TRPV1-mediated Pharmacological Hypothermia Promotes Improved Functional Recovery Following Ischemic Stroke

Single-cell analysis identifies Ifi27l2a as a gene regulator of microglial inflammation in the context of aging and stroke in mice

Inflammation is a significant driver of ischemic stroke pathology in the brain. To identify potential regulators of inflammation, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of young and aged mouse brains following stroke and found that interferon alpha-inducible protein 27 like 2 A (Ifi27l2a) was significantly up-regulated, particularly in microglia of aged brain. Ifi27l2a is induced by interferons for viral host defense and has been linked with pro-inflammatory cellular mechanisms. However, its potential role in neurodegeneration is unknown. Using a combination of cell culture, experimental stroke models in mice, and human autopsy brain samples, we demonstrated that induction of Ifi27l2a occurs in microglia in response to aging, ischemic stroke, and pro-inflammatory molecules. We further showed that induction of Ifi27l2a in microglia was sufficient to stimulate mitochondrial ROS production and promote a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Lastly, using an ischemic stroke model, we demonstrated that hemizygous deletion of Ifi27l2a (Ifi27l2a+/- mice) reduced gliosis (microgliosis and astrogliosis), acute and chronic brain injury, and motor function deficits. Together, these findings identify Ifi27l2a as a critical neuroinflammatory mediator in ischemic stroke and provide support for the therapeutic strategy of disrupting Ifi27l2a to attenuate inflammation in the post-stroke brain.

Glycolytic reprogramming in microglia: A potential therapeutic target for ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke is currently the second leading cause of mortality worldwide, with limited treatment options available. As resident immune cells, microglia promptly respond to cerebral ischemic injury, influencing neuroinflammatory damage and neurorepair. Studies suggest that microglia undergo metabolic reprogramming from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis in response to ischemia, significantly impacting their function during ischemic stroke. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the roles and regulatory mechanisms involved in this process, aiming to identify a new therapeutic target or potential drug candidate.

Advancing Post-Stroke Depression Research: Insights from Murine Models and Behavioral Analyses

Post-stroke depression (PSD) represents a significant neuropsychiatric complication that affects between 39% and 52% of stroke survivors, leading to impaired recovery, decreased quality of life, and increased mortality. This comprehensive review synthesizes our current knowledge of PSD, encompassing its epidemiology, risk factors, underlying neurochemical mechanisms, and the existing tools for preclinical investigation, including animal models and behavioral analyses. Despite the high prevalence and severe impact of PSD, challenges persist in accurately modeling its complex symptomatology in preclinical settings, underscoring the need for robust and valid animal models to better understand and treat PSD. This review also highlights the multidimensional nature of PSD, where both biological and psychosocial factors interplay to influence its onset and course. Further, we examine the efficacy and limitations of the current animal models in mimicking the human PSD condition, along with behavioral tests used to evaluate depressive-like behaviors in rodents. This review also sets a new precedent by integrating the latest findings across multidisciplinary studies, thereby offering a unique and comprehensive perspective of existing knowledge. Finally, the development of more sophisticated models that closely replicate the clinical features of PSD is crucial in order to advance translational research and facilitate the discovery of future effective therapies.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 inhibition reduces brain damage by suppressing neuronal apoptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) induces a complex sequence of apoptotic cascades and inflammatory responses, leading to neurological impairment. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a nonselective cation channel with high calcium permeability, has been implicated in neuronal apoptosis and inflammatory responses. This study used a mouse ICH model and neuronal cultures to examine whether TRPV1 activation exacerbates brain damage and neurological deficits by promoting neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation. ICH was induced by injecting collagenase in both wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice and TRPV1-/- mice. Capsaicin (CAP; a TRPV1 agonist) or capsazepine (a TRPV1 antagonist) was administered by intracerebroventricular injection 30 min before ICH induction in WT mice. The effects of genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of TRPV1 using CAP or capsazepine on motor deficits, histological damage, apoptotic responses, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and neuroinflammatory reactions were explored. The antiapoptotic mechanisms and calcium influx induced by TRPV1 inactivation were investigated in cultured hemin-stimulated neurons. TRPV1 expression was upregulated in the hemorrhagic brain, and TRPV1 was expressed in neurons, microglia, and astrocytes after ICH. Genetic deletion of TRPV1 significantly attenuated motor deficits and brain atrophy for up to 28 days. Deletion of TRPV1 also reduced brain damage, neurodegeneration, microglial activation, cytokine expression, and cell apoptosis at 1 day post-ICH. Similarly, the administration of CAP ameliorated brain damage, neurodegeneration, brain edema, BBB permeability, and cytokine expression at 1 day post-ICH. In primary neuronal cultures, pharmacological inactivation of TRPV1 by CAP attenuated neuronal vulnerability to hemin-induced injury, suppressed apoptosis, and preserved mitochondrial integrity in vitro. Mechanistically, CAP reduced hemin-stimulated calcium influx and prevented the phosphorylation of CaMKII in cultured neurons, which was associated with reduced activation of P38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Our results suggest that TRPV1 inhibition may be a potential therapy for ICH by suppressing mitochondria-related neuronal apoptosis.

TRP Channels in Stroke

Ischemic stroke is a devastating disease that affects millions of patients worldwide. Unfortunately, there are no effective medications for mitigating brain injury after ischemic stroke. TRP channels are evolutionally ancient biosensors that detect external stimuli as well as tissue or cellular injury. To date, many members of the TRP superfamily have been reported to contribute to ischemic brain injury, including the TRPC subfamily (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7), TRPV subfamily (1, 2, 3, 4) and TRPM subfamily (2, 4, 7). These TRP channels share structural similarities but have distinct channel functions and properties. Their activation during ischemic stroke can be beneficial, detrimental, or even both. In this review, we focus on discussing the interesting features of stroke-related TRP channels and summarizing the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for their involvement in ischemic brain injury.

Hypothermia is Associated with Improved Neurological Outcomes After Mechanical Thrombectomy

BACKGROUND

Acute ischemic stroke (AIS) is the second leading cause of death globally. Mechanical thrombectomy (MT) has improved patient prognosis but expedient treatment is still necessary to minimize anoxic injury. Lower intraoperative body temperature decreases cerebral oxygen demand, but the role of hypothermia in treatment of AIS with MT is unclear.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed patients undergoing MT for AIS from 2014 to 2020 at our institution. Patient demographics, comorbidities, intraoperative parameters, and outcomes were collected. Maximum body temperature was extracted from minute-by-minute anesthesia readings, and patients with maximal temperature below 36°C were considered hypothermic. Risk factors were assessed by χ2 and multivariate ordinal regression.

RESULTS

Of 68 patients, 27 (40%) were hypothermic. There was no significant association of hypothermia with patient age, comorbidities, time since last known well, number of passes intraoperatively, favorable revascularization, tissue plasminogen activator use, and immediate postoperative complications. Hypothermic patients exhibited better neurologic outcome at 3-month follow-up (P = 0.02). On multivariate ordinal regression, lower maximum intraoperative body temperature was associated with improved 3-month outcomes (P < 0.001), when adjusting for other factors influencing neurological outcomes. Other significant protective factors included younger age (P = 0.03), better revascularization (P = 0.03), and conscious sedation (P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Lower intraoperative body temperature during MT was independently associated with improved neurological outcome in this single center retrospective series. These results may help guide clinicians in employing therapeutic hypothermia during MT to improve long-term neurologic outcomes from AIS, although larger studies are needed.

Pathophysiological Roles of Transient Receptor Potential (Trp) Channels and Zinc Toxicity in Brain Disease

Maintaining the correct ionic gradient from extracellular to intracellular space via several membrane-bound transporters is critical for maintaining overall cellular homeostasis. One of these transporters is the transient receptor potential (TRP) channel family that consists of six putative transmembrane segments systemically expressed in mammalian tissues. Upon the activation of TRP channels by brain disease, several cations are translocated through TRP channels. Brain disease, especially ischemic stroke, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury, triggers the dysregulation of ionic gradients and promotes the excessive release of neuro-transmitters and zinc. The divalent metal cation zinc is highly distributed in the brain and is specifically located in the pre-synaptic vesicles as free ions, usually existing in cytoplasm bound with metallothionein. Although adequate zinc is essential for regulating diverse physiological functions, the brain-disease-induced excessive release and translocation of zinc causes cell damage, including oxidative stress, apoptotic cascades, and disturbances in energy metabolism. Therefore, the regulation of zinc homeostasis following brain disease is critical for the prevention of brain damage. In this review, we summarize recent experimental research findings regarding how TRP channels (mainly TRPC and TRPM) and zinc are regulated in animal brain-disease models of global cerebral ischemia, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury. The blockade of zinc translocation via the inhibition of TRPC and TRPM channels using known channel antagonists, was shown to be neuroprotective in brain disease. The regulation of both zinc and TRP channels may serve as targets for treating and preventing neuronal death.

A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Behavior Testing in Mice Models of Ischemic Stroke

Stroke remains one of the most important causes of death and disability. Preclinical research is a powerful tool for understanding the molecular and cellular response to stroke. However, a lack of standardization in animal evaluation does not always ensure reproducible results. In the present study, we wanted to identify the best strategy for evaluating animal behavior post-experimental stroke. As such, a meta-analysis was made, evaluating behavioral tests done on male C57BL/6 mice subjected to stroke or sham surgery. Overall, fifty-six studies were included. Our results suggest that different types of tests should be used depending on the post-stroke period one needs to analyze. In the hyper-acute, post-stroke period, the best quantifier will be animal examination scoring, as it is a fast and inexpensive way to identify differences between groups. When evaluating stoke mice in the acute phase, a mix of animal examination and motor tests that focus on movement asymmetry (foot-fault and cylinder testing) seem to have the best chance of picking up differences between groups. Complex tasks (the rotarod test and Morris water maze) should be used within the chronic phase to evaluate differences between the late-subacute and chronic phases.

Single-cell analysis identifies Ifi27l2a as a novel gene regulator of microglial inflammation in the context of aging and stroke

Microglia are key mediators of inflammatory responses within the brain, as they regulate pro-inflammatory responses while also limiting neuroinflammation via reparative phagocytosis. Thus, identifying genes that modulate microglial function may reveal novel therapeutic interventions for promoting better outcomes in diseases featuring extensive inflammation, such as stroke. To facilitate identification of potential mediators of inflammation, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing of aged mouse brains following stroke and found that Ifi27l2a was significantly up-regulated, particularly in microglia. The increased Ifi27l2a expression was further validated in microglial culture, stroke models with microglial depletion, and human autopsy samples. Ifi27l2a is known to be induced by interferons for viral host defense, however the role of Ifi27l2a in neurodegeneration is unknown. In vitro studies in cultured microglia demonstrated that Ifi27l2a overexpression causes neuroinflammation via reactive oxygen species. Interestingly, hemizygous deletion of Ifi27l2a significantly reduced gliosis in the thalamus following stroke, while also reducing neuroinflammation, indicating Ifi27l2a gene dosage is a critical mediator of neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke. Collectively, this study demonstrates that a novel gene, Ifi27l2a, regulates microglial function and neuroinflammation in the aged brain and following stroke. These findings suggest that Ifi27l2a may be a novel target for conferring cerebral protection post-stroke.

The role of endothelial TRP channels in age-related vascular cognitive impairment and dementia

Transient receptor potential (TRP) proteins are part of a superfamily of polymodal cation channels that can be activated by mechanical, physical, and chemical stimuli. In the vascular endothelium, TRP channels regulate two fundamental parameters: the membrane potential and the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration [(Ca²⁺)_i]. TRP channels are widely expressed in the cerebrovascular endothelium, and are emerging as important mediators of several brain microvascular functions (e.g., neurovascular coupling, endothelial function, and blood-brain barrier permeability), which become impaired with aging. Aging is the most significant risk factor for vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), and the number of individuals affected by VCI is expected to exponentially increase in the coming decades. Yet, there are currently no preventative or therapeutic treatments available against the development and progression of VCI. In this review, we discuss the involvement of endothelial TRP channels in diverse physiological processes in the brain as well as in the pathogenesis of age-related VCI to explore future potential neuroprotective strategies.

Beneficial effects of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin on endothelial inflammation, nitric oxide production and antioxidant activity

Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (DHC) are major pungent capsaicinoids produced in chili peppers. Capsaicin has been previously shown to promote vascular health by increasing nitric oxide (NO) production and reducing inflammatory responses. While capsaicin has been extensively studied, whether DHC exerts cardiovascular benefits through similar mechanisms remains unclear. The current study aimed to investigate the direct effects of DHC on endothelial inflammation, NO release, and free radical scavenging properties. DHC at concentrations up to 50 µM did not affect cell viability, while concentrations of 100 and 500 µM of DHC led to endothelial cytotoxicity. Capsaicin decreased cell viability at concentration of 500 µM. To investigate the effects of capsaicinoids on endothelial activation, we first demonstrated that TNFα induced Ser536 phosphorylation of p65 NFκB, expressions of adhesion molecules, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 and intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and IL-6 production in primary human endothelial cells. These effects were robustly abrogated by DHC. Consistently, DHC treatment led to a marked reduction in TNFα-mediated monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells. Additionally, NO production was significantly induced by DHC and capsaicin compared to vehicle control. Similar to capsaicin and vitamin C, DHC scavenged DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free radicals in vitro. Our present study highlights the benefits of DHC and capsaicin treatment on human endothelial cells and provides evidence to support cardiovascular benefits from capsicum consumption.

A Direct Comparison of Physical Versus Dihydrocapsaicin-Induced Hypothermia in a Rat Model of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological condition with no effective treatment. Hypothermia induced by physical means (cold fluid) is established as an effective therapy in animal models of SCI, but its clinical translation to humans is hampered by several constraints. Hypothermia induced pharmacologically may be noninferior or superior to physically induced hypothermia for rapid, convenient systemic temperature reduction, but it has not been investigated previously in animal models of SCI. We used a rat model of SCI to compare outcomes in three groups: (1) normothermic controls; (2) hypothermia induced by conventional physical means; (3) hypothermia induced by intravenous (IV) dihydrocapsaicin (DHC). Male rats underwent unilateral lower cervical SCI and were treated after a 4-hour delay with physical cooling or IV DHC (∼0.60 mg/kg total) cooling (both 33.0 ± 1.0°C) lasting 4 hours; controls were kept normothermic. Telemetry was used to monitor temperature and heart rate during and after treatments. In two separate experiments, one ending at 48 hours, the other at 6 weeks, “blinded” investigators evaluated rats in the three groups for neurological function followed by histopathological evaluation of spinal cord tissues. DHC reliably induced systemic cooling to 32–33°C. At both the time points examined, the two modes of hypothermia yielded similar improvements in neurological function and lesion size compared with normothermic controls. Our results indicate that DHC-induced hypothermia may be comparable with physical hypothermia in efficacy, but more clinically feasible to administer than physical hypothermia.

Neuroinflammation as a Key Driver of Secondary Neurodegeneration Following Stroke?

Ischaemic stroke involves the rapid onset of focal neurological dysfunction, most commonly due to an arterial blockage in a specific region of the brain. Stroke is a leading cause of death and common cause of disability, with over 17 million people worldwide suffering from a stroke each year. It is now well-documented that neuroinflammation and immune mediators play a key role in acute and long-term neuronal tissue damage and healing, not only in the infarct core but also in distal regions. Importantly, in these distal regions, termed sites of secondary neurodegeneration (SND), spikes in neuroinflammation may be seen sometime after the initial stroke onset, but prior to the presence of the neuronal tissue damage within these regions. However, it is key to acknowledge that, despite the mounting information describing neuroinflammation following ischaemic stroke, the exact mechanisms whereby inflammatory cells and their mediators drive stroke-induced neuroinflammation are still not fully understood. As a result, current anti-inflammatory treatments have failed to show efficacy in clinical trials. In this review we discuss the complexities of post-stroke neuroinflammation, specifically how it affects neuronal tissue and post-stroke outcome acutely, chronically, and in sites of SND. We then discuss current and previously assessed anti-inflammatory therapies, with a particular focus on how failed anti-inflammatories may be repurposed to target SND-associated neuroinflammation.

Advances in TRP channel drug discovery: from target validation to clinical studies

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are multifunctional signalling molecules with many roles in sensory perception and cellular physiology. Therefore, it is not surprising that TRP channels have been implicated in numerous diseases, including hereditary disorders caused by defects in genes encoding TRP channels (TRP channelopathies). Most TRP channels are located at the cell surface, which makes them generally accessible drug targets. Early drug discovery efforts to target TRP channels focused on pain, but as our knowledge of TRP channels and their role in health and disease has grown, these efforts have expanded into new clinical indications, ranging from respiratory disorders through neurological and psychiatric diseases to diabetes and cancer. In this Review, we discuss recent findings in TRP channel structural biology that can affect both drug development and clinical indications. We also discuss the clinical promise of novel TRP channel modulators, aimed at both established and emerging targets. Last, we address the challenges that these compounds may face in clinical practice, including the need for carefully targeted approaches to minimize potential side-effects due to the multifunctional roles of TRP channels.

Advancement in research on the role of the transient receptor potential vanilloid channel in cerebral ischemic injury (Review)

Stroke is a common critical disease occurring in middle-aged and elderly individuals, and is characterized by high morbidity, lethality and mortality. As such, it is of great concern to medical professionals. The aim of the present review was to investigate the effects of transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) subtypes during cerebral ischemia in ischemia-reperfusion animal models, oxygen glucose deprivation and in other administration cell models in vitro to explore new avenues for stroke research and clinical treatments. TRPV1, TRPV2 and TRPV4 employ different methodologies by which they confer protection against cerebral ischemic injury. TRPV1 and TRPV4 are likely related to the inhibition of inflammatory reactions, neurotoxicity and cell apoptosis, thus promoting nerve growth and regulation of intracellular calcium ions (Ca2+). The mechanisms of neuroprotection of TRPV1 are the JNK pathway, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and therapeutic hypothermia. The mechanisms of neuroprotection of TRPV4 are the PI3K/Akt pathways, NMDA receptor and p38 MAPK pathway, amongst others. The mechanisms by which TRPV2 confers its protective effects are predominantly connected with the regulation of nerve growth factor, MAPK and JNK pathways, as well as JNK-dependent pathways. Thus, TRPVs have the potential for improving outcomes associated with cerebral ischemic or reperfusion injuries. The protection conferred by TRPV1 and TRPV4 is closely related to cellular Ca2+ influx, while TRPV2 has a different target and mode of action, possibly due to its expression sites. However, in light of certain contradictory research conclusions, further experimentation is required to clarify the mechanisms and specific pathways by which TRPVs act to alleviate nerve injuries.

Determining the effect of aging, recovery time, and post-stroke memantine treatment on delayed thalamic gliosis after cortical infarct

Secondary injury following cortical stroke includes delayed gliosis and eventual neuronal loss in the thalamus. However, the effects of aging and the potential to ameliorate this gliosis with NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonism are not established. We used the permanent distal middle cerebral artery stroke model (pdMCAO) to examine secondary thalamic injury in young and aged mice. At 3 days post-stroke (PSD3), slight microgliosis (IBA-1) and astrogliosis (GFAP) was evident in thalamus, but no infarct. Gliosis increased dramatically through PSD14, at which point degenerating neurons were detected. Flow cytometry demonstrated a significant increase in CD11b+/CD45int microglia (MG) in the ipsilateral thalamus at PSD14. CCR2-RFP reporter mouse further demonstrated that influx of peripheral monocytes contributed to the MG/Mϕ population. Aged mice demonstrated reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis compared with young mice. Interestingly, astrogliosis demonstrated glial scar-like characteristics at two years post-stroke, but not by 6 weeks. Lastly, treatment with memantine (NMDAR antagonist) at 4 and 24 h after stroke significantly reduced gliosis at PSD14. These findings expand our understanding of gliosis in the thalamus following cortical stroke and demonstrate age-dependency of this secondary injury. Additionally, these findings indicate that delayed treatment with memantine (an FDA approved drug) provides significant reduction in thalamic gliosis.

A low-cost mouse cage warming system provides improved intra-ischemic and post-ischemic body temperature control - Application for reducing variability in experimental stroke studies

BACKGROUND

Brain temperature is a strong determinant of ischemic stroke injury. For this reason, tight management of brain or body temperature (Tcore) in experimental rodent stroke models is recommended to improve the rigor and reproducibility of outcomes. However, methods for managing Tcore during and after stroke vary widely in approach and effectiveness.

NEW METHOD

We developed a low-cost warm ambient air cage (WAAC) system to provide improved temperature control during the intra-ischemic and post-ischemic recovery periods. The system is incorporated into standard holding cages for maintaining Tcore during the intra-ischemic period as well as for several hours into the recovery period.

RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

We compared the WAAC system with a commonly used heat support method, consisting of a cage on a heating pad. Both heat support systems were evaluated for the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) stroke model in mice. The WAAC system provided improved temperature control (more normothermic Tcore and less Tcore variation) during the intra- ischemic period (60 min) and post-ischemic period (3 h). Mean infarct volume was not statistically different by heat support system, however, standard deviation was 54 % lower in the WAAC system group.

CONCLUSIONS

Mice and other small rodents are highly vulnerable to heat loss during and after the MCAo procedure. The WAAC system provides more precise and controlled Tcore maintenance compared with frequently used induction heating methods in mice undergoing the MCAo stroke model. The improved temperature control should enhance experimental rigor and reduce the number of experimental animals needed.

Neuroprotective Phytochemicals in Experimental Ischemic Stroke: Mechanisms and Potential Clinical Applications

Ischemic stroke is a challenging disease with high mortality and disability rates, causing a great economic and social burden worldwide. During ischemic stroke, ionic imbalance and excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation are developed in a relatively certain order, which then activate the cell death pathways directly or indirectly via the promotion of organelle dysfunction. Neuroprotection, a therapy that is aimed at inhibiting this damaging cascade, is therefore an important therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke. Notably, phytochemicals showed great neuroprotective potential in preclinical research via various strategies including modulation of calcium levels and antiexcitotoxicity, antioxidation, anti-inflammation and BBB protection, mitochondrial protection and antiapoptosis, autophagy/mitophagy regulation, and regulation of neurotrophin release. In this review, we summarize the research works that report the neuroprotective activity of phytochemicals in the past 10 years and discuss the neuroprotective mechanisms and potential clinical applications of 148 phytochemicals that belong to the categories of flavonoids, stilbenoids, other phenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids. Among them, scutellarin, pinocembrin, puerarin, hydroxysafflor yellow A, salvianolic acids, rosmarinic acid, borneol, bilobalide, ginkgolides, ginsenoside Rd, and vinpocetine show great potential in clinical ischemic stroke treatment. This review will serve as a powerful reference for the screening of phytochemicals with potential clinical applications in ischemic stroke or the synthesis of new neuroprotective agents that take phytochemicals as leading compounds.

Unique Subtype of Microglia in Degenerative Thalamus After Cortical Stroke

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Stroke disrupts neuronal functions in both local and remotely connected regions, leading to network-wide deficits that can hinder recovery. The thalamus is particularly affected, with progressive development of neurodegeneration accompanied by inflammatory responses. However, the complexity of the involved inflammatory responses is poorly understood. Herein we investigated the spatiotemporal changes in the secondary degenerative thalamus after cortical stroke, using targeted transcriptome approach in conjunction with histology and flow cytometry.

METHODS

Cortical ischemic stroke was generated by permanent occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery in male C57BL6J mice. Neurodegeneration, neuroinflammatory responses, and microglial activation were examined in naive and stroke mice at from poststroke days (PD) 1 to 84, in both ipsilesional somatosensory cortex and ipsilesional thalamus. NanoString neuropathology panel (780 genes) was used to examine transcriptome changes at PD7 and PD28. Fluorescence activated cell sorting was used to collect CD11c⁺ microglia from ipsilesional thalamus, and gene expressions were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Neurodegeneration in the thalamus was detected at PD7 and progressively worsened by PD28. This was accompanied by rapid microglial activation detected as early as PD1, which preceded the neurodegenerative changes. Transcriptome analysis showed higher number of differentially expressed genes in ipsilesional thalamus at PD28. Notably, neuroinflammation was the top activated pathway, and microglia was the most enriched cell type. Itgax (CD11c) was the most significantly increased gene, and its expression was highly detected in microglia. Flow-sorted CD11c⁺ microglia from degenerative thalamus indicated molecular signatures similar to neurodegenerative disease-associated microglia; these included downregulated Tmem119 and CX3CR1 and upregulated ApoE, Axl, LpL, CSF1, and Cst7.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate the dynamic changes of microglia after stroke and highlight the importance of investigating stroke network-wide deficits. Importantly, we report the existence of a unique subtype of microglia (CD11c⁺) with neurodegenerative disease-associated microglia features in the degenerative thalamus after stroke.

Characterization of the Blood Brain Barrier Disruption in the Photothrombotic Stroke Model

Blood brain barrier (BBB) damage is an important pathophysiological feature of ischemic stroke which significantly contributes to development of severe brain injury and therefore is an interesting target for therapeutic intervention. A popular permanent occlusion model to study long term recovery following stroke is the photothrombotic model, which so far has not been anatomically characterized for BBB leakage beyond the acute phase. Here, we observed enhanced BBB permeability over a time course of 3 weeks in peri-infarct and core regions of the ischemic cortex. Slight increases in BBB permeability could also be seen in the contralesional cortex, hippocampus and the cerebellum at different time points, regions where lesion-induced degeneration of pathways is prominent. Severe damage of tight and adherens junctions and loss of pericytes was observed within the peri-infarct region. Overall, the photothrombotic stroke model reproduces a variety of features observed in human stroke and thus, represents a suitable model to study BBB damage and therapeutic approaches interfering with this process.

The Role of Transient Receptor Potential Channels in Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction after Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is the leading cause of long-term disability, demanding an ever-increasing need to find treatment. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are nonselective Ca²⁺-permeable channels, among which TRPC, TRPM, and TRPV are widely expressed in the brain. Dysfunction of the blood brain barrier (BBB) is a core feature of stroke and is associated with severity of injury. As studies have shown, TRP channels influence various neuronal functions by regulating the BBB. Here, we briefly review the role of TRP channel in the BBB dysfunction after stroke, and explore the therapeutic potential of TRP-targeted therapy.

Inflammatory Responses in the Secondary Thalamic Injury After Cortical Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is one of the major causes of chronic disability worldwide and increasing efforts have focused on studying brain repair and recovery after stroke. Following stroke, the primary injury site can disrupt functional connections in nearby and remotely connected brain regions, resulting in the development of secondary injuries that may impede long-term functional recovery. In particular, secondary degenerative injury occurs in the connected ipsilesional thalamus following a cortical stroke. Although secondary thalamic injury was first described decades ago, the underlying mechanisms still remain unclear. We performed a systematic literature review using the NCBI PubMed database for studies that focused on the secondary thalamic degeneration after cortical ischemic stroke. In this review, we discussed emerging studies that characterized the pathological changes in the secondary degenerative thalamus after stroke; these included excitotoxicity, apoptosis, amyloid beta protein accumulation, blood-brain-barrier breakdown, and inflammatory responses. In particular, we highlighted key findings of the dynamic inflammatory responses in the secondary thalamic injury and discussed the involvement of several cell types in this process. We also discussed studies that investigated the effects of blocking secondary thalamic injury on inflammatory responses and stroke outcome. Targeting secondary injuries after stroke may alleviate network-wide deficits, and ultimately promote stroke recovery.

Transplantation of Directly Reprogrammed Human Neural Precursor Cells Following Stroke Promotes Synaptogenesis and Functional Recovery

Stroke is one of the leading causes of long-term disability. Cell transplantation is a promising strategy to treat stroke. We explored the efficacy of directly reprogrammed human neural precursor cell (drNPC) transplants to promote functional recovery in a model of focal ischemic stroke in the mouse sensorimotor cortex. We show that drNPCs express neural precursor cell markers and are neurally committed at the time of transplantation. Mice that received drNPC transplants recovered motor function, irrespective of transplant vehicle or recipient sex, and with no correlation to lesion volume or glial scarring. The majority of drNPCs found in vivo, at the time of functional recovery, remained undifferentiated. Notably, no correlation between functional recovery and long-term xenograft survival was observed, indicating that drNPCs provide therapeutic benefits beyond their survival. Furthermore, increased synaptophysin expression in transplanted brains suggests that drNPCs promote neuroplasticity through enhanced synaptogenesis. Our findings provide insight into the mechanistic underpinnings of drNPC-mediated recovery for stroke and support the notion that drNPCs may have clinical applications for stroke therapy.

Transient selective brain cooling confers neurovascular and functional protection from acute to chronic stages of ischemia/reperfusion brain injury

Ischemic injury can be alleviated by the judicious use of hypothermia. However, the optimal regimens and the temporal kinetics of post-stroke neurovascular responses to hypothermic intervention have not been systematically studied. These gaps slow the clinical translation of hypothermia as an anti-stroke therapy. Here, we characterized the effects of transient selective brain hypothermia (TSBH) from the hyperacute to chronic stages of focal ischemia/reperfusion brain injury induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. A simple cooling device was used to induce TSBH during cerebral ischemia. This treatment reduced mortality from 31.8% to 0% and improved neurological outcomes for at least 35 days post-injury. TSBH mitigated blood-brain barrier leakage during the hyperacute and acute injury stages (1-23 h post-reperfusion). This early protection of the blood-brain barrier was associated with anti-inflammatory phenotypic polarization of microglia/macrophages, reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and less brain infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages during the subacute injury stage (three days post-reperfusion). TSBH elicited enduring protective effects on both grey and white matter for at least 35 days post-injury and preserved the long-term electrophysiological function of fiber tracts. In conclusion, TSBH ameliorates ischemia/reperfusion injury in the neurovascular unit from hyperacute to chronic injury stages after experimental stroke.

Low oxygen post conditioning prevents thalamic secondary neuronal loss caused by excitotoxicity after cortical stroke

In the current study, we were interested in investigating whether Low oxygen post-conditioning (LOPC) was capable of limiting the severity of stroke-induced secondary neurodegeneration (SND). To investigate the effect of LOPC we exposed adult male C57/BL6 mice to photothrombotic occlusion (PTO) of the motor and somatosensory cortex. This is known to induce progressive neurodegeneration in the thalamus within two weeks of infarction. Two days after PTO induction mice were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (i) LOPC-15 day exposure group; (ii) a LOPC 15 day exposure followed by a 15 day exposure to normal atmosphere; (iii) normal atmosphere for 15 days and (iv) normal atmosphere for 30 days (n = 20/group). We observed that LOPC reduced the extent of neuronal loss, as indicated by assessment of both area of loss and NeuN⁺ cell counts, within the thalamus. Additionally, we identified that LOPC reduced microglial activity and decreased activity within the excitotoxic signalling pathway of the NMDAR axis. Together, these findings suggest that LOPC limits neuronal death caused by excitotoxicity in sites of secondary damage and promotes neuronal survival. In conclusion, this work supports the potential of utilising LOPC to intervene in the sub-acute phase post-stroke to restrict the severity of SND.