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James J, Thomas SS, Seekings AH, Mahmood S, Kelly M, Banyard AC, Núñez A, Brookes SM, Slomka MJ. Evaluating the epizootic and zoonotic threat of an H7N9 low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) variant associated with enhanced pathogenicity in turkeys. J Gen Virol 2024; 105:002008. [PMID: 38980150 PMCID: PMC11316556 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.002008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Between 2013 and 2017, the A/Anhui/1/13-lineage (H7N9) low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) was epizootic in chickens in China, causing mild disease, with 616 fatal human cases. Despite poultry vaccination, H7N9 has not been eradicated. Previously, we demonstrated increased pathogenesis in turkeys infected with H7N9, correlating with the emergence of the L217Q (L226Q H3 numbering) polymorphism in the haemagglutinin (HA) protein. A Q217-containing virus also arose and is now dominant in China following vaccination. We compared infection and transmission of this Q217-containing 'turkey-adapted' (ty-ad) isolate alongside the H7N9 (L217) wild-type (wt) virus in different poultry species and investigated the zoonotic potential in the ferret model. Both wt and ty-ad viruses demonstrated similar shedding and transmission in turkeys and chickens. However, the ty-ad virus was significantly more pathogenic than the wt virus in turkeys but not in chickens, causing 100 and 33% mortality in turkeys respectively. Expanded tissue tropism was seen for the ty-ad virus in turkeys but not in chickens, yet the viral cell receptor distribution was broadly similar in the visceral organs of both species. The ty-ad virus required exogenous trypsin for in vitro replication yet had increased replication in primary avian cells. Replication was comparable in mammalian cells, and the ty-ad virus replicated successfully in ferrets. The L217Q polymorphism also affected antigenicity. Therefore, H7N9 infection in turkeys can generate novel variants with increased risk through altered pathogenicity and potential HA antigenic escape. These findings emphasize the requirement for enhanced surveillance and understanding of A/Anhui/1/13-lineage viruses and their risk to different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe James
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
- WOAH/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Saumya S. Thomas
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Amanda H. Seekings
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sahar Mahmood
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Michael Kelly
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
- WOAH/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sharon M. Brookes
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J. Slomka
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Warren CJ, Brookes SM, Arnold ME, Irvine RM, Hansen RDE, Brown IH, Banyard AC, Slomka MJ. Assessment of Survival Kinetics for Emergent Highly Pathogenic Clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx Avian Influenza Viruses. Viruses 2024; 16:889. [PMID: 38932181 PMCID: PMC11209063 DOI: 10.3390/v16060889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
High pathogenicity avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) cause high morbidity and mortality in poultry species. HPAIV prevalence means high numbers of infected wild birds could lead to spill over events for farmed poultry. How these pathogens survive in the environment is important for disease maintenance and potential dissemination. We evaluated the temperature-associated survival kinetics for five clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx HPAIVs (UK field strains between 2014 and 2021) incubated at up to three temperatures for up to ten weeks. The selected temperatures represented northern European winter (4 °C) and summer (20 °C); and a southern European summer temperature (30 °C). For each clade 2.3.4.4 HPAIV, the time in days to reduce the viral infectivity by 90% at temperature T was established (DT), showing that a lower incubation temperature prolonged virus survival (stability), where DT ranged from days to weeks. The fastest loss of viral infectivity was observed at 30 °C. Extrapolation of the graphical DT plots to the x-axis intercept provided the corresponding time to extinction for viral decay. Statistical tests of the difference between the DT values and extinction times of each clade 2.3.4.4 strain at each temperature indicated that the majority displayed different survival kinetics from the other strains at 4 °C and 20 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J. Warren
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
| | - Sharon M. Brookes
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
| | - Mark E. Arnold
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RB, UK;
| | - Richard M. Irvine
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
- Office of the Chief Veterinary Officer (OCVO), Welsh Government, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF10 3NQ, UK
| | - Rowena D. E. Hansen
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
- Veterinary Advice Services, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ian H. Brown
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
- WOAH/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency, (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
- WOAH/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency, (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J. Slomka
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (S.M.B.); (R.M.I.); (R.D.E.H.); (I.H.B.); (A.C.B.)
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Seekings AH, Liang Y, Warren CJ, Hjulsager CK, Thomas SS, Lean FZX, Nunez A, Skinner P, Selden D, Falchieri M, Simmons H, Brown IH, Larsen LE, Banyard AC, Slomka MJ. Transmission dynamics and pathogenesis differ between pheasants and partridges infected with clade 2.3.4.4b H5N8 and H5N1 high-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses. J Gen Virol 2024; 105. [PMID: 38289661 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
During the UK 2020-2021 epizootic of H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b high-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs), high mortality occurred during incursions in commercially farmed common pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Two pheasant farms, affected separately by H5N8 and H5N1 subtypes, included adjacently housed red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa), which appeared to be unaffected. Despite extensive ongoing epizootics, H5Nx HPAIV partridge outbreaks were not reported during 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 in the UK, so it is postulated that partridges are more resistant to HPAIV infection than other gamebirds. To assess this, pathogenesis and both intra- and inter-species transmission of UK pheasant-origin H5N8-2021 and H5N1-2021 HPAIVs were investigated. Onward transmission to chickens was also assessed to better understand the risk of spread from gamebirds to other commercial poultry sectors. A lower infectious dose was required to infect pheasants with H5N8-2021 compared to H5N1-2021. However, HPAIV systemic dissemination to multiple organs within pheasants was more rapid following infection with H5N1-2021 than H5N8-2021, with the former attaining generally higher viral RNA levels in tissues. Intraspecies transmission to contact pheasants was successful for both viruses and associated with viral environmental contamination, while interspecies transmission to a first chicken-contact group was also efficient. However, further onward transmission to additional chicken contacts was only achieved with H5N1-2021. Intra-partridge transmission was only successful when high-dose H5N1-2021 was administered, while partridges inoculated with H5N8-2021 failed to shed and transmit, although extensive tissue tropism was observed for both viruses. Mortalities among infected partridges featured a longer incubation period compared to that in pheasants, for both viruses. Therefore, the susceptibility of different gamebird species and pathogenicity outcomes to the ongoing H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b HPAIVs varies, but pheasants represent a greater likelihood of H5Nx HPAIV introduction into galliforme poultry settings. Consequently, viral maintenance within gamebird populations and risks to poultry species warrant enhanced investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda H Seekings
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Yuan Liang
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Caroline J Warren
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Charlotte K Hjulsager
- Department of Virus and Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Saumya S Thomas
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Fabian Z X Lean
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Alejandro Nunez
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Paul Skinner
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - David Selden
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marco Falchieri
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Hugh Simmons
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ian H Brown
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Lars E Larsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J Slomka
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
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Seekings AH, Warren CJ, Thomas SS, Lean FZX, Selden D, Mollett BC, van Diemen PM, Banyard AC, Slomka MJ. Different Outcomes of Chicken Infection with UK-Origin H5N1-2020 and H5N8-2020 High-Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses (Clade 2.3.4.4b). Viruses 2023; 15:1909. [PMID: 37766317 PMCID: PMC10537040 DOI: 10.3390/v15091909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of the "goose/Guangdong" lineage have caused a series of European epizootics since 2014. During autumn/winter 2020-2021, several H5Nx subtypes were detected in the UK, with H5N8 being the dominant subtype in wild birds and poultry. Despite the greater subtype diversity (due to viral neuraminidase gene reassortment) reported in wild birds, only H5N8 and H5N1 subtypes caused clade 2.3.4.4 UK HPAIV poultry outbreaks during this period. The direct inoculation of layer chickens showed that H5N8-2020 was more infectious than H5N1-2020, which supported the European H5N8 dominance during that season. However, the mean death time was longer for H5N8-2020 (3.42 days) than for H5N1-2020 (2.17 days). Transmission from directly infected to naive in-contact chickens was inefficient for both subtypes. Histological lesions, the tissue dissemination of viral antigen, and nucleic acid were more extensive and abundant and accumulated more rapidly for H5N1-2020 compared with H5N8-2020. Although inefficient, H5N1-2020 transmission was faster, with its greater virulence indicating that this subtype posed a major concern, as subsequently shown during H5N1 dominance of the clade 2.3.4.4 epizootic since autumn 2021. An evaluation of these in vivo viral characteristics is key to understanding the continuing poultry threats posed by clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx HPAIVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda H. Seekings
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Caroline J. Warren
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Saumya S. Thomas
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Fabian Z. X. Lean
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - David Selden
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Benjamin C. Mollett
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Pauline M. van Diemen
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
- WOAH/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Swine Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J. Slomka
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Liang Y, Hjulsager CK, Seekings AH, Warren CJ, Lean FZX, Núñez A, James J, Thomas SS, Banyard AC, Slomka MJ, Brown IH, Larsen LE. Pathogenesis and infection dynamics of high pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N6 (clade 2.3.4.4b) in pheasants and onward transmission to chickens. Virology 2022; 577:138-148. [PMID: 36371872 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2022.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
High pathogenicity avian influenza viruses clade 2.3.4.4 H5 have spread among wild birds worldwide during recent years causing annual die-offs among wild birds and outbreaks in poultry in multiple European countries. The outbreaks significantly impact the poultry and game bird sectors. Infected game birds may act as a bridging species potentially enabling spread of virus into commercial and backyard premises. In this study, the pathogenesis and transmission of a HPAIV clade 2.3.4.4b H5N6 virus was investigated in pheasants and chickens. Efficient virus transmission was detected between pheasants over multiple rounds of naïve pheasant introductions and onwards to chickens. Mortality of up to 100% was observed for both infected pheasants and chickens. Intra-species transmission from chicken to chicken was less efficient. The study confirmed that clade 2.3.4.4b H5N6 HPAIV is highly virulent in pheasants and emphasises the role of pheasants as a bridging host for the infection of commercial poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liang
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Charlotte K Hjulsager
- Department of Virus and Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Amanda H Seekings
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Caroline J Warren
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Fabian Z X Lean
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Pathology and Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Joe James
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Saumya S Thomas
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J Slomka
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ian H Brown
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Lars E Larsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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The Origin of Internal Genes Contributes to the Replication and Transmission Fitness of H7N9 Avian Influenza Virus. J Virol 2022; 96:e0129022. [PMID: 36342296 PMCID: PMC9683025 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01290-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have donated internal gene segments during the emergence of zoonotic AIVs, including H7N9. We used reverse genetics to generate A/Anhui/1/13 (H7N9) and three reassortant viruses (2:6 H7N9) which contained the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase from Anhui/13 (H7N9) and the six internal gene segments from H9N2 AIVs belonging to (i) G1 subgroup 2, (ii) G1 subgroup 3, or (iii) BJ94 lineages, enzootic in different regions throughout Asia. Infection of chickens with the 2:6 H7N9 containing G1-like H9N2 internal genes conferred attenuation in vivo, with reduced shedding and transmission to contact chickens. However, possession of BJ94-like H9N2 internal genes resulted in more rapid transmission and significantly elevated cloacal shedding compared to the parental Anhui/13 H7N9. In vitro analysis showed that the 2:6 H7N9 with BJ94-like internal genes had significantly increased replication compared to the Anhui/13 H7N9 in chicken cells. In vivo coinfection experiments followed, where chickens were coinfected with pairs of Anhui/13 H7N9 and a 2:6 H7N9 reassortant. During ensuing transmission events, the Anhui/13 H7N9 virus outcompeted 2:6 H7N9 AIVs with internal gene segments of BJ94-like or G1-like H9N2 viruses. Coinfection did lead to the emergence of novel reassortant genotypes that were transmitted to contact chickens. Some of the reassortant viruses had a greater replication in chicken and human cells compared to the progenitors. We demonstrated that the internal gene cassette determines the transmission fitness of H7N9 viruses in chickens, and the reassortment events can generate novel H7N9 genotypes with increased virulence in chickens and enhanced zoonotic potential. IMPORTANCE H9N2 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are enzootic in poultry in different geographical regions. The internal genes of these viruses can be exchanged with other zoonotic AIVs, most notably the A/Anhui/1/2013-lineage H7N9, which can give rise to new virus genotypes with increased veterinary, economic and public health threats to both poultry and humans. We investigated the propensity of the internal genes of H9N2 viruses (G1 or BJ94) in the generation of novel reassortant H7N9 AIVs. We observed that the internal genes of H7N9 which were derivative of BJ94-like H9N2 virus have a fitness advantage compared to those from the G1-like H9N2 viruses for efficient transmission among chickens. We also observed the generation of novel reassortant viruses during chicken transmission which infected and replicated efficiently in human cells. Therefore, such emergent reassortant genotypes may pose an elevated zoonotic threat.
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Evidence for Different Virulence Determinants and Host Response after Infection of Turkeys and Chickens with Highly Pathogenic H7N1 Avian Influenza Virus. J Virol 2022; 96:e0099422. [PMID: 35993736 PMCID: PMC9472639 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00994-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild birds are the reservoir for all avian influenza viruses (AIV). In poultry, the transition from low pathogenic (LP) AIV of H5 and H7 subtypes to highly pathogenic (HP) AIV is accompanied mainly by changing the hemagglutinin (HA) monobasic cleavage site (CS) to a polybasic motif (pCS). Galliformes, including turkeys and chickens, succumb with high morbidity and mortality to HPAIV infections, although turkeys appear more vulnerable than chickens. Surprisingly, the genetic determinants for virulence and pathogenesis of HPAIV in turkeys are largely unknown. Here, we determined the genetic markers for virulence and transmission of HPAIV H7N1 in turkeys, and we explored the host responses in this species compared to those of chickens. We found that recombinant LPAIV H7N1 carrying pCS was avirulent in chickens but exhibited high virulence in turkeys, indicating that virulence determinants vary in these two galliform species. A transcriptome analysis indicated that turkeys mount a different host response than do chickens, particularly from genes involved in RNA metabolism and the immune response. Furthermore, we found that the HA glycosylation at residue 123, acquired by LP viruses shortly after transmission from wild birds and preceding the transition from LP to HP, had a role in virus fitness and virulence in chickens, though it was not a prerequisite for high virulence in turkeys. Together, these findings indicate variable virulence determinants and host responses in two closely related galliformes, turkeys and chickens, after infection with HPAIV H7N1. These results could explain the higher vulnerability to HPAIV of turkeys compared to chickens. IMPORTANCE Infection with HPAIV in chickens and turkeys, two closely related galliform species, results in severe disease and death. Although the presence of a polybasic cleavage site (pCS) in the hemagglutinin of AIV is a major virulence determinant for the transition of LPAIV to HPAIV, there are knowledge gaps on the genetic determinants (including pCS) and the host responses in turkeys compared to chickens. Here, we found that the pCS alone was sufficient for the transformation of a LP H7N1 into a HPAIV in turkeys but not in chickens. We also noticed that turkeys exhibited a different host response to an HPAIV infection, namely, a widespread downregulation of host gene expression associated with protein synthesis and the immune response. These results are important for a better understanding of the evolution of HPAIV from LPAIV and of the different outcomes and the pathomechanisms of HPAIV infections in chickens and turkeys.
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Coinfection of Chickens with H9N2 and H7N9 Avian Influenza Viruses Leads to Emergence of Reassortant H9N9 Virus with Increased Fitness for Poultry and a Zoonotic Potential. J Virol 2022; 96:e0185621. [PMID: 35019727 PMCID: PMC8906417 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01856-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An H7N9 low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) emerged in 2013 through genetic reassortment between H9N2 and other LPAIVs circulating in birds in China. This virus causes inapparent clinical disease in chickens, but zoonotic transmission results in severe and fatal disease in humans. To examine a natural reassortment scenario between H7N9 and G1 lineage H9N2 viruses predominant in the Indian subcontinent, we performed an experimental coinfection of chickens with A/Anhui/1/2013/H7N9 (Anhui/13) virus and A/Chicken/Pakistan/UDL-01/2008/H9N2 (UDL/08) virus. Plaque purification and genotyping of the reassortant viruses shed via the oropharynx of contact chickens showed H9N2 and H9N9 as predominant subtypes. The reassortant viruses shed by contact chickens also showed selective enrichment of polymerase genes from H9N2 virus. The viable "6+2" reassortant H9N9 (having nucleoprotein [NP] and neuraminidase [NA] from H7N9 and the remaining genes from H9N2) was successfully shed from the oropharynx of contact chickens, plus it showed an increased replication rate in human A549 cells and a significantly higher receptor binding to α2,6 and α2,3 sialoglycans compared to H9N2. The reassortant H9N9 virus also had a lower fusion pH, replicated in directly infected ferrets at similar levels compared to H7N9 and transmitted via direct contact. Ferrets exposed to H9N9 via aerosol contact were also found to be seropositive, compared to H7N9 aerosol contact ferrets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating that cocirculation of H7N9 and G1 lineage H9N2 viruses could represent a threat for the generation of novel reassortant H9N9 viruses with greater virulence in poultry and a zoonotic potential. IMPORTANCE We evaluated the consequences of reassortment between the H7N9 and the contemporary H9N2 viruses of the G1 lineage that are enzootic in poultry across the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East. Coinfection of chickens with these viruses resulted in the emergence of novel reassortant H9N9 viruses with genes derived from both H9N2 and H7N9 viruses. The "6+2" reassortant H9N9 (having NP and NA from H7N9) virus was shed from contact chickens in a significantly higher proportion compared to most of the reassortant viruses, showed significantly increased replication fitness in human A549 cells, receptor binding toward human (α2,6) and avian (α2,3) sialic acid receptor analogues, and the potential to transmit via contact among ferrets. This study demonstrated the ability of viruses that already exist in nature to exchange genetic material, highlighting the potential emergence of viruses from these subtypes with zoonotic potential.
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9
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Ngunjiri JM, Taylor KJM, Ji H, Abundo MC, Ghorbani A, Kc M, Lee CW. Influenza A virus infection in turkeys induces respiratory and enteric bacterial dysbiosis correlating with cytokine gene expression. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11806. [PMID: 34327060 PMCID: PMC8310620 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Turkey respiratory and gut microbiota play important roles in promoting health and production performance. Loss of microbiota homeostasis due to pathogen infection can worsen the disease or predispose the bird to infection by other pathogens. While turkeys are highly susceptible to influenza viruses of different origins, the impact of influenza virus infection on turkey gut and respiratory microbiota has not been demonstrated. In this study, we investigated the relationships between low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) virus replication, cytokine gene expression, and respiratory and gut microbiota disruption in specific-pathogen-free turkeys. Differential replication of two LPAI H5N2 viruses paralleled the levels of clinical signs and cytokine gene expression. During active virus shedding, there was significant increase of ileal and nasal bacterial contents, which inversely corresponded with bacterial species diversity. Spearman’s correlation tests between bacterial abundance and local viral titers revealed that LPAI virus-induced dysbiosis was strongest in the nasal cavity followed by trachea, and weakest in the gut. Significant correlations were also observed between cytokine gene expression levels and relative abundances of several bacteria in tracheas of infected turkeys. For example, interferon γ/λ and interleukin-6 gene expression levels were correlated positively with Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas abundances, and negatively with Lactobacillus abundance. Overall, our data suggest a potential relationship where bacterial community diversity and enrichment or depletion of several bacterial genera in the gut and respiratory tract are dependent on the level of LPAI virus replication. Further work is needed to establish whether respiratory and enteric dysbiosis in LPAI virus-infected turkeys is a result of host immunological responses or other causes such as changes in nutritional uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Ngunjiri
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America
| | - Kara J M Taylor
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America.,Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Hana Ji
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America.,Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Michael C Abundo
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America
| | - Amir Ghorbani
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America.,Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Mahesh Kc
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America.,Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America.,Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Chang-Won Lee
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, United States of America.,Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
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10
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Seekings AH, Warren CJ, Thomas SS, Mahmood S, James J, Byrne AMP, Watson S, Bianco C, Nunez A, Brown IH, Brookes SM, Slomka MJ. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N6 (clade 2.3.4.4b) has a preferable host tropism for waterfowl reflected in its inefficient transmission to terrestrial poultry. Virology 2021; 559:74-85. [PMID: 33839461 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Highly-pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N6 (clade 2.3.4.4b) incurred into Europe in late 2017 and was predominantly detected in wild birds, with very few terrestrial poultry cases. Pekin ducks directly-infected with a UK virus (H5N6-2017) were donors of infection to investigate contact transmission to three recipient species: Ducks, chickens and turkeys. H5N6-2017 transmission to ducks was 100% efficient, but transmission to in-contact galliforme species was infrequent and unpredictable, thereby reflecting the European 2017-2018 H5N6 epidemiology. Although only two of 28 (7%) infected ducks died, the six turkeys and one chicken which became infected all died and displayed systemic H5N6-2017 dissemination, while pathogenesis in ducks was generally milder. Analysis of H5N6-2017 progeny in the contacts revealed no emergent polymorphisms in an infected duck, but the galliforme species included changes in the polymerase (PB2 A199T, PA D347A), matrix (M1 T218A) and neuraminidase genes (T88I). H5N6-2017 environmental contamination was associated with duck shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Seekings
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - C J Warren
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S S Thomas
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S Mahmood
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - J James
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - A M P Byrne
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S Watson
- Animal Sciences Unit, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - C Bianco
- Pathology Department, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - A Nunez
- Pathology Department, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - I H Brown
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S M Brookes
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - M J Slomka
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
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11
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A universal RT-qPCR assay for "One Health" detection of influenza A viruses. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0244669. [PMID: 33471840 PMCID: PMC7817021 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The mutual dependence of human and animal health is central to the One Health initiative as an integrated strategy for infectious disease control and management. A crucial element of the One Health includes preparation and response to influenza A virus (IAV) threats at the human-animal interface. The IAVs are characterized by extensive genetic variability, they circulate among different hosts and can establish host-specific lineages. The four main hosts are: avian, swine, human and equine, with occasional transmission to other mammalian species. The host diversity is mirrored in the range of the RT-qPCR assays for IAV detection. Different assays are recommended by the responsible health authorities for generic IAV detection in birds, swine or humans. In order to unify IAV monitoring in different hosts and apply the One Health approach, we developed a single RT-qPCR assay for universal detection of all IAVs of all subtypes, species origin and global distribution. The assay design was centred on a highly conserved region of the IAV matrix protein (MP)-segment identified by a comprehensive analysis of 99,353 sequences. The reaction parameters were effectively optimised with efficiency of 93–97% and LOD95% of approximately ten IAV templates per reaction. The assay showed high repeatability, reproducibility and robustness. The extensive in silico evaluation demonstrated high inclusivity, i.e. perfect sequence match in the primers and probe binding regions, established as 94.6% for swine, 98.2% for avian and 100% for human H3N2, pandemic H1N1, as well as other IAV strains, resulting in an overall predicted detection rate of 99% on the analysed dataset. The theoretical predictions were confirmed and extensively validated by collaboration between six veterinary or human diagnostic laboratories on a total of 1970 specimens, of which 1455 were clinical and included a diverse panel of IAV strains.
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12
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Świętoń E, Tarasiuk K, Śmietanka K. Low pathogenic avian influenza virus isolates with different levels of defective genome segments vary in pathogenicity and transmission efficiency. Vet Res 2020; 51:108. [PMID: 32859269 PMCID: PMC7453376 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00833-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Defective interfering particles (DIPs) of influenza virus are generated through incorporation of highly truncated forms of genome segments, mostly those coding polymerase complex proteins (PB2, PB1, PA). Such particles are able to replicate only in the presence of a virus with the complete genome, thus DIPs may alter the infection outcome by suppressing production of standard virus particles, but also by stimulating the immune response. In the present study we compared the clinical outcome, mortality and transmission in chickens and turkeys infected with the same infectious doses of H7N7 low pathogenic avian influenza virus containing different levels of defective gene segments (95/95(DVG-high) and 95/95(DVG-low)). No clinical signs, mortality or transmission were noted in SPF chickens inoculated with neither virus stock. Turkeys infected with 95/95(DVG-high) showed only slight clinical signs with no mortality, and the virus was transmitted only to birds in direct contact. In contrast, more severe disease, mortality and transmission to direct and indirect contact birds was observed in turkeys infected with 95/95(DVG-low). Apathy, lower water and food intake, respiratory system disorders and a total mortality of 60% were noted. Shedding patterns in contact turkeys indicated more efficient within- and between-host spread of the virus than in 95/95(DVG-high) group. Sequencing of virus genomes showed no mutations that could account for the observed differences in pathogenicity. The results suggest that the abundance of DIPs in the inoculum was the factor responsible for the mild course of infection and disrupted virus transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Świętoń
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland.
| | - Karolina Tarasiuk
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Śmietanka
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland
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13
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Seekings AH, Howard WA, Nuñéz A, Slomka MJ, Banyard AC, Hicks D, Ellis RJ, Nuñéz-García J, Hartgroves LC, Barclay WS, Banks J, Brown IH. The Emergence of H7N7 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus from Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Virus Using an in ovo Embryo Culture Model. Viruses 2020; 12:v12090920. [PMID: 32839404 PMCID: PMC7552004 DOI: 10.3390/v12090920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) often result in the infection of millions of poultry, causing up to 100% mortality. HPAIV has been shown to emerge from low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) in field outbreaks. Direct evidence for the emergence of H7N7 HPAIV from a LPAIV precursor with a rare di-basic cleavage site (DBCS) was identified in the UK in 2008. The DBCS contained an additional basic amino acid compared to commonly circulating LPAIVs that harbor a single-basic amino acid at the cleavage site (SBCS). Using reverse genetics, outbreak HPAIVs were rescued with a DBCS (H7N7DB), as seen in the LPAIV precursor or an SBCS representative of common H7 LPAIVs (H7N7SB). Passage of H7N7DB in chicken embryo tissues showed spontaneous evolution to a HPAIV. In contrast, deep sequencing of extracts from embryo tissues in which H7N7SB was serially passaged showed retention of the LPAIV genotype. Thus, in chicken embryos, an H7N7 virus containing a DBCS appears naturally unstable, enabling rapid evolution to HPAIV. Evaluation in embryo tissue presents a useful approach to study AIV evolution and allows a laboratory-based dissection of molecular mechanisms behind the emergence of HPAIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda H. Seekings
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Wendy A. Howard
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
| | - Alejandro Nuñéz
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (A.N.); (D.H.)
| | - Marek J. Slomka
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George’s Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Daniel Hicks
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (A.N.); (D.H.)
| | - Richard J. Ellis
- Surveillance and Laboratory Services Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (R.J.E.); (J.N.-G.)
| | - Javier Nuñéz-García
- Surveillance and Laboratory Services Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (R.J.E.); (J.N.-G.)
| | | | - Wendy S. Barclay
- Virology Department, Imperial College, London W2 1NY, UK; (L.C.H.); (W.S.B.)
| | - Jill Banks
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
| | - Ian H. Brown
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (W.A.H.); (M.J.S.); (A.C.B.); (J.B.); (I.H.B.)
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14
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Slomka MJ, Puranik A, Mahmood S, Thomas SS, Seekings AH, Byrne AMP, Núñez A, Bianco C, Mollett BC, Watson S, Brown IH, Brookes SM. Ducks Are Susceptible to Infection with a Range of Doses of H5N8 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (2016, Clade 2.3.4.4b) and Are Largely Resistant to Virus-Specific Mortality, but Efficiently Transmit Infection to Contact Turkeys. Avian Dis 2020; 63:172-180. [PMID: 31131575 DOI: 10.1637/11905-052518-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Widespread H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV; clade 2.3.4.4b) infections occurred in wild birds and poultry across Europe during winter 2016-17. Four different doses of H5N8 HPAIV (A/wigeon/Wales/052833/2016 [wg-Wal-16]) were used to infect 23 Pekin ducks divided into four separate pens, with three contact turkeys introduced for cohousing per pen at 1 day postinfection (dpi). All doses resulted in successful duck infection, with four sporadic mortalities recorded among the 23 (17%) infected ducks, which appeared unrelated to the dose. The ducks transmitted wg-Wal-16 efficiently to the contact turkeys; all 12 (100%) turkeys died. Systemic viral dissemination was detected in multiple organs in two duck mortalities, with limited viral dissemination in another duck, which died after resolution of shedding. Systemic viral tropism was observed in two of the turkeys. The study demonstrated the utility of Pekin ducks as surrogates of infected waterfowl to model the wild bird/gallinaceous poultry interface for introduction of H5N8 HPAIV into terrestrial poultry, where contact turkeys served as a susceptible host. Detection of H5N8-specific antibody up to 58 dpi assured the value of serologic surveillance in farmed ducks by hemagglutination inhibition and anti-nucleoprotein ELISAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek J Slomka
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom,
| | - Anita Puranik
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sahar Mahmood
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Saumya S Thomas
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda H Seekings
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander M P Byrne
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Pathology Department, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo Bianco
- Pathology Department, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin C Mollett
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Samantha Watson
- Animal Services Unit, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Ian H Brown
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
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15
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James J, Slomka MJ, Reid SM, Thomas SS, Mahmood S, Byrne AMP, Cooper J, Russell C, Mollett BC, Agyeman-Dua E, Essen S, Brown IH, Brookes SM. Proceedings Paper-Avian Diseases 10th AI Symposium Issue Development and Application of Real-Time PCR Assays for Specific Detection of Contemporary Avian Influenza Virus Subtypes N5, N6, N7, N8, and N9. Avian Dis 2020; 63:209-218. [PMID: 31131579 DOI: 10.1637/11900-051518-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Previously published NA subtype-specific real-time reverse-transcriptase PCRs (RRT-PCRs) were further validated for the detection of five avian influenza virus (AIV) NA subtypes, namely N5, N6, N7, N8, and N9. Testing of 30 AIV isolates of all nine NA subtypes informed the assay assessments, with the N5 and N9 RRT-PCRs retained as the original published assays while the N7 and N8 assays were modified in the primer-probe sequences to optimize detection of current threats. The preferred N6 RRT-PCR was either the original or the modified variant, depending on the specific H5N6 lineage. Clinical specimen (n = 137) testing revealed the ability of selected N5, N6, and N8 RRT-PCRs to sensitively detect clade 2.3.4.4b highly pathogenic AIV (HPAIV) infections due to H5N5, H5N6, and H5N8 subtypes, respectively, all originating from European poultry and wild bird cases during 2016-2018. Similar testing (n = 32 clinical specimens) also showed the ability of N7 and N9 RRT-PCRs to sensitively detect European H7N7 HPAIV and China-origin H7N9 low pathogenicity AIV infections, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe James
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom,
| | - Marek J Slomka
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Scott M Reid
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Saumya S Thomas
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sahar Mahmood
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander M P Byrne
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Jayne Cooper
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Russell
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin C Mollett
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Agyeman-Dua
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Steve Essen
- EU/OIE/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Ian H Brown
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.,EU/OIE/FAO International Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
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16
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Świętoń E, Tarasiuk K, Olszewska-Tomczyk M, Iwan E, Śmietanka K. A Turkey-origin H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus Shows Low Pathogenicity but Different Within-Host Diversity in Experimentally Infected Turkeys, Quail and Ducks. Viruses 2020; 12:v12030319. [PMID: 32188100 PMCID: PMC7150878 DOI: 10.3390/v12030319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza virus (AIV) is a highly diverse and widespread poultry pathogen. Its evolution and adaptation may be affected by multiple host and ecological factors, which are still poorly understood. In the present study, a turkey-origin H9N2 AIV was used as a model to investigate the within-host diversity of the virus in turkeys, quail and ducks in conjunction with the clinical course, shedding and seroconversion. Ten birds were inoculated oculonasally with a dose of 106 EID50 of the virus and monitored for 14 days. Virus shedding, transmission and seroconversion were evaluated, and swabs collected at selected time-points were characterized in deep sequencing to assess virus diversity. In general, the virus showed low pathogenicity for the examined bird species, but differences in shedding patterns, seroconversion and clinical outcome were noted. The highest heterogeneity of the virus population as measured by the number of single nucleotide polymorphisms and Shannon entropy was found in oropharyngeal swabs from quail, followed by turkeys and ducks. This suggests a strong bottleneck was imposed on the virus during replication in ducks, which can be explained by its poor adaptation and stronger selection pressure in waterfowl. The high within-host virus diversity in quail with high level of respiratory shedding and asymptomatic course of infection may contribute to our understanding of the role of quail as an intermediate host for adaptation of AIV to other species of poultry. In contrast, low virus complexity was observed in cloacal swabs, mainly from turkeys, showing that the within-host diversity may vary between different replication sites. Consequences of these observations on the virus evolution and adaptation require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Świętoń
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (K.T.); (M.O.-T.); (K.Ś.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Karolina Tarasiuk
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (K.T.); (M.O.-T.); (K.Ś.)
| | - Monika Olszewska-Tomczyk
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (K.T.); (M.O.-T.); (K.Ś.)
| | - Ewelina Iwan
- Department of Omics Analyses, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Śmietanka
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (K.T.); (M.O.-T.); (K.Ś.)
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17
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Abstract
The earliest recorded cases of what was likely high-pathogenicity AIV in poultry were reported in Italy in the 1870s. Avian influenza infection has been recognized in domestic poultry through the modern era of poultry production. Infection of poultry with either low pathogenic (LP) or highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza viruses (AIVs) can result in substantial economic consequences. Productivity can be reduced directly and indirectly because of disease leading to decreased egg or meat yield, mortality, vaccination costs, and restricted trade. Aquatic birds are the natural hosts for AIV, and infection tends to be subclinical, although some strains of HPAIV can cause losses in domestic ducks. Biosecurity and vaccination are the most common methods of preventing infection of poultry. Approaches to AIV control vary widely, but elimination of the disease in poultry is a common goal. The basics of AIV biology, clinical disease, molecular aspects, and AIV detection are briefly reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA.
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18
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Puranik A, Slomka MJ, Warren CJ, Thomas SS, Mahmood S, Byrne AMP, Ramsay AM, Skinner P, Watson S, Everett HE, Núñez A, Brown IH, Brookes SM. Transmission dynamics between infected waterfowl and terrestrial poultry: Differences between the transmission and tropism of H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (clade 2.3.4.4a) among ducks, chickens and turkeys. Virology 2019; 541:113-123. [PMID: 32056709 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
H5N8 highly-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs, clade 2.3.4.4) have spread globally via migratory waterfowl. Pekin ducks infected with a UK virus (H5N8-2014) served as the donors of infection in three separate cohousing experiments to attempt onward transmission chains to sequentially introduced groups of contact ducks, chickens and turkeys. Efficient transmission occurred among ducks and turkeys up to the third contact stage, with all (100%) birds becoming infected. Introduction of an additional fourth contact group of ducks to the turkey transmission chain demonstrated retention of H5N8-2014's waterfowl-competent adaptation. However, onward transmission ceased in chickens at the second contact stage where only 13% became infected. Analysis of viral progeny at this contact stage revealed no emergent polymorphisms in the intra-species (duck) transmission chain, but both terrestrial species included changes in the polymerase and accessory genes. Typical HPAIV pathogenesis and mortality occurred in infected chickens and turkeys, contrasting with 5% mortality among ducks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Puranik
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marek J Slomka
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Caroline J Warren
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Saumya S Thomas
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sahar Mahmood
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alexander M P Byrne
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Andrew M Ramsay
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Paul Skinner
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Samantha Watson
- Animal Sciences Unit, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Helen E Everett
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Pathology Department, APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ian H Brown
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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19
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Creating Disease Resistant Chickens: A Viable Solution to Avian Influenza? Viruses 2018; 10:v10100561. [PMID: 30326625 PMCID: PMC6213529 DOI: 10.3390/v10100561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) represents an ongoing threat to human and animal health worldwide. The generation of IAV-resistant chickens through genetic modification and/or selective breeding may help prevent viral spread. The feasibility of creating genetically modified birds has already been demonstrated with the insertion of transgenes that target IAV into the genomes of chickens. This approach has been met with some success in minimising the spread of IAV but has limitations in terms of its ability to prevent the emergence of disease. An alternate approach is the use of genetic engineering to improve host resistance by targeting the antiviral immune responses of poultry to IAV. Harnessing such resistance mechanisms in a “genetic restoration” approach may hold the greatest promise yet for generating disease resistant chickens. Continuing to identify genes associated with natural resistance in poultry provides the opportunity to identify new targets for genetic modification and/or selective breeding. However, as with any new technology, economic, societal, and legislative barriers will need to be overcome before we are likely to see commercialisation of genetically modified birds.
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Gonzales JL, Roberts H, Smietanka K, Baldinelli F, Ortiz-Pelaez A, Verdonck F. Assessment of low pathogenic avian influenza virus transmission via raw poultry meat and raw table eggs. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05431. [PMID: 32625713 PMCID: PMC7009628 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
A rapid qualitative assessment has been done by performing a theoretical analysis on the transmission of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) via fresh meat from poultry reared or kept in captivity for the production of meat (raw poultry meat) or raw table eggs. A predetermined transmission pathway followed a number of steps from a commercial or non-commercial poultry establishment within the EU exposed to LPAI virus (LPAIV) to the onward virus transmission to animals and humans. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans exposed via consumption whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry, wild birds and humans exposed via handling and manipulation. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans, whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and extremely unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and very unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. Although the presence of LPAIV in raw poultry meat and table eggs is very unlikely to negligible, there is in general a high level of uncertainty on the estimation of the subsequent probabilities of key steps of the transmission pathways for poultry and wild birds, mainly due to the limited number of studies available, for instance on the viral load required to infect a bird via raw poultry meat or raw table eggs containing LPAIV.
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Adlhoch C, Brouwer A, Kuiken T, Mulatti P, Smietanka K, Staubach C, Muñoz Guajardo I, Verdonck F, Amato L, Baldinelli F. Avian influenza overview February - May 2018. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05358. [PMID: 32625951 PMCID: PMC7009712 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Between 16 February and 15 May 2018, three highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N6) and 11 HPAI A(H5N8) outbreaks in poultry holdings, one HPAI A(H5N6) and one HPAI A(H5N8) outbreak in captive birds, and 55 HPAI A(H5N6) wild bird events were reported in Europe. There is no evidence to date that HPAI A(H5N6) viruses circulating in Europe are associated with clades infecting humans. Fewer HPAI wild bird cases have been detected than during the same period of previous year. Most of mortality events among wild birds involved single birds and species listed in the revised list of target species for passive surveillance. Raptor species constitute 74% of the HPAI-infected wild birds found dead. Those raptor species probably became infected by hunting or scavenging HPAI virus-positive birds, and so raptor cases may predominate later in the course of an HPAI epidemic. Despite the important HPAI virus incursion via wild birds there have been few associated HPAI A(H5N6) outbreaks in poultry. Fifteen low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) outbreaks were reported in three Member States. The risk of zoonotic transmission to the general public in Europe is considered to be very low. The situation in Africa and the Middle East should be closely monitored with regards to HPAI A(H5N1) and A(H5N8). Uncontrolled spread of the virus and subsequent further genetic evolution in regions geographically connected to Europe may increase uncertainty and the risk for further dissemination of virus. Long-distance migrating wild birds from southern Africa, e.g. the common tern (Sterna hirundo), may be included in targeted active surveillance schemes at a few priority locations in Europe in order to detect HPAI A(H5)-infected migrating birds early. However, the risk of HPAI introduction from non-EU countries via migratory wild birds to Europe is still considered to be much lower for wild birds crossing the southern borders than for those crossing the north-eastern borders.
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