Solvent-assisted preparation of supported lipid bilayers

Structural and Mechanical Characterization of DNA-Tethered Membranes on Graphene

Lipid membranes that are separated from the surface of graphene by DNA tethers were prepared by surface functionalization with pyrene coupled to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), followed by self-assembly of the mixture of ssDNA-functionalized phospholipid and the matrix phospholipids. The formation of uniform membranes was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy, and the structures of the systems before and after hybridization in the direction perpendicular to the global plane of the membranes were investigated using high-energy X-ray reflectivity. The thickness values of the DNA spacers (15 and 37 bp) calculated from the best-fit results were less than the expected thicknesses of the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) chains taking the upright conformation, indicating that the DNA spacers are tilted with respect to the direction normal to the surface. The Young's moduli of the DNA-tethered membranes obtained by AFM nanoindentation showed higher values than the membranes with no DNA tethers, which suggests that the DNA layer resists against the compression, lifting up the membrane. Intriguingly, the presence of DNA tethers caused no increase in the yield depth. The smaller thickness values as well as the unchanged yield depth suggest that the dsDNA chains can tilt and rotate, which can be attributed to the flexible pyrene-DNA junction.

Emerging Designs and Applications for Biomembrane Biosensors

Nature has inspired the development of biomimetic membrane sensors in which the functionalities of biological molecules, such as proteins and lipids, are harnessed for sensing applications. This review provides an overview of the recent developments for biomembrane sensors compatible with either bulk or planar sensing applications, namely using lipid vesicles or supported lipid bilayers, respectively. We first describe the individual components required for these sensing platforms and the design principles that are considered when constructing them, and we segue into recent applications being implemented across multiple fields. Our goal for this review is to illustrate the versatility of nature's biomembrane toolbox and simultaneously highlight how biosensor platforms can be enhanced by harnessing it.

Concealing Organic Neuromorphic Devices with Neuronal-Inspired Supported Lipid Bilayers

Neurohybrid systems have gained large attention for their potential as in vitro and in vivo platform to interrogate and modulate the activity of cells and tissue within nervous system. In this scenario organic neuromorphic devices have been engineered as bioelectronic platforms to resemble characteristic neuronal functions. However, aiming to a functional communication with neuronal cells, material synthesis, and surface engineering can yet be exploited for optimizing bio-recognition processes at the neuromorphic-neuronal hybrid interface. In this work, artificial neuronal-inspired lipid bilayers have been assembled on an electrochemical neuromorphic organic device (ENODe) to resemble post-synaptic structural and functional features of living synapses. Here, synaptic conditioning has been achieved by introducing two neurotransmitter-mediated biochemical signals, to induce an irreversible change in the device conductance thus achieving Pavlovian associative learning. This new class of in vitro devices can be further exploited for assembling hybrid neuronal networks and potentially for in vivo integration within living neuronal tissues.

Lipid Landscapes: Vibrational Spectroscopy for Decoding Membrane Complexity

Cell membranes are incredibly complex environments containing hundreds of components. Despite substantial advances in the past decade, fundamental questions related to lipid-lipid interactions and heterogeneity persist. This review explores the complexity of lipid membranes, showcasing recent advances in vibrational spectroscopy to characterize the structure, dynamics, and interactions at the membrane interface. We include an overview of modern techniques such as surface-enhanced infrared spectroscopy as a steady-state technique with single-bilayer sensitivity, two-dimensional sum-frequency generation spectroscopy, and two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy to measure time-evolving structures and dynamics with femtosecond time resolution. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of multiscale molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, focusing on recently developed simulation algorithms, which have emerged as a powerful approach to interpret complex spectra. We highlight the ongoing challenges in studying heterogeneous environments in multicomponent membranes via current vibrational spectroscopic techniques and MD simulations. Overall, this review provides an up-to-date comprehensive overview of the powerful combination of vibrational spectroscopy and simulations, which has great potential to illuminate lipid-lipid, lipid-protein, and lipid-water interactions in the intricate conformational landscape of cell membranes.

Molecular fingerprinting of biological nanoparticles with a label-free optofluidic platform

Label-free detection of multiple analytes in a high-throughput fashion has been one of the long-sought goals in biosensing applications. Yet, for all-optical approaches, interfacing state-of-the-art label-free techniques with microfluidics tools that can process small volumes of sample with high throughput, and with surface chemistry that grants analyte specificity, poses a critical challenge to date. Here, we introduce an optofluidic platform that brings together state-of-the-art digital holography with PDMS microfluidics by using supported lipid bilayers as a surface chemistry building block to integrate both technologies. Specifically, this platform fingerprints heterogeneous biological nanoparticle populations via a multiplexed label-free immunoaffinity assay with single particle sensitivity. First, we characterise the robustness and performance of the platform, and then apply it to profile four distinct ovarian cell-derived extracellular vesicle populations over a panel of surface protein biomarkers, thus developing a unique biomarker fingerprint for each cell line. We foresee that our approach will find many applications where routine and multiplexed characterisation of biological nanoparticles are required.

Fabrication of High-Negatively Charged Bicelle-Mediated Supported Lipid Bilayer

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs), two-dimensional lipid films formed on a solid-supporting substrate, serve as models for biomembranes and exhibit remarkable potential in chemistry, biology, and medicine. However, preparing SLBs with highly negatively charged contents on the negatively charged surface by overcoming electrostatic repulsion remains a challenge. Here, a creative bicelle-mediated and divalent cation-free SLB preparation method with the assistance of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution was proposed, which can form the SLBs containing 50% DOPS or 30% CL on the silica surface monitored by a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). Results of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation indicate that electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by the increased number of hydrogen bonds caused by the adsorption of dihydrogen phosphate ions onto the headgroups of lipids. In addition, the negatively charged SLB formation was identified to be a three-step kinetic process, which differs from a two-step mechanism in the case of amphoteric SLB. The extra kinetic step can be attributed to the reduction in the number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds and the ordering of water molecules in the hydration layer. This investigation resolves the challenge of fabricating SLB over negatively charged surfaces and offers a fresh perspective on the SLB assembly methodology.

Planar Polymer Membranes Accommodate Functional Self-Assembly of Inserted Resorcinarene Nanocapsules

Solid-supported polymer membranes (SSPMs) offer great potential in material and life sciences due to their increased mechanical stability and robustness compared to solid-supported lipid membranes. However, there is still a need for expanding the functionality of SSPMs by combining them with synthetic molecular assemblies. In this study, SSPMs served as a flexible matrix for the insertion of resorcinarene monomers and their self-assembly into functional hexameric resorcinarene capsules. Resorcinarene capsules provide a large cavity with affinity specifically for cationic and polyhydroxylated molecules. While the capsules are stable in apolar organic solvents, they disassemble when placed in polar solvents, which limits their application. Here, a solvent-assisted approach was used for copolymer membrane deposition on solid support and simultaneous insertion of the resorcinarene monomers. By investigation of the molecular factors and conditions supporting the codeposition of the copolymer and resorcinarene monomers, a stable hybrid membrane was formed. The hydrophobic domain of the membrane played a crucial role by providing a sufficiently thick and apolar layer, allowing for the self-assembly of the capsules. The capsules were functional inside the membranes by encapsulating cationic guests from the aqueous environment. The amount of resorcinarene capsules in the hybrid membranes was quantified by a combination of quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, while the membrane topography and layer composition were analyzed by atomic force microscopy and neutron reflectometry. Functional resorcinarene capsules inside SSPMs can serve as dynamic sensors and potentially as cross-membrane transporters, thus holding great promise for the development of smart surfaces.

Preparation of cellular membrane-mimicking glycopolymer interfaces by a solvent-assisted method on QCM-D sensor chips and their molecular recognition

Carbohydrate-based membranes that show molecular recognition ability are interesting mimics of biointerfaces. Herein, we prepared glycopolymer membranes on QCM-D sensor chips using a solvent-assisted method and investigated their interactions with a target lectin. The membrane containing the glycopolymer with a random arrangement of the carbohydrate units adsorbed more lectin than that containing the glycopolymer with an organized block of carbohydrate units.

Quartz crystal microbalance in soft and biological interfaces

Applications of quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation to studying soft and biological interfaces are reviewed. The focus is primarily on data analysis through viscoelastic modeling and a model-free approach focusing on the acoustic ratio. Current challenges and future research and development directions are discussed.

Cholesterol-Enriched Hybrid Lipid Bilayer Formation on Inverse Phosphocholine Lipid-Functionalized Titanium Oxide Surfaces

Hybrid lipid bilayers (HLBs) are rugged biomimetic cell membrane interfaces that can form on inorganic surfaces and be designed to contain biologically important components like cholesterol. In general, HLBs are formed by depositing phospholipids on top of a hydrophobic self-assembled monolayer (SAM) composed of one-tail amphiphiles, while recent findings have shown that two-tail amphiphiles such as inverse phosphocholine (CP) lipids can have advantageous properties to promote zwitterionic HLB formation. Herein, we explored the feasibility of fabricating cholesterol-enriched HLBs on CP SAM-functionalized TiO2 surfaces with the solvent exchange and vesicle fusion methods. All stages of the HLB fabrication process were tracked by quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) measurements and revealed important differences in fabrication outcome depending on the chosen method. With the solvent exchange method, it was possible to fabricate HLBs with well-controlled cholesterol fractions up to ~65 mol% in the upper leaflet as confirmed by a methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) extraction assay. In marked contrast, the vesicle fusion method was only effective at forming HLBs from precursor vesicles containing up to ~35 mol% cholesterol, but this performance was still superior to past results on hydrophilic SiO2. We discuss the contributing factors to the different efficiencies of the two methods as well as the general utility of two-tail CP SAMs as favorable interfaces to incorporate cholesterol into HLBs. Accordingly, our findings support that the solvent exchange method is a versatile tool to fabricate cholesterol-enriched HLBs on CP SAM-functionalized TiO2 surfaces.

Structural and functional insights into the delivery of a bacterial Rhs pore-forming toxin to the membrane

Bacterial competition is a significant driver of toxin polymorphism, which allows continual compensatory evolution between toxins and the resistance developed to overcome their activity. Bacterial Rearrangement hot spot (Rhs) proteins represent a widespread example of toxin polymorphism. Here, we present the 2.45 Å cryo-electron microscopy structure of Tse5, an Rhs protein central to Pseudomonas aeruginosa type VI secretion system-mediated bacterial competition. This structural insight, coupled with an extensive array of biophysical and genetic investigations, unravels the multifaceted functional mechanisms of Tse5. The data suggest that interfacial Tse5-membrane binding delivers its encapsulated pore-forming toxin fragment to the target bacterial membrane, where it assembles pores that cause cell depolarisation and, ultimately, bacterial death.

Ex Vivo Drug Screening Assay with Artificial Membranes: Characterizing Cholesterol Desorbing Competencies of Beta-Cyclodextrins

Despite advancements in contemporary therapies, cardiovascular disease from atherosclerosis remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide. Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are membrane interfaces that can be constructed with varying lipid compositions. Herein, we use a solvent-assisted lipid bilayer (SALB) construction method to build SLB membranes with varying cholesterol compositions to create a lipid-sterol interface atop a piezoelectric sensor. These cholesterol-laden SLBs were utilized to investigate the mechanisms of various cholesterol-lowering drug molecules. Within a flow-cell, membranes with varying cholesterol content were exposed to cyclodextrins 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) and methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MβCD). Quartz-crystal microgravimetry with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) enabled the collection of in vitro, real-time changes in relative areal mass and dissipation. We define the cholesterol desorbing competency of a cyclodextrin species via measures of the rate of cholesterol removal, the rate of the transfer of membrane-bound cholesterol to drug-complexed cholesterol, and the binding strength of the drug to the cholesterol-ladened membrane. Desorption data revealed distinct cholesterol removal kinetics for each cyclodextrin while also supporting a model for the lipid-cholesterol-drug interface. We report that MβCD removes a quantity of cholesterol 1.61 times greater, with a speed 2.12 times greater, binding affinity to DOPC lipid interfaces 1.97 times greater, and rate of internal cholesterol transfer 3.41 times greater than HPβCD.

A NanoCurvS platform for quantitative and multiplex analysis of curvature-sensing proteins

The cell membrane is characterized by a rich variety of topographical features such as local protrusions or invaginations. Curvature-sensing proteins, including the Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) or epsin N-terminal homology (ENTH) family proteins, sense the bending sharpness and the positive/negative sign of these topographical features to induce subsequent intracellular signaling. A number of assays have been developed to study curvature-sensing properties of proteins in vitro, but it is still challenging to probe low curvature regime with the diameter of curvature from hundreds of nanometers to micrometers. It is particularly difficult to generate negative membrane curvatures with well-defined curvature values in the low curvature regime. In this work, we develop a nanostructure-based curvature sensing (NanoCurvS) platform that enables quantitative and multiplex analysis of curvature-sensitive proteins in the low curvature regime, in both negative and positive directions. We use NanoCurvS to quantitatively measure the sensing range of a negative curvature-sensing protein IRSp53 (an I-BAR protein) and a positive curvature-sensing protein FBP17 (an F-BAR protein). We find that, in cell lysates, the I-BAR domain of IRSp53 is able to sense shallow negative curvatures with the diameter-of-curvature up to 1500 nm, a range much wider than previously expected. NanoCurvS is also used to probe the autoinhibition effect of IRSp53 and the phosphorylation effect of FBP17. Therefore, the NanoCurvS platform provides a robust, multiplex, and easy-to-use tool for quantitative analysis of both positive and negative curvature-sensing proteins.

Probing the Ion Transport Properties of Ultrashort Carbon Nanotubes Integrated with Supported Lipid Bilayers via Electrochemical Analysis

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are commonly used to investigate interactions between cell membranes and their environment. These model platforms can be formed on electrode surfaces and analyzed using electrochemical methods for bioapplications. Carbon nanotube porins (CNTPs) integrated with SLBs have emerged as promising artificial ion channel platforms. In this study, we present the integration and ion transport characterization of CNTPs in in vivo environments. We combine experimental and simulation data obtained from electrochemical analysis to analyze the membrane resistance of the equivalent circuits. Our results show that carrying CNTPs on a gold electrode results in high conductance for monovalent cations (K+ and Na+) and low conductance for divalent cations (Ca2+).

Lipid Membrane Remodeling by the Micellar Aggregation of Long-Chain Unsaturated Fatty Acids for Sustainable Antimicrobial Strategies

Antimicrobial fatty acids derived from natural sources and renewable feedstocks are promising surface-active substances with a wide range of applications. Their ability to target bacterial membrane in multiple mechanisms offers a promising antimicrobial approach for combating bacterial infections and preventing the development of drug-resistant strains, and it provides a sustainable strategy that aligns with growing environmental awareness compared to their synthetic counterparts. However, the interaction and destabilization of bacterial cell membranes by these amphiphilic compounds are not yet fully understood. Here, we investigated the concentration-dependent and time-dependent membrane interaction between long-chain unsaturated fatty acids-linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3), linoleic (LLA, C18:2), and oleic acid (OA, C18:1)-and the supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) using quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) and fluorescence microscopy. We first determined the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of each compound using a fluorescence spectrophotometer and monitored the membrane interaction in real time following fatty acid treatment, whereby all micellar fatty acids elicited membrane-active behavior primarily above their respective CMC values. Specifically, LNA and LLA, which have higher degrees of unsaturation and CMC values of 160 µM and 60 µM, respectively, caused significant changes in the membrane with net |Δf| shifts of 23.2 ± 0.8 Hz and 21.4 ± 0.6 Hz and ΔD shifts of 5.2 ± 0.5 × 10^-6 and 7.4 ± 0.5 × 10^-6. On the other hand, OA, with the lowest unsaturation degree and CMC value of 20 µM, produced relatively less membrane change with a net |Δf| shift of 14.6 ± 2.2 Hz and ΔD shift of 8.8 ± 0.2 × 10^-6. Both LNA and LLA required higher concentrations than OA to initiate membrane remodeling as their CMC values increased with the degree of unsaturation. Upon incubating with fluorescence-labeled model membranes, the fatty acids induced tubular morphological changes at concentrations above CMC. Taken together, our findings highlight the critical role of self-aggregation properties and the degree of unsaturated bonds in unsaturated long-chain fatty acids upon modulating membrane destabilization, suggesting potential applications in developing sustainable and effective antimicrobial strategies.

Conditions for the stable adsorption of lipid monolayers to solid surfaces

Lipid monolayers are ubiquitous in biological systems and have multiple roles in biotechnological applications, such as lipid coatings that enhance colloidal stability or prevent surface fouling. Despite the great technological importance of surface-adsorbed lipid monolayers, the connection between their formation and the chemical characteristics of the underlying surfaces has remained poorly understood. Here, we elucidate the conditions required for stable lipid monolayers nonspecifically adsorbed on solid surfaces in aqueous solutions and water/alcohol mixtures. We use a framework that combines the general thermodynamic principles of monolayer adsorption with fully atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. We find that, very universally, the chief descriptor of adsorption free energy is the wetting contact angle of the solvent on the surface. It turns out that monolayers can form and remain thermodynamically stable only on substrates with contact angles above the adsorption contact angle, θads. Our analysis establishes that θads falls into a narrow range of around 60∘-70∘ in aqueous media and is only weakly dependent on the surface chemistry. Moreover, to a good approximation, θads is roughly determined by the ratio between the surface tensions of hydrocarbons and the solvent. Adding small amounts of alcohol to the aqueous medium lowers θads and thereby facilitates monolayer formation on hydrophilic solid surfaces. At the same time, alcohol addition weakens the adsorption strength on hydrophobic surfaces and results in a slowdown of the adsorption kinetics, which can be useful for the preparation of defect-free monolayers.

DNA-Tethered Lipid Membrane Formation via Solvent-Assisted Self-Assembly

DNA-tethered lipid bilayers have been used in many studies, based on the controllable and well-defined properties of DNA tethers. However, their application has been limited, because it is difficult to cover a wide range of surfaces and achieve electrical insulation. We implemented an existing method, where a DNA hybrid chip on a silica or glass surface supports a lipid membrane using solvent-assisted self-assembly. The formation of a continuous lipid bilayer was confirmed through the change in quartz crystal microbalance dissipation results, depending on the presence or absence of DNA hybrids. The fluidity of the DNA-tethered lipid membranes was analyzed using a fluorescence microscope. The electrochemical analysis demonstrated the versatility of this new technique, which can be used for sensor or electrode surface modification for biosensors or bioelectronics.

Ligand functionalization of titanium nanopattern enables the analysis of cell-ligand interactions by super-resolution microscopy

The spatiotemporal aspects of early signaling events during interactions between cells and their environment dictate multiple downstream outcomes. While advances in nanopatterning techniques have allowed the isolation of these signaling events, a major limitation of conventional nanopatterning methods is its dependence on gold (Au) or related materials that plasmonically quench fluorescence and, thus, are incompatible with super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. Here we describe a novel method that integrates nanopatterning with single-molecule resolution fluorescence imaging, thus enabling mechanistic dissection of molecular-scale signaling events in conjunction with nanoscale geometry manipulation. Our method exploits nanofabricated titanium (Ti) whose oxide (TiO₂) is a dielectric material with no plasmonic effects. We describe the surface chemistry for decorating specific ligands such as cyclo-RGD (arginine, glycine and aspartate: a ligand for fibronectin-binding integrins) on TiO₂ nanoline and nanodot substrates, and demonstrate the ability to perform dual-color super-resolution imaging on these patterns. Ti nanofabrication is similar to other metallic materials like Au, while the functionalization of TiO₂ is relatively fast, safe, economical, easy to set up with commonly available reagents, and robust against environmental parameters such as humidity. Fabrication of nanopatterns takes ~2-3 d, preparation for functionalization ~1.5-2 d, and functionalization 3 h, after which cell culture and imaging experiments can be performed. We suggest that this method may facilitate the interrogation of nanoscale geometry and force at single-molecule resolution, and should find ready applications in early detection and interpretation of physiochemical signaling events at the cell membrane in the fields of cell biology, immunology, regenerative medicine, and related fields.

Membrane curvature regulates the spatial distribution of bulky glycoproteins

The glycocalyx is a shell of heavily glycosylated proteins and lipids distributed on the cell surface of nearly all cell types. Recently, it has been found that bulky transmembrane glycoproteins such as MUC1 can modulate membrane shape by inducing membrane protrusions. In this work, we examine the reciprocal relationship of how membrane shape affects MUC1's spatial distribution on the cell membrane and its biological significance. By employing nanopatterned surfaces and membrane-sculpting proteins to manipulate membrane curvature, we show that MUC1 avoids positively-curved membranes (membrane invaginations) and accumulates on negatively-curved membranes (membrane protrusions). MUC1's curvature sensitivity is dependent on the length and the extent of glycosylation of its ectodomain, with large and highly glycosylated forms preferentially staying out of positive curvature. Interestingly, MUC1's avoidance of positive membrane curvature enables it to escape from endocytosis and being removed from the cell membrane. These findings also suggest that the truncation of MUC1's ectodomain, often observed in breast and ovarian cancers, may enhance its endocytosis and potentiate its intracellular accumulation and signaling.

Tailoring a Solvent-Assisted Method for Solid-Supported Hybrid Lipid-Polymer Membranes

Combining amphiphilic block copolymers and phospholipids opens new opportunities for the preparation of artificial membranes. The chemical versatility and mechanical robustness of polymers together with the fluidity and biocompatibility of lipids afford hybrid membranes with unique properties that are of great interest in the field of bioengineering. Owing to its straightforwardness, the solvent-assisted method (SA) is particularly attractive for obtaining solid-supported membranes. While the SA method was first developed for lipids and very recently extended to amphiphilic block copolymers, its potential to develop hybrid membranes has not yet been explored. Here, we tailor the SA method to prepare solid-supported polymer-lipid hybrid membranes by combining a small library of amphiphilic diblock copolymers poly(dimethyl siloxane)-poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) and poly(butylene oxide)-block-poly(glycidol) with phospholipids commonly found in cell membranes including 1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, sphingomyelin, and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(glutaryl). The optimization of the conditions under which the SA method was applied allowed for the formation of hybrid polymer-lipid solid-supported membranes. The real-time formation and morphology of these hybrid membranes were evaluated using a combination of quartz crystal microbalance and atomic force microscopy. Depending on the type of polymer-lipid combination, significant differences in membrane coverage, formation of domains, and quality of membranes were obtained. The use of the SA method for a rapid and controlled formation of solid-supported hybrid membranes provides the basis for developing customized artificial hybrid membranes.

Electrically Controlling and Optically Observing the Membrane Potential of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Supported lipid bilayers are a well-developed model system for the study of membranes and their associated proteins, such as membrane channels, enzymes, and receptors. These versatile model membranes can be made from various components, ranging from simple synthetic phospholipids to complex mixtures of constituents, mimicking the cell membrane with its relevant physiochemical and molecular phenomena. In addition, the high stability of supported lipid bilayers allows for their study via a wide array of experimental probes. In this work, we describe a platform for supported lipid bilayers that is accessible both electrically and optically, and demonstrate direct optical observation of the transmembrane potential of supported lipid bilayers. We show that the polarization of the supported membrane can be electrically controlled and optically probed using voltage-sensitive dyes. Membrane polarization dynamics is understood through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and the analysis of an equivalent electrical circuit model. In addition, we describe the effect of the conducting electrode layer on the fluorescence of the optical probe through metal-induced energy transfer, and show that while this energy transfer has an adverse effect on the voltage sensitivity of the fluorescent probe, its strong distance dependency allows for axial localization of fluorescent emitters with ultrahigh accuracy. We conclude with a discussion on possible applications of this platform for the study of voltage-dependent membrane proteins and other processes in membrane biology and surface science.

Spatiotemporal stop-and-go dynamics of the mitochondrial TOM core complex correlates with channel activity

Single-molecule studies can reveal phenomena that remain hidden in ensemble measurements. Here we show the correlation between lateral protein diffusion and channel activity of the general protein import pore of mitochondria (TOM-CC) in membranes resting on ultrathin hydrogel films. Using electrode-free optical recordings of ion flux, we find that TOM-CC switches reversibly between three states of ion permeability associated with protein diffusion. While freely diffusing TOM-CC molecules are predominantly in a high permeability state, non-mobile molecules are mostly in an intermediate or low permeability state. We explain this behavior by the mechanical binding of the two protruding Tom22 subunits to the hydrogel and a concomitant combinatorial opening and closing of the two β-barrel pores of TOM-CC. TOM-CC could thus represent a β-barrel membrane protein complex to exhibit membrane state-dependent mechanosensitive properties, mediated by its two Tom22 subunits.

Analysis of protein-heparin interactions using a portable SPR instrument

Optical biosensors such as those based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) are a key analytical tool for understanding biomolecular interactions and function as well as the quantitative analysis of analytes in a wide variety of settings. The advent of portable SPR instruments enables analyses in the field. A critical step in method development is the passivation and functionalisation of the sensor surface. We describe the assembly of a surface of thiolated oleyl ethylene glycol/biotin oleyl ethylene glycol and its functionalisation with streptavidin and reducing end biotinylated heparin for a portable SPR instrument. Such surfaces can be batch prepared and stored. Two examples of the analysis of heparin-binding proteins are presented. The binding of fibroblast growth factor 2 and competition for the binding of a heparan sulfate sulfotransferase by a library of selectively modified heparins and suramin, which identify the selectivity of the enzyme for sulfated structures in the polysaccharide and demonstrate suramin as a competitor for the enzyme’s sugar acceptor site. Heparin functionalised surfaces should have a wide applicability, since this polysaccharide is a close structural analogue of the host cell surface polysaccharide, heparan sulfate, a receptor for many endogenous proteins and viruses.

Supported Lipid Bilayers Coupled to Organic Neuromorphic Devices Modulate Short-Term Plasticity in Biomimetic Synapses

Synaptic plasticity is a fundamental process for neuronal communication and is involved in neurodegeneration. This process has been recently exploited to inspire the design of next-generation bioelectronic platforms. Neuromorphic devices have emerged as ideal candidates in mimicking brain functionalities, thanks to their ionic-to-electronic signal transduction, biocompatibility, and their ability to display short- and long-term memory as biological synapses. However, these devices still fail in bridging the gap between electronics and biological systems due to the lack of biomimetic features. Here, a biomembrane-based organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) is implemented and the supported-lipid-bilayer-mediated short-term depression of the device is investigated. After morphological and electrical characterization of the lipid bilayer, its ionic barrier behavior is exploited to enhance the neuromorphic operation of the OECT. Such biomimetic neuromorphic devices pave the way toward the implementation of synapses-resembling in vitro platforms to investigate and characterize neurodegenerative processes involving synaptic plasticity loss.

Streamlined Fabrication of Hybrid Lipid Bilayer Membranes on Titanium Oxide Surfaces: A Comparison of One- and Two-Tail SAM Molecules

There is broad interest in fabricating cell-membrane-mimicking, hybrid lipid bilayer (HLB) coatings on titanium oxide surfaces for medical implant and drug delivery applications. However, existing fabrication strategies are complex, and there is an outstanding need to develop a streamlined method that can be performed quickly at room temperature. Towards this goal, herein, we characterized the room-temperature deposition kinetics and adlayer properties of one- and two-tail phosphonic acid-functionalized molecules on titanium oxide surfaces in various solvent systems and identified optimal conditions to prepare self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), upon which HLBs could be formed in select cases. Among the molecular candidates, we identified a two-tail molecule that formed a rigidly attached SAM to enable HLB fabrication via vesicle fusion for membrane-based biosensing applications. By contrast, vesicles adsorbed but did not rupture on SAMs composed of one-tail molecules. Our findings support that two-tail phosphonic acid SAMs offer superior capabilities for rapid HLB coating fabrication at room temperature, and these streamlined capabilities could be useful to prepare durable lipid bilayer coatings on titanium-based materials.

Selective Recognition of Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate Receptors by C-Terminal Tail of Mitotic Kinesin-like Protein 2 (MKlp2)

The mitotic kinesin-like protein 2 (MKlp2) plays a key role in the proper completion of cytokinetic abscission. Specifically, the C-terminal tail of MKlp2 (CTM peptides) offers a stable tethering on the plasma membrane and microtubule cytoskeleton in the midbody during abscission. However, little is known about the underlying mechanism of how the CTM peptides bind to the plasma membrane of the intercellular bridge. Herein, we identify the specific molecular interaction between the CTM peptides and phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) receptors using quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation and atomic force microscopy force spectroscopic measurements. To systematically examine the effects of amino acids, we designed a series of synthetic 33-mer peptides derived from the wild-type (CTM1). First, we evaluated the peptide binding amount caused by electrostatic interactions based on 100% zwitterionic and 30% negatively charged model membranes, whereby the nonspecific attractions were nearly proportional to the net charge of peptides. Upon incubating with PIP-containing model membranes, the wild-type CTM1 and its truncated mutation showed significant PI(3)P-specific binding, which was evidenced by a 15-fold higher binding mass and 6-fold stronger adhesion force compared to other negatively charged membranes. The extent of the specific binding was predominantly dependent on the existence of S21, whereby substitution or deletion of S21 significantly hindered the binding affinity. Taken together, our findings based on a correlative measurement platform enabled the quantification of the nonelectrostatic, selective binding interactions of the C-terminal of MKlp2 to certain PIP receptors and contributed to understanding the molecular mechanisms on complete cytokinetic abscission in cells.

Thermodynamic Modeling of Solvent-Assisted Lipid Bilayer Formation Process

The solvent-assisted lipid bilayer (SALB) formation method provides a simple and efficient, microfluidic-based strategy to fabricate supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) with rich compositional diversity on a wide range of solid supports. While various studies have been performed to characterize SLBs formed using the SALB method, relatively limited work has been carried out to understand the underlying mechanisms of SALB formation under various experimental conditions. Through thermodynamic modeling, we studied the experimental parameters that affect the SALB formation process, including substrate surface properties, initial lipid concentration, and temperature. It was found that all the parameters are critically important to successfully form high-quality SLBs. The model also helps to identify the range of parameter space within which conformal, homogeneous SLBs can be fabricated, and provides mechanistic guidance to optimize experimental conditions for lipid membrane-related applications.

Nanoarchitectured air-stable supported lipid bilayer incorporating sucrose-bicelle complex system

Cell-membrane-mimicking supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) provide an ultrathin, self-assembled layer that forms on solid supports and can exhibit antifouling, signaling, and transport properties among various possible functions. While recent material innovations have increased the number of practically useful SLB fabrication methods, typical SLB platforms only work in aqueous environments and are prone to fluidity loss and lipid-bilayer collapse upon air exposure, which limits industrial applicability. To address this issue, herein, we developed sucrose-bicelle complex system to fabricate air-stable SLBs that were laterally mobile upon rehydration. SLBs were fabricated from bicelles in the presence of up to 40 wt% sucrose, which was verified by quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments. The sucrose fraction in the system was an important factor; while 40 wt% sucrose induced lipid aggregation and defects on SLBs after the dehydration-rehydration process, 20 wt% sucrose yielded SLBs that exhibited fully recovered lateral mobility after these processes. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that sucrose-bicelle complex system can facilitate one-step fabrication of air-stable SLBs that can be useful for a wide range of biointerfacial science applications.

Supported Lipid Bilayers (SLBs) to Study Amyloid-Lipid Membrane Interactions with Atomic Force Microscopy

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are model membrane systems that can be used to study the interaction between amyloid fibers and membranes with atomic force microscopy (AFM). This chapter describes the preparation of SLBs on mica that can then be used as a substrate for fiber absorption. AFM can then be used to study the topography of the lipid-protein surface to study the evolution of the fibers, as well as the modifications on the membrane induced by their presence.

Observation of Liquid-Liquid-Phase Separation and Vesicle Spreading during Supported Bilayer Formation via Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy

Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) enables the real-time visualization of nanoscale dynamics in solution. This technique has been used to study the formation and transformation mechanisms of organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Here, we study the formation of block-copolymer-supported bilayers using LP-TEM. We observe two formation pathways that involve either liquid droplets or vesicles as intermediates toward supported bilayers. Quantitative image analysis methods are used to characterize vesicle spread rates and show the origin of defect formation in supported bilayers. Our results suggest that bilayer assembly methods that proceed via liquid droplet intermediates should be beneficial for forming pristine supported bilayers. Furthermore, supported bilayers inside the liquid cells may be used to image membrane interactions with proteins and nanoparticles in the future.

Advances in Cell-Conductive Polymer Biointerfaces and Role of the Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane (PM) is often described as a wall, a physical barrier separating the cell cytoplasm from the extracellular matrix (ECM). Yet, this wall is a highly dynamic structure that can stretch, bend, and bud, allowing cells to respond and adapt to their surrounding environment. Inspired by shapes and geometries found in the biological world and exploiting the intrinsic properties of conductive polymers (CPs), several biomimetic strategies based on substrate dimensionality have been tailored in order to optimize the cell–chip coupling. Furthermore, device biofunctionalization through the use of ECM proteins or lipid bilayers have proven successful approaches to further maximize interfacial interactions. As the bio-electronic field aims at narrowing the gap between the electronic and the biological world, the possibility of effectively disguising conductive materials to “trick” cells to recognize artificial devices as part of their biological environment is a promising approach on the road to the seamless platform integration with cells.

Bioelectrochemical platforms to study and detect emerging pathogens

The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has emphasized the importance of technologies to rapidly detect emerging pathogens and understand their interactions with hosts. Platforms based on the combination of biological recognition and electrochemical signal transduction, generally termed bioelectrochemical platforms, offer unique opportunities to both sense and study pathogens. Improved bio-based materials have enabled enhanced control over the biotic-abiotic interface in these systems. These improvements have generated platforms with the capability to elucidate biological function rather than simply detect targets. This advantage is a key feature of recent bioelectrochemical platforms applied to infectious disease. Here, we describe developments in materials for bioelectrochemical platforms to study and detect emerging pathogens. The incorporation of host membrane material into electrochemical devices has provided unparalleled insights into the interaction between viruses and host cells, and new capture methods have enabled the specific detection of bacterial pathogens, such as those that cause secondary infections with SARS-CoV-2. As these devices continue to improve through the merging of hi-tech materials and biomaterials, the scalability and commercial viability of these devices will similarly improve.

Large scale model lipid membrane movement induced by a cation switch

A biomembrane sample system where millimolar changes of cations induce reversible large scale (≥ 200 Å) changes in the membrane-to-surface distance is described. The system composes of a free-floating bilayer, formed adjacent to a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). To examine the membrane movements, differently charged floating bilayers in the presence and absence of Ca2+ and Na+, respectively, were examined using neutron reflectivity and quartz crystal microbalance measurements, alongside molecular dynamics simulations. In neutron reflectivity the variation of Ca2+ and Na+ concentration enabled precision manipulation of the membrane-to-surface distance. Simulations suggest that Ca2+ ions bridge between SAM and bilayer whereas the more diffuse binding of Na+, especially to bilayers, is unable to fully overcome the repulsion between anionic floating bilayer and anionic SAM. Reproduced neutron reflectivity results with quartz crystal microbalance demonstrate the potential of this easily producible sample system to become a standard analysis tool for e.g. investigating membrane binding effects, endocytosis and cell signaling.

Influence of Substrate Hydrophilicity on Structural Properties of Supported Lipid Systems on Graphene, Graphene Oxides, and Silica

Pristine graphene, a range of graphene oxides, and silica substrates were used to investigate the effect of surface hydrophilicity on supported lipid bilayers by means of all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. Supported 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine lipid bilayers were found in close-contact conformations with hydrophilic substrates with as low as 5% oxidation level, while self-assembled monolayers occur on pure hydrophobic graphene only. Lipids and water at the surface undergo large redistribution to maintain the stability of the supported bilayers. Deposition of bicelles on increasingly hydrophilic substrates shows the continuous process of reshaping of the supported system and makes intermediate stages between self-assembled monolayers and supported bilayers. The bilayer thickness changes with hydrophilicity in a complex manner, while the number of water molecules per lipid in the hydration layer increases together with hydrophilicity.

Expanding the Potential of the Solvent-Assisted Method to Create Bio-Interfaces from Amphiphilic Block Copolymers

Artificial membranes, as materials with biomimetic properties, can be applied in various fields, such as drug screening or bio-sensing. The solvent-assisted method (SA) represents a straightforward method to prepare lipid solid-supported membranes. It overcomes the main limitations of established membrane preparation methods, such as Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) or vesicle fusion. However, it has not yet been applied to create artificial membranes based on amphiphilic block copolymers, despite their enhanced mechanical stability compared to lipid-based membranes and bio-compatible properties. Here, we applied the SA method on different amphiphilic di- and triblock poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) (PDMS-b-PMOXA) copolymers and optimized the conditions to prepare artificial membranes on a solid support. The real-time membrane formation, the morphology, and the mechanical properties have been evaluated by a combination of atomic force microscopy and quartz crystal microbalance. Then, selected biomolecules including complementary DNA strands and an artificial deallylase metalloenzyme (ADAse) were incorporated into these membranes relying on the biotin-streptavidin technology. DNA strands served to establish the capability of these synthetic membranes to interact with biomolecules by preserving their correct conformation. The catalytic activity of the ADAse following its membrane anchoring induced the functionality of the biomimetic platform. Polymer membranes on solid support as prepared by the SA method open new opportunities for the creation of artificial membranes with tailored biomimetic properties and functionality.

Ceramide-mediation of diffusion in supported lipid bilayers

The fluidity and compositional heterogeneity of the mammalian plasma membrane play deterministic roles in a variety of membrane functions. Designing model bilayer systems allows for compositional control over these properties. Ceramide is a phospholipid capable of extensive headgroup-region hydrogen bonding, and we report here on the role of ceramide in planar model bilayers. We use fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) to obtain translational diffusion constants of two chromophores in supported model bilayers composed of cholesterol, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-phosphatidylcholine (DOPC), sphingomyelin, and ceramide. FRAP data for perylene report on the acyl chain region of the model bilayer and FRAP data for 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(lissamine rhodamine B sulfonyl) sense diffusional dynamics in the bilayer headgroup region. Dynamics in the headgroup region exhibit anomalous diffusion behavior that is characteristic of spatially heterogeneous media.

Erythrocyte-camouflaged biosensor for α-hemolysin detection

Without appropriate treatment, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection can cause life-threatening diseases (e.g., meningitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, and sepsis). However, a rapid and accurate point-of-care test for the infection remains challenging. The bacterium secretes α-hemolysin (Hla), which spontaneously binds to the cell membrane of erythrocyte, and eventually lyses the cell via pore formation. Taking advantage of this phenomenon, we apply the erythrocyte membrane (EM) extracted from human whole blood as a novel bioreceptor for detecting Hla, fabricating erythrocyte-camouflaged biosensors (ECB) by coating EM onto electrochemical impedance electrodes. We verify the existence of EM on the ECB by using confocal microscopy and atomic force microscopy. We demonstrate that ECBs sensitively detect Hla spiked in phosphate buffer saline and human serum. Also, the sensor shows higher sensitivity to Hla than major blood proteins, such as human serum albumin, fibrinogen, and gamma globulin. Specifically, the signal intensities for Hla are 8.8-12.7 times higher than those in the same concentration of those blood proteins. The detection limit of the ECB for Hla is 1.9 ng/ml while the dynamic range is 0.0001-1 mg/ml. Finally, we validate the constant sensing performance of ECB with 99.0 ± 5.6% accuracy for 35 days of storage.

Charge Effects Provide Ångström-Level Control of Lipid Bilayer Morphology on Titanium Dioxide Surfaces

Interfaces between molecular organic architectures and oxidic substrates are a central feature of biosensors and applications of biomimetics in science and technology. For phospholipid bilayers, the large range of pH- and ionic strength-dependent surface charge densities adopted by titanium dioxide and other oxidic surfaces leads to a rich landscape of phenomena that provides exquisite control of membrane interactions with such substrates. Using neutron reflectometry measurements, we report sharp, reversible transitions that occur between closely surface-associated and weakly coupled states. We show that these states arise from a complex interplay of the tunable length scale of electrostatic interactions with the length scale arising from other forces that are independent of solution conditions. A generalized free energy potential, with its inputs only derived from established measurements of surface and bilayer properties, quantitatively describes these and previously reported observations concerning the unbinding of bilayers from supporting substrates.

Protective Role of Sphingomyelin in Eye Lens Cell Membrane Model against Oxidative Stress

In the eye lens cell membrane, the lipid composition changes during the aging process: the proportion of sphingomyelins (SM) increases, that of phosphatidylcholines decreases. To investigate the protective role of the SMs in the lens cell membrane against oxidative damage, analytical techniques such as electrochemistry, high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were applied. Supported lipid bilayers (SLB) were prepared to mimic the lens cell membrane with different fractions of PLPC/SM (PLPC: 1-palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine). The SLBs were treated with cold physical plasma. A protective effect of 30% and 44% in the presence of 25%, and 75% SM in the bilayer was observed, respectively. PLPC and SM oxidation products were determined via HR-MS for SLBs after plasma treatment. The yield of fragments gradually decreased as the SM ratio increased. Topographic images obtained by AFM of PLPC-bilayers showed SLB degradation and pore formation after plasma treatment, no degradation was observed in PLPC/SM bilayers. The results of all techniques confirm the protective role of SM in the membrane against oxidative damage and support the idea that the SM content in lens cell membrane is increased during aging in the absence of effective antioxidant systems to protect the eye from oxidative damage and to prolong lens transparency.

AFM imaging of pore forming proteins

Pore forming proteins are released as water-soluble monomers that form-mostly oligomeric-pores in target membranes. Our understanding of such pore formation relies in part on the direct visualization of their assemblies on and in the membrane. Here, we discuss the application of atomic force microscopy (AFM) to visualize and understand membrane pore formation, illustrated specifically by studies of proteins of the MACPF/CDC superfamily on supported lipid bilayers. Besides detailed protocols, we also point out common imaging artefacts and strategies to avoid them, and briefly outline how AFM can be effectively used in conjunction with other methods.

A combination of electrochemistry and mass spectrometry to monitor the interaction of reactive species with supported lipid bilayers

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), e.g. generated by cold physical plasma (CPP) or photodynamic therapy, interfere with redox signaling pathways of mammalian cells, inducing downstream consequences spanning from migratory impairment to apoptotic cell death. However, the more austere impact of RONS on cancer cells remains yet to be clarified. In the present study, a combination of electrochemistry and high-resolution mass spectrometry was developed to investigate the resilience of solid-supported lipid bilayers towards plasma-derived reactive species in dependence of their composition. A 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) lipid bilayer was undisturbed by 200 µM H2O2 (control) but showed full permeability after CPP treatment and space-occupying oxidation products such as PoxnoPC, PAzePC, and POPC hydroperoxide were found. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated the presence of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anion/hydroperoxyl radicals during the treatment. In contrast, small amounts of the intramembrane antioxidant coenzyme Q10 protected the bilayer to 50% and LysoPC was the only POPC derivative found, confirming the membrane protective effect of Q10. Such, the lipid membrane composition including the presence of antioxidants determines the impact of pro-oxidant signals. Given the differences in membrane composition of cancer and healthy cells, this supports the application of cold physical plasma for cancer treatment. In addition, the developed model using the combination of electrochemistry and mass spectrometry could be a promising method to study the effect of reactive species or mixes thereof generated by chemical or physical sources.

New Frontiers for Selective Biosensing with Biomembrane-Based Organic Transistors

Biosensing plays vital roles in multiple fields, including healthcare monitoring, drug screening, disease diagnosis, and environmental pollution control. In recent years, transistor-based devices have been considered to be valid platforms for fast, low-cost sensing of diverse analytes. Without additional functionalization, however, these devices lack selectivity; several strategies have been developed for the direct immobilization of bioreceptors on the transistor surface to improve detection capabilities. In this scenario, organic transistors have gained attention for their abilities to be coupled to biological systems and to detect biomolecules. In this Perspective, we discuss recent developments in organic-transistor-based biosensors, highlighting how their coupling with artificial membranes provides a strategy to improve sensitivity and selectivity in biosensing applications. Looking at future applications, this class of biosensors represents a breakthrough starting point for implementing multimodal high-throughput screening platforms.

Biologically interfaced nanoplasmonic sensors

Understanding biointerfacial processes is crucial in various fields across fundamental and applied biology, but performing quantitative studies via conventional characterization techniques remains challenging due to instrumentation as well as analytical complexities and limitations. In order to accelerate translational research and address current challenges in healthcare and medicine, there is an outstanding need to develop surface-sensitive technologies with advanced measurement capabilities. Along this line, nanoplasmonic sensing has emerged as a powerful tool to quantitatively study biointerfacial processes owing to its high spatial resolution at the nanoscale. Consequently, the development of robust biological interfacing strategies becomes imperative to maximize its characterization potential. This review will highlight and discuss the critical role of biological interfacing within the context of constructing nanoplasmonic sensing platforms for biointerfacial science applications. Apart from paving the way for the development of highly surface-sensitive characterization tools that will spur fundamental biological interaction studies and improve the overall understanding of biological processes, the basic principles behind biointerfacing strategies presented in this review are also applicable to other fields that involve an interface between an inorganic material and a biological system.

Considerations of Antibody Geometric Constraints on NK Cell Antibody Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity

It has been well-established that antibody isotype, glycosylation, and epitope all play roles in the process of antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). For natural killer (NK) cells, these phenotypes are linked to cellular activation through interaction with the IgG receptor FcγRIIIa, a single pass transmembrane receptor that participates in cytoplasmic signaling complexes. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that there may be underlying spatial and geometric principles that guide proper assembly of an activation complex within the NK cell immune synapse. Further, synergy of antibody phenotypic properties as well as allosteric changes upon antigen binding may also play an as-of-yet unknown role in ADCC. Understanding these facets, however, remains hampered by difficulties associated with studying immune synapse dynamics using classical approaches. In this review, I will discuss relevant NK cell biology related to ADCC, including the structural biology of Fc gamma receptors, and how the dynamics of the NK cell immune synapse are being studied using innovative microscopy techniques. I will provide examples from the literature demonstrating the effects of spatial and geometric constraints on the T cell receptor complex and how this relates to intracellular signaling and the molecular nature of lymphocyte activation complexes, including those of NK cells. Finally, I will examine how the integration of high-throughput and "omics" technologies will influence basic NK cell biology research moving forward. Overall, the goal of this review is to lay a basis for understanding the development of drugs and therapeutic antibodies aimed at augmenting appropriate NK cell ADCC activity in patients being treated for a wide range of illnesses.

Recent Advances in Hybrid Biomimetic Polymer-Based Films: from Assembly to Applications

Biological membranes, in addition to being a cell boundary, can host a variety of proteins that are involved in different biological functions, including selective nutrient transport, signal transduction, inter- and intra-cellular communication, and cell-cell recognition. Due to their extreme complexity, there has been an increasing interest in developing model membrane systems of controlled properties based on combinations of polymers and different biomacromolecules, i.e., polymer-based hybrid films. In this review, we have highlighted recent advances in the development and applications of hybrid biomimetic planar systems based on different polymeric species. We have focused in particular on hybrid films based on (i) polyelectrolytes, (ii) polymer brushes, as well as (iii) tethers and cushions formed from synthetic polymers, and (iv) block copolymers and their combinations with biomacromolecules, such as lipids, proteins, enzymes, biopolymers, and chosen nanoparticles. In this respect, multiple approaches to the synthesis, characterization, and processing of such hybrid films have been presented. The review has further exemplified their bioengineering, biomedical, and environmental applications, in dependence on the composition and properties of the respective hybrids. We believed that this comprehensive review would be of interest to both the specialists in the field of biomimicry as well as persons entering the field.

Supported Lipid Bilayer Formation: Beyond Vesicle Fusion

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are cell-membrane-mimicking platforms that can be formed on solid surfaces and integrated with a wide range of surface-sensitive measurement techniques. SLBs are useful for unravelling details of fundamental membrane biology and biophysics as well as for various medical, biotechnology, and environmental science applications. Thus, there is high interest in developing simple and robust methods to fabricate SLBs. Currently, vesicle fusion is a popular method to form SLBs and involves the adsorption and spontaneous rupture of lipid vesicles on a solid surface. However, successful vesicle fusion depends on high-quality vesicle preparation, and it typically works with a narrow range of material supports and lipid compositions. In this Feature Article, we summarize current progress in developing two new SLB fabrication techniques termed the solvent-assisted lipid bilayer (SALB) and bicelle methods, which have compelling advantages such as simple sample preparation and compatibility with a wide range of material supports and lipid compositions. The molecular self-assembly principles underpinning the two strategies and important experimental parameters are critically discussed, and recent application examples are presented. Looking forward, we envision that these emerging SLB fabrication strategies can be widely adopted by specialists and nonspecialists alike, paving the way to enriching our understanding of lipid membrane properties and realizing new application possibilities.

A protocell with fusion and division

A protocell is a synthetic form of cellular life that is constructed from phospholipid vesicles and used to understand the emergence of life from a nonliving chemical network. To be considered 'living', a protocell should be capable of self-proliferation, which includes successive growth and division processes. The growth of protocells can be achieved via vesicle fusion approaches. In this review, we provide a brief overview of recent research on the formation of a protocell, fusion and division processes of the protocell, and encapsulation of a defined chemical network such as the genetic material. We also provide some perspectives on the challenges and future developments of synthetic protocell research.