced by reducing the thickness of inorganic frameworks from MAPbBr3 (n=∞, Tc =239 K) to n=2 (Tc =310 K, ΔT=71 K). Especially, on account of the coupling of room-temperature ferroelectricity (Ps ≈1.5 μC/cm2 ) and photoconductivity, n=3 crystal wafer was integrated as channel field effect transistor that shows excellent a large short-circuit photocurrent ≈19.74 μA/cm2 . Such giant photocurrents can be modulated through manipulating gate voltage in a wide range (±60 V), exhibiting gate-tunable memory behaviors of three current states ("-1/0/1" states). We believe that this work sheds light on further exploration of ferroelectric materials toward new non-volatile memory devices.

Ultralow Tip-Force Driven Sizable-Area Domain Manipulation through Transverse Flexoelectricity

Deterministic control of ferroelectric domain is critical in the ferroelectric functional electronics. Ferroelectric polarization can be manipulated mechanically with a nano-tip through flexoelectricity. However, it usually occurs in a very localized area in ultrathin films, with possible permanent surface damage caused by a large tip-force. Here it is demonstrated that the deliberate engineering of transverse flexoelectricity offers a powerful tool for improving the mechanical domain switching. Sizable-area domain switching under an ultralow tip-force can be realized in suspended van der Waals ferroelectrics with the surface intact, due to the enhanced transverse flexoelectric field. The film thickness range for domain switching in suspended ferroelectrics is significantly improved by an order of magnitude to hundreds of nanometers, being far beyond the limited range of the substrate-supported ones. The experimental results and phase-field simulations further reveal the crucial role of the transverse flexoelectricity in the domain manipulation. This large-scale mechanical manipulation of ferroelectric domain provides opportunities for the flexoelectricity-based domain controls in emerging low-dimensional ferroelectrics and related devices.

Ultralow Power and Shifting-Discretized Magnetic Racetrack Memory Device Driven by Chirality Switching and Spin Current

Magnetic racetrack memory has significantly evolved and developed since its first experimental verification and is considered one of the most promising candidates for future high-density on-chip solid-state memory. However, both the lack of a fast and precise magnetic domain wall (DW) shifting mechanism and the required extremely high DW motion (DWM) driving current make the racetrack difficult to commercialize. Here, we propose a method for coherent DWM that is free from the above issues, which is driven by chirality switching (CS) and an ultralow spin-orbit-torque (SOT) current. The CS, as the driving force of DWM, is achieved by the sign change of the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction, which is further induced by a ferroelectric switching voltage. The SOT is used to break the symmetry when the magnetic moment is rotated in the Bloch direction. We numerically investigate the underlying principle and the effect of key parameters on the DWM by micromagnetic simulations. Under the CS mechanism, a fast (∼102 m/s), ultralow energy (∼5 attoJoule), and precisely discretized DWM can be achieved. Considering that skyrmions with topological protection and smaller size are also promising for future racetracks, we similarly evaluate the feasibility of applying such a CS mechanism to a skyrmion. However, we find that the CS causes it to "breathe" instead of moving. Our results demonstrate that the CS strategy is suitable for future DW racetrack memory with ultralow power consumption and discretized DWM.

Preparation of Nanocomposites for Antibacterial Orthodontic Invisible Appliance Based on Piezoelectric Catalysis

Compared to fixed orthodontic appliances with brackets, thermoplastic invisible orthodontic aligners offer several advantages, such as high aesthetic performance, good comfort, and convenient oral health maintenance, and are widely used in orthodontic fields. However, prolonged use of thermoplastic invisible aligners may lead to demineralization and even caries in most patients' teeth, as they enclose the tooth surface for an extended period. To address this issue, we have created PETG composites that contain piezoelectric barium titanate nanoparticles (BaTiO₃NPs) to obtain antibacterial properties. First, we prepared piezoelectric composites by incorporating varying amounts of BaTiO₃NPs into PETG matrix material. The composites were then characterized using techniques such as SEM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, which confirmed the successful synthesis of the composites. We cultivated biofilms of Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) on the surface of the nanocomposites under both polarized and unpolarized conditions. We then activated piezoelectric charges by subjecting the nanocomposites to 10 Hz cyclic mechanical vibration. The interactions between the biofilms and materials were evaluated by measuring the biofilm biomass. The addition of piezoelectric nanoparticles had a noticeable antibacterial effect on both the unpolarized and polarized conditions. Under polarized conditions, nanocomposites demonstrated a greater antibacterial effect than under unpolarized conditions. Additionally, as the concentration of BaTiO₃NPs increased, the antibacterial rate also increased, with the surface antibacterial rate reaching 67.39% (30 wt% BaTiO₃NPs). These findings have the potential for application in wearable, invisible appliances to improve clinical services and reduce the need for cleaning methods.

Superior ferroelectricity and nonlinear optical response in a hybrid germanium iodide hexagonal perovskite

Abundant chemical diversity and structural tunability make organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites (OIHPs) a rich ore for ferroelectrics. However, compared with their inorganic counterparts such as BaTiO₃, their ferroelectric key properties, including large spontaneous polarization (P_s), low coercive field (E_c), and strong second harmonic generation (SHG) response, have long been great challenges, which hinder their commercial applications. Here, a quasi-one-dimensional OIHP DMAGeI₃ (DMA = Dimethylamine) is reported, with notable ferroelectric attributes at room temperature: a large P_s of 24.14 μC/cm² (on a par with BaTiO₃), a low E_c below 2.2 kV/cm, and the strongest SHG intensity in OIHP family (about 12 times of KH₂PO₄ (KDP)). Revealed by the first-principles calculations, its large P_s originates from the synergistic effects of the stereochemically active 4s² lone pair of Ge²⁺ and the ordering of organic cations, and its low kinetic energy barrier of small DMA cations results in a low E_c. Our work brings the comprehensive ferroelectric performances of OIHPs to a comparable level with commercial inorganic ferroelectric perovskites.

Wurtzite and fluorite ferroelectric materials for electronic memory

Ferroelectric materials, the charge equivalent of magnets, have been the subject of continued research interest since their discovery more than 100 years ago. The spontaneous electric polarization in these crystals, which is non-volatile and programmable, is appealing for a range of information technologies. However, while magnets have found their way into various types of modern information technology hardware, applications of ferroelectric materials that use their ferroelectric properties are still limited. Recent advances in ferroelectric materials with wurtzite and fluorite structure have renewed enthusiasm and offered new opportunities for their deployment in commercial-scale devices in microelectronics hardware. This Review focuses on the most recent and emerging wurtzite-structured ferroelectric materials and emphasizes their applications in memory and storage-based microelectronic hardware. Relevant comparisons with existing fluorite-structured ferroelectric materials are made and a detailed outlook on ferroelectric materials and devices applications is provided.

Ferroelectric Nanogap-Based Steep-Slope Ambipolar Transistor

The subthreshold swing (SS) of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors is limited to 60 mV dec^-1 at room temperature by the Boltzmann tyranny, which restricts the scaling of the supply voltage. A nanogap-based transistor employs a switchable nanoscale air gap as the channel, offering a steep-slope switching process. Meanwhile, nanogaps featuring even sub-3 nm can efficiently block the current flow, exhibiting the potential for tackling the short-channel effect. Here, an electrically switchable ferroelectric nanogap to construct steep-slope transistors, is exploited. An average SS of 15.9 mV dec^-1 across 5 orders and a minimum SS of 13.23 mV dec^-1 are obtained in the high current density range. The transistor exhibits excellent performance with near-zero off-state leakage current and a maximum on-state current of 202 µA µm^-1 at V_DS  = 0.5 V. In addition, the transistor can turn off with either a positive or negative increase in the gate voltage, exhibiting ambipolar characteristics.