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Guo K, Grünberg R, Ren Y, Chang T, Wustoni S, Strnad O, Koklu A, Díaz‐Galicia E, Agudelo JP, Druet V, Castillo TCH, Moser M, Ohayon D, Hama A, Dada A, McCulloch I, Viola I, Arold ST, Inal S. SpyDirect: A Novel Biofunctionalization Method for High Stability and Longevity of Electronic Biosensors. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2306716. [PMID: 38161228 PMCID: PMC11251562 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202306716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Electronic immunosensors are indispensable tools for diagnostics, particularly in scenarios demanding immediate results. Conventionally, these sensors rely on the chemical immobilization of antibodies onto electrodes. However, globular proteins tend to adsorb and unfold on these surfaces. Therefore, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of thiolated alkyl molecules are commonly used for indirect gold-antibody coupling. Here, a limitation associated with SAMs is revealed, wherein they curtail the longevity of protein sensors, particularly when integrated into the state-of-the-art transducer of organic bioelectronics-the organic electrochemical transistor. The SpyDirect method is introduced, generating an ultrahigh-density array of oriented nanobody receptors stably linked to the gold electrode without any SAMs. It is accomplished by directly coupling cysteine-terminated and orientation-optimized spyTag peptides, onto which nanobody-spyCatcher fusion proteins are autocatalytically attached, yielding a dense and uniform biorecognition layer. The structure-guided design optimizes the conformation and packing of flexibly tethered nanobodies. This biolayer enhances shelf-life and reduces background noise in various complex media. SpyDirect functionalization is faster and easier than SAM-based methods and does not necessitate organic solvents, rendering the sensors eco-friendly, accessible, and amenable to scalability. SpyDirect represents a broadly applicable biofunctionalization method for enhancing the cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and longevity of electronic biosensors, all without compromising sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keying Guo
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Raik Grünberg
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Yuxiang Ren
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Tianrui Chang
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Shofarul Wustoni
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Ondrej Strnad
- Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Science and EngineeringKAUSTThuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Anil Koklu
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Escarlet Díaz‐Galicia
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Jessica Parrado Agudelo
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Victor Druet
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Tania Cecilia Hidalgo Castillo
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | | | - David Ohayon
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Adel Hama
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Ashraf Dada
- King Faisal Specialist Hospital & Research Centre (KFSH‐RC)Jeddah21499Saudi Arabia
| | - Iain McCulloch
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of OxfordOxfordOX1 3TAUK
| | - Ivan Viola
- Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Science and EngineeringKAUSTThuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
| | - Stefan T. Arold
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
- Centre de Biologie Structurale (CBS), INSERM, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierF‐34090France
| | - Sahika Inal
- Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Science and EngineeringKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal23955‐6900Saudi Arabia
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2
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Ortiz AJ, Martín V, Romero D, Guillamon A, Giraldo J. Time-dependent ligand-receptor binding kinetics and functionality in a heterodimeric receptor model. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 225:116299. [PMID: 38763260 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
GPCRs heteromerize both in CNS and non-CNS regions. The cell uses receptor heteromerization to modulate receptor functionality and to provide fine tuning of receptor signaling. In order for pharmacologists to explore these mechanisms for therapeutic purposes, quantitative receptor models are needed. We have developed a time-dependent model of the binding kinetics and functionality of a preformed heterodimeric receptor involving two drugs. Two cases were considered: both or only one of the drugs are in excess with respect to the total concentration of the receptor. The latter case can be applied to those situations in which a drug causes unwanted side effects that need to be reduced by decreasing its concentration. The required efficacy can be maintained by the allosteric effects mutually exerted by the two drugs in the two-drug combination system. We discuss this concept assuming that the drug causing unwanted side effects is an opioid and that analgesia is the therapeutic effect. As additional points, allosteric modulation by endogenous compounds and synthetic bivalent ligands was included in the study. Receptor heteromerization offers a mechanistic understanding and quantification of the pharmacological effects elicited by combinations of two drugs at different doses and with different efficacies and cooperativity effects, thus providing a conceptual framework for drug combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Ortiz
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology and Bioinformatics, Unitat de Bioestadística and Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Unitat de Neurociència Traslacional, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Víctor Martín
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology and Bioinformatics, Unitat de Bioestadística and Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Departament de Matemàtiques, EPSEB, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - David Romero
- Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.
| | - Antoni Guillamon
- Departament de Matemàtiques, EPSEB, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; IMTech, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.
| | - Jesús Giraldo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology and Bioinformatics, Unitat de Bioestadística and Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Unitat de Neurociència Traslacional, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
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3
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Belkacemi K, Rondard P, Pin JP, Prézeau L. Heterodimers Revolutionize the Field of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors. Neuroscience 2024:S0306-4522(24)00270-7. [PMID: 38936459 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Identified 40 years ago, the metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors play key roles in modulating many synapses in the brain, and are still considered as important drug targets to treat various brain diseases. Eight genes encoding mGlu subunits have been identified. They code for complex receptors composed of a large extracellular domain where glutamate binds, connected to a G protein activating membrane domain. They are covalently linked dimers, a quaternary structure needed for their activation by glutamate. For many years they have only been considered as homodimers, then limiting the number of mGlu receptors to 8 subtypes composed of twice the same subunit. Twelve years ago, mGlu subunits were shown to also form heterodimers with specific subunits combinations, increasing the family up to 19 different potential dimeric receptors. Since then, a number of studies brought evidence for the existence of such heterodimers in the brain, through various approaches. Structural and molecular dynamic studies helped understand their peculiar activation process. The present review summarizes the approaches used to study their activation process and their pharmacological properties and to demonstrate their existence in vivo. We will highlight how the existence of mGlu heterodimers revolutionizes the mGlu receptor field, opening new possibilities for therapeutic intervention for brain diseases. As illustrated by the number of possible mGlu heterodimers, this study will highlight the need for further research to fully understand their role in physiological and pathological conditions, and to develop more specific therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kawthar Belkacemi
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Inserm, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Rondard
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Inserm, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Pin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Inserm, Montpellier, France
| | - Laurent Prézeau
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Inserm, Montpellier, France
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4
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Ferranti AS, Luessen DJ, Niswender CM. Novel pharmacological targets for GABAergic dysfunction in ADHD. Neuropharmacology 2024; 249:109897. [PMID: 38462041 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.109897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopment disorder that affects approximately 5% of the population. The disorder is characterized by impulsivity, hyperactivity, and deficits in attention and cognition, although symptoms vary across patients due to the heterogenous and polygenic nature of the disorder. Stimulant medications are the standard of care treatment for ADHD patients, and their effectiveness has led to the dopaminergic hypothesis of ADHD in which deficits in dopaminergic signaling, especially in cortical brain regions, mechanistically underly ADHD pathophysiology. Despite their effectiveness in many individuals, almost one-third of patients do not respond to stimulant treatments and the long-term negative side effects of these medications remain unclear. Emerging clinical evidence is beginning to highlight an important role of dysregulated excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) balance in ADHD. These deficits in E/I balance are related to functional abnormalities in glutamate and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) signaling in the brain, with increasing emphasis placed on GABAergic interneurons driving specific aspects of ADHD pathophysiology. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have also highlighted how genes associated with GABA function are mutated in human populations with ADHD, resulting in the generation of several new genetic mouse models of ADHD. This review will discuss how GABAergic dysfunction underlies ADHD pathophysiology, and how specific receptors/proteins related to GABAergic interneuron dysfunction may be pharmacologically targeted to treat ADHD in subpopulations with specific comorbidities and symptom domains. This article is part of the Special Issue on "PFC circuit function in psychiatric disease and relevant models".
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony S Ferranti
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Deborah J Luessen
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Colleen M Niswender
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA; Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
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5
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Parent HH, Niswender CM. Therapeutic Potential for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 7 Modulators in Cognitive Disorders. Mol Pharmacol 2024; 105:348-358. [PMID: 38423750 PMCID: PMC11026152 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.124.000874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGlu7) is the most highly conserved and abundantly expressed mGlu receptor in the human brain. The presynaptic localization of mGlu7, coupled with its low affinity for its endogenous agonist, glutamate, are features that contribute to the receptor's role in modulating neuronal excitation and inhibition patterns, including long-term potentiation, in various brain regions. These characteristics suggest that mGlu7 modulation may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy in disorders of cognitive dysfunction, including neurodevelopmental disorders that cause impairments in learning, memory, and attention. Primary mutations in the GRM7 gene have recently been identified as novel causes of neurodevelopmental disorders, and these patients exhibit profound intellectual and cognitive disability. Pharmacological tools, such as agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators, have been the mainstay for targeting mGlu7 in its endogenous homodimeric form to probe effects of its function and modulation in disease models. However, recent research has identified diversity in dimerization, as well as trans-synaptic interacting proteins, that also play a role in mGlu7 signaling and pharmacological properties. These novel findings represent exciting opportunities in the field of mGlu receptor drug discovery and highlight the importance of further understanding the functions of mGlu7 in complex neurologic conditions at both the molecular and physiologic levels. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Proper expression and function of mGlu7 is essential for learning, attention, and memory formation at the molecular level within neural circuits. The pharmacological targeting of mGlu7 is undergoing a paradigm shift by incorporating an understanding of receptor interaction with other cis- and trans- acting synaptic proteins, as well as various intracellular signaling pathways. Based upon these new findings, mGlu7's potential as a drug target in the treatment of cognitive disorders and learning impairments is primed for exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harrison H Parent
- Department of Pharmacology (H.H.P., C.M.N.), Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.P., C.M.N.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (C.M.N.), and Vanderbilt Institute for Chemical Biology (C.M.N.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee (C.M.N.)
| | - Colleen M Niswender
- Department of Pharmacology (H.H.P., C.M.N.), Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.P., C.M.N.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (C.M.N.), and Vanderbilt Institute for Chemical Biology (C.M.N.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee (C.M.N.)
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Pandey N, Mandal M, Samanta D, Mukherjee G, Dutta G. A nanobody based ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor for the detection of soluble CTLA-4 -A candidate biomarker for cancer development and progression. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 242:115733. [PMID: 37820555 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
A soluble isoform of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) has been found in the serum of healthy individuals and alterations in its expression level have been linked with the development and progression of various cancers. Conventionally, soluble CTLA-4 (sCTLA-4) has been quantified by techniques such as ELISA, western blot, and flow cytometry, which however are time-consuming, highly expensive and require large sample volumes. Therefore, rapid, cost-effective and real-time monitoring of soluble CTLA-4 levels is much needed to facilitate timely diagnosis of a worsening disease and help patient selection for immunotherapeutic interventions in cancer. Here, for the first time, we report an ultrasensitive, highly selective electrochemical nanobody (NAb) based biosensor for the quantitative detection of soluble CTLA-4 employing poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and gold nanoparticles modified electrode with attomole sensitivity. Incorporating nanomaterials with conductive polymers enhances the sensitivity of the electrochemical biosensor, while the nanobody's stability, specificity and ease of production make it a suitable choice as a bioreceptor. The proposed NAb-based sensor can detect sCTLA-4 from pure recombinant protein in a wide concentration range of 100 ag mL-1- 500 μg mL-1, with a limit of detection of 1.19 ag mL-1 (+3σ of the blank signal). The sensor's relative standard deviation for reproducibility is less than 0.4% and has effective real sample analytics for cell culture supernatant with no significant difference with pure recombinant protein (p < 0.05). Our proposed nanobody based sensor exhibits stability for up to 2 weeks (<3% variation). Moreover, this nanobody-based sensor presents a future opportunity for quantitative, ultrasensitive, and economical biosensor development that can be adapted to monitor the immune landscape of cancer patients to provide a larger therapeutic window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Pandey
- Immunology and Inflammation Research Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Mukti Mandal
- NanoBiosensors and Biodevices Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Dibyendu Samanta
- School of Bio Science, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Gayatri Mukherjee
- Immunology and Inflammation Research Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
| | - Gorachand Dutta
- NanoBiosensors and Biodevices Lab, School of Medical Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
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Lee J, Gonzalez-Hernandez AJ, Kristt M, Abreu N, Roßmann K, Arefin A, Marx DC, Broichhagen J, Levitz J. Distinct beta-arrestin coupling and intracellular trafficking of metabotropic glutamate receptor homo- and heterodimers. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadi8076. [PMID: 38055809 PMCID: PMC10699790 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi8076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are family C, dimeric G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which play critical roles in synaptic transmission. Despite an increasing appreciation of the molecular diversity of this family, how distinct mGluR subtypes are regulated remains poorly understood. We reveal that different group II/III mGluR subtypes show markedly different beta-arrestin (β-arr) coupling and endocytic trafficking. While mGluR2 is resistant to internalization and mGluR3 shows transient β-arr coupling, which enables endocytosis and recycling, mGluR8 and β-arr form stable complexes, which leads to efficient lysosomal targeting and degradation. Using chimeras and mutagenesis, we pinpoint carboxyl-terminal domain regions that control β-arr coupling and trafficking, including the identification of an mGluR8 splice variant with impaired internalization. We then use a battery of high-resolution fluorescence assays to find that heterodimerization further expands the diversity of mGluR regulation. Together, this work provides insight into the relationship between GPCR/β-arr complex formation and trafficking while revealing diversity and intricacy in the regulation of mGluRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joon Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | - Melanie Kristt
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Nohely Abreu
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Kilian Roßmann
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anisul Arefin
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Dagan C. Marx
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | - Joshua Levitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
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8
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Lebon G. Steering G protein activation by mGlu heterodimer. Cell Res 2023; 33:735-736. [PMID: 37402897 PMCID: PMC10542342 DOI: 10.1038/s41422-023-00843-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Lebon
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Univeristé de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France.
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9
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Liu L, Lin L, Shen C, Rondard P, Pin JP, Xu C, Liu J. Asymmetric activation of dimeric GABA B and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2023; 325:C79-C89. [PMID: 37184233 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00150.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest family of membrane proteins and are important drug targets. GPCRs are allosteric machines that transduce an extracellular signal to the cell by activating heterotrimeric G proteins. Herein, we summarize the recent advancements in the molecular activation mechanism of the γ-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) and metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors, the most important class C GPCRs that modulate synaptic transmission in the brain. Both are mandatory dimers, this quaternary structure being needed for their function The structures of these receptors in different conformations and in complexes with G proteins have revealed their asymmetric activation. This asymmetry is further highlighted by the recent discovery of mGlu heterodimers, where the eight mGlu subunits can form specific and functional heterodimers. Finally, the development of allosteric modulators has revealed new possibilities for regulating the function of these receptors by targeting the transmembrane dimer interface. This family of receptors never ceases to astonish and serve as models to better understand the diversity and asymmetric functioning of GPCRs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY γ-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) and metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors form constitutive dimers, which are required for their function. They serve as models to better understand the diversity and activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The structures of these receptors in different conformations and in complexes with G proteins have revealed their asymmetric activation. This asymmetry is further highlighted by the recent discovery of specific and functional mGlu heterodimers. Allosteric modulators can be developed to target the transmembrane interface and modulate the asymmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Liu
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of MOE, and College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Lin
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of MOE, and College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Cangsong Shen
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of MOE, and College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Philippe Rondard
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Pin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Chanjuan Xu
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of MOE, and College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianfeng Liu
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of MOE, and College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
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10
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Nicoletti F, Di Menna L, Iacovelli L, Orlando R, Zuena AR, Conn PJ, Dogra S, Joffe ME. GPCR interactions involving metabotropic glutamate receptors and their relevance to the pathophysiology and treatment of CNS disorders. Neuropharmacology 2023; 235:109569. [PMID: 37142158 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Cellular responses to metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor activation are shaped by mechanisms of receptor-receptor interaction. mGlu receptor subtypes form homodimers, intra- or inter-group heterodimers, and heteromeric complexes with other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In addition, mGlu receptors may functionally interact with other receptors through the βγ subunits released from G proteins in response to receptor activation or other mechanisms. Here, we discuss the interactions between (i) mGlu1 and GABAB receptors in cerebellar Purkinje cells; (ii) mGlu2 and 5-HT2Aserotonergic receptors in the prefrontal cortex; (iii) mGlu5 and A2A receptors or mGlu5 and D1 dopamine receptors in medium spiny projection neurons of the indirect and direct pathways of the basal ganglia motor circuit; (iv) mGlu5 and A2A receptors in relation to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease; and (v) mGlu7 and A1 adenosine or α- or β1 adrenergic receptors. In addition, we describe in detail a novel form of non-heterodimeric interaction between mGlu3 and mGlu5 receptors, which appears to be critically involved in mechanisms of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Finally, we highlight the potential implication of these interactions in the pathophysiology and treatment of cerebellar disorders, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias, stress-related disorders, and cognitive dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferdinando Nicoletti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy; IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.
| | | | - Luisa Iacovelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Rosamaria Orlando
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy; IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Anna Rita Zuena
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - P Jeffrey Conn
- Department of Pharmacology, Italy; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Shalini Dogra
- Department of Pharmacology, Italy; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Max E Joffe
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
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11
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Liang H, Ma Z, Wang Z, Zhong P, Li R, Jiang H, Zong X, Zhong C, Liu X, Liu P, Liu J, Zhu H, Liu R, Ding Y. Structural Insights into the Binding of Red Fluorescent Protein mCherry-Specific Nanobodies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24086952. [PMID: 37108116 PMCID: PMC10138814 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24086952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Red fluorescent proteins (RFPs) have broad applications in life science research, and the manipulation of RFPs using nanobodies can expand their potential uses. However, the structural information available for nanobodies that bind with RFPs is still insufficient. In this study, we cloned, expressed, purified, and crystallized complexes formed by mCherry with LaM1, LaM3, and LaM8. Then, we analyzed the biochemical properties of the complexes using mass spectrometry (MS), fluorescence-detected size exclusion chromatography (FSEC), isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and bio-layer interferometry (BLI) technology. We determined the crystal structure of mCherry-LaM1, mCherry-LaM3, and mCherry-LaM8, with resolutions of 2.05 Å, 3.29 Å, and 1.31 Å, respectively. In this study, we systematically compared various parameters of several LaM series nanobodies, including LaM1, LaM3, and LaM8, with previously reported data on LaM2, LaM4, and LaM6, specifically examining their structural information. After designing multivalent tandem LaM1-LaM8 and LaM8-LaM4 nanobodies based on structural information, we characterized their properties, revealing their higher affinity and specificity to mCherry. Our research provides novel structural insights that could aid in understanding nanobodies targeting a specific target protein. This could provide a starting point for developing enhanced mCherry manipulation tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Ziying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Peiyu Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Ran Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - He Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Xin Zong
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Chao Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Xihuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Peng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jiayuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Haoran Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Rui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Yu Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
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12
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Ahmad M, Ha JH, Mayse LA, Presti MF, Wolfe AJ, Moody KJ, Loh SN, Movileanu L. A generalizable nanopore sensor for highly specific protein detection at single-molecule precision. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1374. [PMID: 36941245 PMCID: PMC10027671 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36944-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein detection has wide-ranging implications in molecular diagnostics. Substantial progress has been made in protein analytics using nanopores and the resistive-pulse technique. Yet, a long-standing challenge is implementing specific interfaces for detecting proteins without the steric hindrance of the pore interior. Here, we formulate a class of sensing elements made of a programmable antibody-mimetic binder fused to a monomeric protein nanopore. This way, such a modular design significantly expands the utility of nanopore sensors to numerous proteins while preserving their architecture, specificity, and sensitivity. We prove the power of this approach by developing and validating nanopore sensors for protein analytes that drastically vary in size, charge, and structural complexity. These analytes produce unique electrical signatures that depend on their identity and quantity and the binder-analyte assembly at the nanopore tip. The outcomes of this work could impact biomedical diagnostics by providing a fundamental basis for biomarker detection in biofluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ahmad
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, 201 Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, 13244-1130, USA
| | - Jeung-Hoi Ha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University, 4249 Weiskotten Hall, 766 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Lauren A Mayse
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, 201 Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, 13244-1130, USA
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering, Syracuse University, 329 Link Hall, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA
| | - Maria F Presti
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University, 4249 Weiskotten Hall, 766 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Aaron J Wolfe
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, 201 Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, 13244-1130, USA
- Ichor Life Sciences, Inc., 2561 US Route 11, LaFayette, NY, 13084, USA
- Lewis School of Health Sciences, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Kelsey J Moody
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, 201 Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, 13244-1130, USA
- Ichor Life Sciences, Inc., 2561 US Route 11, LaFayette, NY, 13084, USA
- Lewis School of Health Sciences, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
- Department of Chemistry, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Stewart N Loh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University, 4249 Weiskotten Hall, 766 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Liviu Movileanu
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, 201 Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, 13244-1130, USA.
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering, Syracuse University, 329 Link Hall, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA.
- The BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA.
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13
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Tsitokana ME, Lafon PA, Prézeau L, Pin JP, Rondard P. Targeting the Brain with Single-Domain Antibodies: Greater Potential Than Stated So Far? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032632. [PMID: 36768953 PMCID: PMC9916958 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatments for central nervous system diseases with therapeutic antibodies have been increasingly investigated over the last decades, leading to some approved monoclonal antibodies for brain disease therapies. The detection of biomarkers for diagnosis purposes with non-invasive antibody-based imaging approaches has also been explored in brain cancers. However, antibodies generally display a low capability of reaching the brain, as they do not efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier. As an alternative, recent studies have focused on single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) that correspond to the antigen-binding fragment. While some reports indicate that the brain uptake of these small antibodies is still low, the number of studies reporting brain-penetrating sdAbs is increasing. In this review, we provide an overview of methods used to assess or evaluate brain penetration of sdAbs and discuss the pros and cons that could affect the identification of brain-penetrating sdAbs of therapeutic or diagnostic interest.
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14
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Kinetic fingerprinting of metabotropic glutamate receptors. Commun Biol 2023; 6:104. [PMID: 36707695 PMCID: PMC9883448 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04468-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Dimeric metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are abundantly expressed in neurons. In mammals, eight subunit isoforms, mGluR1-8, have been identified, forming the groups I, II, and III. We investigated receptor dimerization and kinetics of these mGluR isoforms in excised membrane patches by FRET and confocal patch-clamp fluorometry. We show that 5 out of 8 homodimeric receptors develop characteristic glutamate-induced on- and off-kinetics, as do 11 out of 28 heterodimers. Glutamate-responsive heterodimers were identified within each group, between groups I and II as well as between groups II and III, but not between groups I and III. The glutamate-responsive heterodimers showed heterogeneous activation and deactivation kinetics. Interestingly, mGluR7, not generating a kinetic response in homodimers, showed fast on-kinetics in mGluR2/7 and mGluR3/7 while off-kinetics retained the speed of mGluR2 or mGluR3 respectively. In conclusion, glutamate-induced conformational changes in heterodimers appear within each group and between groups if one group II subunit is present.
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15
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The role of thalamic group II mGlu receptors in health and disease. Neuronal Signal 2022; 6:NS20210058. [PMID: 36561092 PMCID: PMC9760452 DOI: 10.1042/ns20210058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The thalamus plays a pivotal role in the integration and processing of sensory, motor, and cognitive information. It is therefore important to understand how the thalamus operates in states of both health and disease. In the present review, we discuss the function of the Group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors within thalamic circuitry, and how they may represent therapeutic targets in treating disease states associated with thalamic dysfunction.
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16
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Mao LM, Mathur N, Mahmood T, Rajan S, Chu XP, Wang JQ. Phosphorylation and regulation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu2/3) in neurons. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1022544. [PMID: 36407098 PMCID: PMC9669598 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1022544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors (mGlu2/3) are Gαi/o-coupled receptors and are primarily located on presynaptic axonal terminals in the central nervous system. Like ionotropic glutamate receptors, group II mGlu receptors are subject to regulation by posttranslational phosphorylation. Pharmacological evidence suggests that several serine/threonine protein kinases possess the ability to regulate mGlu2/3 receptors. Detailed mapping of phosphorylation residues has revealed that protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylates mGlu2/3 receptors at a specific serine site on their intracellular C-terminal tails in heterologous cells or neurons, which underlies physiological modulation of mGlu2/3 signaling. Casein kinases promote mGlu2 phosphorylation at a specific site. Tyrosine protein kinases also target group II receptors to induce robust phosphorylation. A protein phosphatase was found to specifically bind to mGlu3 receptors and dephosphorylate the receptor at a PKA-sensitive site. This review summarizes recent progress in research on group II receptor phosphorylation and the phosphorylation-dependent regulation of group II receptor functions. We further explore the potential linkage of mGlu2/3 phosphorylation to various neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, and discuss future research aimed at analyzing novel biochemical and physiological properties of mGlu2/3 phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Min Mao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Nirav Mathur
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Tayyibah Mahmood
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Sri Rajan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Xiang-Ping Chu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - John Q. Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States,Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States,*Correspondence: John Q. Wang,
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17
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Lin X, Fisher NM, Dogra S, Senter RK, Reed CW, Kalbfleisch JJ, Lindsley CW, Asher WB, Xiang Z, Niswender CM, Javitch JA. Differential activity of mGlu 7 allosteric modulators provides evidence for mGlu 7/8 heterodimers at hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102458. [PMID: 36063995 PMCID: PMC9531177 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamate acts at eight metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor subtypes expressed in a partially overlapping fashion in distinct brain circuits. Recent evidence indicates that specific mGlu receptor protomers can heterodimerize and that these heterodimers can exhibit different pharmacology when compared to their homodimeric counterparts. Group III mGlu agonist-induced suppression of evoked excitatory potentials and induction of long-term potentiation at Schaffer collateral-CA1 (SC-CA1) synapses in the rodent hippocampus can be blocked by the selective mGlu7 negative allosteric modulator (NAM), ADX71743. Curiously, a different mGlu7 NAM, 6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-methyl-3-pyridin-4-ylisoxazonolo[4,5-c]pyridin-4(5H)-one, failed to block these responses in brain slices despite its robust activity at mGlu7 homodimers in vitro. We hypothesized that this might result from heterodimerization of mGlu7 with another mGlu receptor protomer and focused on mGlu8 as a candidate given the reported effects of mGlu8-targeted compounds in the hippocampus. Here, we used complemented donor acceptor-resonance energy transfer to study mGlu7/8 heterodimer activation in vitro and observed that ADX71743 blocked responses of both mGlu7/7 homodimers and mGlu7/8 heterodimers, whereas 6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-methyl-3-pyridin-4-ylisoxazonolo[4,5-c]pyridin-4(5H)-one only antagonized responses of mGlu7/7 homodimers. Taken together with our electrophysiology observations, these results suggest that a receptor with pharmacology consistent with an mGlu7/8 heterodimer modulates the activity of SC-CA1 synapses. Building on this hypothesis, we identified two additional structurally related mGlu7 NAMs that also differ in their activity at mGlu7/8 heterodimers, in a manner consistent with their ability to inhibit synaptic transmission and plasticity at SC-CA1. Thus, we propose that mGlu7/8 heterodimers are a key molecular target for modulating the activity of hippocampal SC-CA1 synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Nicole M Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Shalini Dogra
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rebecca K Senter
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Carson W Reed
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jacob J Kalbfleisch
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Wesley B Asher
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Zixiu Xiang
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Colleen M Niswender
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
| | - Jonathan A Javitch
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA; Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA.
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