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Hwang SJ, Kim M, Jones A, Basma N, Baker SA, Sanders KM, Ward SM. Interstitial cells of the sip syncytium regulate basal membrane potential in murine gastric corpus. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23863. [PMID: 39143726 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202400982r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
Smooth muscle cells (SMCs), Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) and Platelet-derived growth factor receptor α positive (PDGFRα+) cells form an integrated, electrical syncytium within the gastrointestinal (GI) muscular tissues known as the SIP syncytium. Immunohistochemical analysis of gastric corpus muscles showed that c-KIT+/ANO1+ ICC-IM and PDGFRα+ cells were closely apposed to one another in the same anatomical niches. We used intracellular microelectrode recording from corpus muscle bundles to characterize the roles of intramuscular ICC and PDGFRα+ cells in conditioning membrane potentials of gastric muscles. In muscle bundles, that have a relatively higher input impedance than larger muscle strips or sheets, we recorded an ongoing discharge of stochastic fluctuations in membrane potential, previously called unitary potentials or spontaneous transient depolarizations (STDs) and spontaneous transient hyperpolarizations (STHs). We reasoned that STDs should be blocked by antagonists of ANO1, the signature conductance of ICC. Activation of ANO1 has been shown to generate spontaneous transient inward currents (STICs), which are the basis for STDs. Ani9 reduced membrane noise and caused hyperpolarization, but this agent did not block the fluctuations in membrane potential quantitatively. Apamin, an antagonist of small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (SK3), the signature conductance in PDGFRα+ cells, further reduced membrane noise and caused depolarization. Reversing the order of channel antagonists reversed the sequence of depolarization and hyperpolarization. These experiments show that the ongoing discharge of STDs and STHs by ICC and PDGFRα+ cells, respectively, exerts conditioning effects on membrane potentials in the SIP syncytium that would effectively regulate the excitability of SMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Jin Hwang
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - MinKyung Kim
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Amanda Jones
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Naseer Basma
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Salah A Baker
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Kenton M Sanders
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Sean M Ward
- Department of Physiology & Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
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Zholos AV, Melnyk MI, Dryn DO. Molecular mechanisms of cholinergic neurotransmission in visceral smooth muscles with a focus on receptor-operated TRPC4 channel and impairment of gastrointestinal motility by general anaesthetics and anxiolytics. Neuropharmacology 2024; 242:109776. [PMID: 37913983 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in visceral smooth muscles, wherein it binds to and activates two muscarinic receptors subtypes, M2 and M3, thus causing smooth muscle excitation and contraction. The first part of this review focuses on the types of cells involved in cholinergic neurotransmission and on the molecular mechanisms underlying acetylcholine-induced membrane depolarisation, which is the central event of excitation-contraction coupling causing Ca2+ entry via L-type Ca2+ channels and smooth muscle contraction. Studies of the muscarinic cation current in intestinal myocytes (mICAT) revealed its main molecular counterpart, receptor-operated TRPC4 channel, which is activated in synergy by both M2 and M3 receptors. M3 receptors activation is of permissive nature, while activation of M2 receptors via Gi/o proteins that are coupled to them plays a direct role in TRPC4 opening. Our understanding of signalling pathways underlying mICAT generation has vastly expanded in recent years through studies of TRPC4 gating in native cells and its regulation in heterologous cells. Recent studies using muscarinic receptor knockout have established that at low agonist concentration activation of both M2 receptor and the M2/M3 receptor complex elicits smooth muscle contraction, while at high agonist concentration M3 receptor function becomes dominant. Based on this knowledge, in the second part of this review we discuss the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the numerous anticholinergic effects on neuroactive drugs, in particular general anaesthetics and anxiolytics, which can significantly impair gastrointestinal motility. This article is part of the Special Issue on "Ukrainian Neuroscience".
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Zholos
- Educational and Scientific Centre "Institute of Biology and Medicine", Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine.
| | - Mariia I Melnyk
- Educational and Scientific Centre "Institute of Biology and Medicine", Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine; A.A. Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Dariia O Dryn
- A.A. Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
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Ko J, Kim J, Myeong J, Kwak M, So I. Negative self-regulation of transient receptor potential canonical 4 by the specific interaction with phospholipase C-δ1. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2023; 27:187-196. [PMID: 36815258 PMCID: PMC9968946 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2023.27.2.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are non-selective calcium-permeable cation channels. It is suggested that TRPC4β is regulated by phospholipase C (PLC) signaling and is especially maintained by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). In this study, we present the regulation mechanism of the TRPC4 channel with PIP2 hydrolysis which is mediated by a channel-bound PLCδ1 but not by the GqPCR signaling pathway. Our electrophysiological recordings demonstrate that the Ca2+ via an open TRPC4 channel activates PLCδ1 in the physiological range, and it causes the decrease of current amplitude. The existence of PLCδ1 accelerated PIP2 depletion when the channel was activated by an agonist. Interestingly, PLCδ1 mutants which have lost the ability to regulate PIP2 level failed to reduce the TRPC4 current amplitude. Our results demonstrate that TRPC4 self-regulates its activity by allowing Ca2+ ions into the cell and promoting the PIP2 hydrolyzing activity of PLCδ1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyeon Ko
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Jinhyeong Kim
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Jongyun Myeong
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Misun Kwak
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Insuk So
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea,Correspondence Insuk So, E-mail:
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4
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Jeong B, Sung TS, Jeon D, Park KJ, Jun JY, So I, Hong C. Inhibition of TRPC4 channel activity in colonic myocytes by tricyclic antidepressants disrupts colonic motility causing constipation. J Cell Mol Med 2022; 26:4911-4923. [PMID: 35560982 PMCID: PMC9549500 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have been used to treat depression and were recently approved for treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients with severe or refractory IBS symptoms. However, the molecular mechanism of TCA action in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract remains poorly understood. Transient receptor potential channel canonical type 4 (TRPC4), which is a Ca2+‐permeable nonselective cation channel, is a critical regulator of GI excitability. Herein, we investigated whether TCA modulates TRPC4 channel activity and which mechanism in colonic myocytes consequently causes constipation. To prove the clinical benefit in patients with diarrhoea caused by TCA treatment, we performed mechanical tension recording of repetitive motor pattern (RMP) in segment, electric field stimulation (EFS)‐induced and spontaneous contractions in isolated muscle strips. From these recordings, we observed that all TCA compounds significantly inhibited contractions of colonic motility in human. To determine the contribution of TRPC4 to colonic motility, we measured the electrical activity of heterologous or endogenous TRPC4 by TCAs using the patch clamp technique in HEK293 cells and murine colonic myocytes. In TRPC4‐overexpressed HEK cells, we observed TCA‐evoked direct inhibition of TRPC4. Compared with TRPC4‐knockout mice, we identified that muscarinic cationic current (mIcat) was suppressed through TRPC4 inhibition by TCA in isolated murine colonic myocytes. Collectively, we suggest that TCA action is responsible for the inhibition of TRPC4 channels in colonic myocytes, ultimately causing constipation. These findings provide clinical insights into abnormal intestinal motility and medical interventions aimed at IBS therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byeongseok Jeong
- Department of Physiology, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Tae Sik Sung
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea.,Biomedical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Dongju Jeon
- Department of Physiology, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Kyu Joo Park
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jae Yeoul Jun
- Department of Physiology, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Insuk So
- Department of Physiology and Institute of Dermatological Science, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Chansik Hong
- Department of Physiology, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea
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Tanahashi Y, Komori S, Matsuyama H, Kitazawa T, Unno T. Functions of Muscarinic Receptor Subtypes in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle: A Review of Studies with Receptor-Knockout Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:E926. [PMID: 33477687 PMCID: PMC7831928 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasympathetic signalling via muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) regulates gastrointestinal smooth muscle function. In most instances, the mAChR population in smooth muscle consists mainly of M2 and M3 subtypes in a roughly 80% to 20% mixture. Stimulation of these mAChRs triggers a complex array of biochemical and electrical events in the cell via associated G proteins, leading to smooth muscle contraction and facilitating gastrointestinal motility. Major signalling events induced by mAChRs include adenylyl cyclase inhibition, phosphoinositide hydrolysis, intracellular Ca2+ mobilisation, myofilament Ca2+ sensitisation, generation of non-selective cationic and chloride currents, K+ current modulation, inhibition or potentiation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ currents and membrane depolarisation. A lack of ligands with a high degree of receptor subtype selectivity and the frequent contribution of multiple receptor subtypes to responses in the same cell type have hampered studies on the signal transduction mechanisms and functions of individual mAChR subtypes. Therefore, novel strategies such as genetic manipulation are required to elucidate both the contributions of specific AChR subtypes to smooth muscle function and the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this article, we review recent studies on muscarinic function in gastrointestinal smooth muscle using mAChR subtype-knockout mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Tanahashi
- Department of Advanced Life Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto 603-8555, Japan;
| | - Seiichi Komori
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (S.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Hayato Matsuyama
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (S.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Takio Kitazawa
- Department of Veterinary Science, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan;
| | - Toshihiro Unno
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (S.K.); (H.M.)
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Melnyk MI, Dryn DO, Al Kury LT, Dziuba DO, Zholos AV. Suppression of mI CAT in Mouse Small Intestinal Myocytes by General Anaesthetic Ketamine and its Recovery by TRPC4 Agonist (-)-englerin A. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:594882. [PMID: 33390980 PMCID: PMC7775583 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.594882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of the negative impact of general anesthetics on gastrointestinal motility requires thorough knowledge of their molecular targets. In this respect the muscarinic cationic current (mICAT carried mainly via TRPC4 channels) that initiates cholinergic excitation-contraction coupling in the gut is of special interest. Here we aimed to characterize the effects of one of the most commonly used “dissociative anesthetics”, ketamine, on mICAT. Patch-clamp and tensiometry techniques were used to investigate the mechanisms of the inhibitory effects of ketamine on mICAT in single mouse ileal myocytes, as well as on intestinal motility. Ketamine (100 µM) strongly inhibited both carbachol- and GTPγS-induced mICAT. The inhibition was slow (time constant of about 1 min) and practically irreversible. It was associated with altered voltage dependence and kinetics of mICAT. In functional tests, ketamine suppressed both spontaneous and carbachol-induced contractions of small intestine. Importantly, inhibited by ketamine mICAT could be restored by direct TRPC4 agonist (-)-englerin A. We identified mICAT as a novel target for ketamine. Signal transduction leading to TRPC4 channel opening is disrupted by ketamine mainly downstream of muscarinic receptor activation, but does not involve TRPC4 per se. Direct TRPC4 agonists may be used for the correction of gastrointestinal disorders provoked by general anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariia I Melnyk
- A.A. Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Academy of Medical Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.,ESC "Institute of Biology and Medicine", Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Dariia O Dryn
- A.A. Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Academy of Medical Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.,ESC "Institute of Biology and Medicine", Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Lina T Al Kury
- Department of Health Sciences, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Dmytro O Dziuba
- Shupyk National Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Alexander V Zholos
- ESC "Institute of Biology and Medicine", Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
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Structure-Function Relationship and Physiological Roles of Transient Receptor Potential Canonical (TRPC) 4 and 5 Channels. Cells 2019; 9:cells9010073. [PMID: 31892199 PMCID: PMC7017149 DOI: 10.3390/cells9010073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of the structure–function relationship of ion channels has been one of the most challenging goals in contemporary physiology. Revelation of the three-dimensional (3D) structure of ion channels has facilitated our understanding of many of the submolecular mechanisms inside ion channels, such as selective permeability, voltage dependency, agonist binding, and inter-subunit multimerization. Identifying the structure–function relationship of the ion channels is clinically important as well since only such knowledge can imbue potential therapeutics with practical possibilities. In a sense, recent advances in the understanding of the structure–relationship of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels look promising since human TRPC channels are calcium-permeable, non-selective cation channels expressed in many tissues such as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, kidney, heart, vasculature, and brain. TRPC channels are known to regulate GI contractility and motility, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy, podocyte injury, seizure, fear, anxiety-like behavior, and many others. In this article, we tried to elaborate recent findings of Cryo-EM (cryogenic-electron microscopy) based structural information of TRPC 4 and 5 channels and domain-specific functions of the channel, such as G-protein mediated activation mechanism, extracellular modification of the channel, homo/hetero-tetramerization, and pharmacological gating mechanisms.
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8
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Species-Related Differences in the Properties of TRPC4 Channels in Intestinal Myocytes of Rodents. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY+ 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11062-016-9592-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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Tanahashi Y, Wang B, Murakami Y, Unno T, Matsuyama H, Nagano H, Komori S. Inhibitory effects of SKF96365 on the activities of K(+) channels in mouse small intestinal smooth muscle cells. J Vet Med Sci 2015; 78:203-11. [PMID: 26498720 PMCID: PMC4785108 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.15-0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of SKF96365 (SKF), which is a non-selective cationic channel blocker, on
K+ channel currents, we recorded currents through ATP sensitive K+ (IKATP),
voltage-gated K+ (IKv) and Ca2+ activated K+ channels
(IBK) in the absence and presence of SKF in single small intestinal myocytes of mice with
patch-clamp techniques. SKF (10 µM) reversibly abolished IKATP that was induced by
cromakalim (10 µM), which is a selective ATP sensitive K+ channel opener. These
inhibitory effects were induced in a concentration-dependent and voltage-independent manner. The 50%
inhibitory concentration (IC50) was 0.85 µM, which was obviously lower than that
reported for the muscarinic cationic current. In addition, SKF (1 µM ≈ the IC50
value in IKATP suppression) reversibly inhibited the IKv that was induced by repetitive
depolarizing pulses from −80 to 20 mV. However, the extent of the inhibitory effects was only ~30%. In
contrast, SKF (1 µM) had no significant effects on spontaneous transient IBK and
caffeine-induced IBK. These results indicated that SKF inhibited ATP sensitive K+
channels and voltage-gated K+ channels, with the ATP sensitive K+ channels being more
sensitive than the voltage-gated K+ channels. These inhibitory effects on K+ channels
should be considered when SKF is used as a cationic channel blocker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Tanahashi
- Department of Animal Medical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-Ku, Kyoto 603-8555, Japan
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Inhibition of native 5-HT3 receptor-evoked contractions in guinea pig and mouse ileum by antimalarial drugs. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 738:186-91. [PMID: 24886883 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Quinine, chloroquine and mefloquine are commonly used to treat malaria, however, with associated gastrointestinal (GI) side-effects. These drugs act as antagonists at recombinant 5-HT3 receptors and modulate gut peristalsis. These gastrointestinal side effects may be the result of antagonism at intestinal 5-HT3 receptors. Ileum from male C57BL/6 mice and guinea pigs was mounted longitudinally in organ baths. The concentration-response curves for 5-HT and the selective 5-HT3 agonist 2-Me-5-HT were obtained with 5-HT (pEC50 = 7.57 ± 0.33, 12) more potent (P = 0.004) than 2-Me-5-HT (pEC50 = 5.45 ± 0.58, n = 5) in mouse ileum. There was no difference in potency of 5-HT (pEC50 = 5.42 ± 0.15, n = 8) and 2-Me-5-HT (pIC50 = 5.01 ± 0.55, n = 11) in guinea pig ileum (P > 0.05). Quinine, chloroquine or mefloquine was applied for 10 min and inhibitions prior to submaximal agonist application. In mouse ileum, quinine, chloroquine and mefloquine antagonised 5-HT-induced contractions (pIC50 = 4.9 ± 0.17, n = 7; 4.76 ± 0.14, n = 5; 6.21 ± 0.2, n = 4, correspondingly) with mefloquine most potent (P < 0.05). Quinine, chloroquine and mefloquine antagonised 2-me-5-HT-induced contractions (pIC50 = 6.35 ± 0.11, n = 8; 4.64 ± 0.2, n = 7; 5.11 ± 0.22, n = 6, correspondingly) with quinine most potent (P < 0.05). In guinea-pig ileum, quinine, chloroquine and mefloquine antagonised 5-HT-induced contractions (pIC50 = 5.02 ± 0.15, n = 6; 4.54 ± 0.1, n = 7; 5.32 ± 0.13, n = 5) and 2-me-5-HT-induced contractions (pIC50 = 4.62 ± 0.25, n = 5; 4.56 ± 0.14, n = 6; 5.67 ± 0.12, n = 4) with chloroquine least potent against 5-HT and mefloquine most potent against 2-me-5-HT (P < 0.05). These results support previous studies identifying anti-malarial drugs as antagonists at recombinant 5-HT3 receptors and may also demonstrate the ability of these drugs to influence native 5-HT3 receptor-evoked contractile responses which may account for their associated GI side-effects.
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Matsuyama H, Tanahashi Y, Kitazawa T, Yamada M, Komori S, Unno T. Evidence for M2 and M3 muscarinic receptor involvement in cholinergic excitatory junction potentials through synergistic activation of cation channels in the longitudinal muscle of mouse ileum. J Pharmacol Sci 2013; 121:227-36. [PMID: 23446189 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.12231fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholinergic nerve-mediated excitatory junction potentials (EJPs) in the longitudinal muscle of mouse ileum were characterized by using M2 or M3 muscarinic receptor-knockout (KO) mice and 1-[β-[3-(4-methoxyphenyl) propoxy]-4-methoxyphenethyl]-1H-imidazole hydrochloride (SK&F 96365) and pertussis toxin (PTX). EJPs evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) in wild-type preparations, initially determined to be cholinergic in origin using tetrodotoxin, atropine, and eserine, were profoundly depressed after SK&F 96365 treatment known to block muscarinic receptor-operated cation channels. A similar depression of the EJPs was also observed by PTX treatment, which is predicted to disrupt M2-mediated pathways linked to cation channel activation. In M2-KO mouse preparations, cholinergic EJPs were evoked by EFS with their relative amplitude of 20%-30% to the wild-type EJP and strongly inhibited by SK&F 96365. No cholinergic EJP was seen in M3-KO as well as M2/M3 double-KO preparations. The results suggest that the wild-type cholinergic EJP is not a simple mixture of M2 and M3 responses, but due to synergistic activation of cation channels by both M2 and M3 receptors in the murine ileal longitudinal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayato Matsuyama
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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12
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Abstract
Muscarinic agonists and antagonists are used to treat a handful of gastrointestinal (GI) conditions associated with impaired salivary secretion or altered motility of GI smooth muscle. With regard to exocrine secretion, the major muscarinic receptor expressed in salivary, gastric, and pancreatic glands is the M₃ with a small contribution of the M₁ receptor. In GI smooth muscle, the major muscarinic receptors expressed are the M₂ and M₃ with the M₂ outnumbering the M₃ by a ratio of at least four to one. The antagonism of both smooth muscle contraction and exocrine secretion is usually consistent with an M₃ receptor mechanism despite the major presence of the M₂ receptor in smooth muscle. These results are consistent with the conditional role of the M₂ receptor in smooth muscle. That is, the contractile role of the M₂ receptor depends on that of the M₃ so that antagonism of the M₃ receptor eliminates the response of the M₂. The physiological roles of muscarinic receptors in the GI tract are consistent with their known signaling mechanisms. Some so-called tissue-selective M₃ antagonists may owe their selectivity to a highly potent interaction with a nonmuscarinic receptor target.
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Bayguinov O, Dwyer L, Kim H, Marklew A, Sanders KM, Koh SD. Contribution of Rho-kinase to membrane excitability of murine colonic smooth muscle. Br J Pharmacol 2011; 163:638-48. [PMID: 21265824 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01241.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The Rho-kinase pathway regulates agonist-induced contractions in several smooth muscles, including the intestine, urinary bladder and uterus, via dynamic changes in the Ca(2+) sensitivity of the contractile apparatus. However, there is evidence that Rho-kinase also modulates other cellular effectors such as ion channels. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We examined the regulation of colonic smooth muscle excitability by Rho-kinase using conventional microelectrode recording, isometric force measurements and patch-clamp techniques. KEY RESULTS The Rho-kinase inhibitors, Y-27632 and H-1152, decreased nerve-evoked on- and off-contractions elicited at a range of frequencies and durations. The Rho-kinase inhibitors decreased the spontaneous contractions and the responses to carbachol and substance P independently of neuronal inputs, suggesting Y-27632 acts directly on smooth muscle. The Rho-kinase inhibitors significantly reduced the depolarization in response to carbachol, an effect that cannot be due to regulation of Ca(2+) sensitization. Patch-clamp experiments showed that Rho-kinase inhibitors reduce GTPγS-activated non-selective cation currents. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The Rho-kinase inhibitors decreased contractions evoked by nerve stimulation, carbachol and substance P. These effects were not solely due to inhibition of the Ca(2+) sensitization pathway, as the Rho-kinase inhibitors also inhibited the non-selective cation conductances activated by excitatory transmitters. Thus, Rho-kinase may regulate smooth muscle excitability mechanisms by regulating non-selective cation channels as well as changing the Ca(2+) sensitivity of the contractile apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Bayguinov
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada Reno, School of Medicine, USA
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14
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Sung TS, Jeon JP, Kim BJ, Hong C, Kim SY, Kim J, Jeon JH, Kim HJ, Suh CK, Kim SJ, So I. Molecular determinants of PKA-dependent inhibition of TRPC5 channel. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2011; 301:C823-32. [PMID: 21734191 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00351.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels are Ca(2+)-permeable, nonselective cation channels that are widely expressed in numerous cell types. Here, we demonstrate a new mechanism of TPRC isofom 5 (TRPC5) regulation, via cAMP signaling via Gα(s). Monovalent cation currents in human embryonic kidney-293 cells transfected with TRPC5 were induced by G protein activation with intracellular perfusion of GTPγS or by muscarinic stimulation. This current could be inhibited by a membrane-permeable analog of cAMP, 8-bromo-cAMP, by isoproterenol, by a constitutively active form of Gα(s) [Gα(s) (Q227L)], and by forskolin. These inhibitory effects were blocked by the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitors, KT-5720 and H-89, as well as by two point mutations at consensus PKA phosphorylation sites on TRPC5 (S794A and S796A). Surface expression of several mutated versions of TRPC5, quantified using surface biotinylation, were not affected by Gα(s) (Q227L), suggesting that trafficking of this channel does not underlie the regulation we report. This mechanism of inhibition was also found to be important for the closely related channel, TRPC4, in particular for TRPC4α, although TRPC4β was also affected. However, this form of regulation was not found to be involved in TRPC6 and transient receptor potential vanilloid 6 function. In murine intestinal smooth muscle cells, muscarinic stimulation-induced cation currents were mediated by TRPC4 (>80%) and TRPC6. In murine intestinal smooth muscle cells, 8-bromo-cAMP, adrenaline, and isoproterenol decreased nonselective cation currents activated by muscarinic stimulation or GTPγS. Together, these results suggest that TRPC5 is directly phosphorylated by G(s)/cAMP/PKA at positions S794 and S796. This mechanism may be physiologically important in visceral tissues, where muscarinic receptor and β(2)-adrenergic receptor are involved in the relaxation and contraction of smooth muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Sik Sung
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Korea
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15
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Tsvilovskyy VV, Zholos AV, Aberle T, Philipp SE, Dietrich A, Zhu MX, Birnbaumer L, Freichel M, Flockerzi V. Deletion of TRPC4 and TRPC6 in mice impairs smooth muscle contraction and intestinal motility in vivo. Gastroenterology 2009; 137:1415-24. [PMID: 19549525 PMCID: PMC2757464 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2008] [Revised: 05/20/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Downstream effects of muscarinic receptor stimulation in intestinal smooth muscle include contraction and intestinal transit. We thought to determine whether classic transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels integrate the intracellular signaling cascades evoked by the stimulated receptors and thereby contribute to the control of the membrane potential, Ca-influx, and cell responses. METHODS We created trpc4-, trpc6-, and trpc4/trpc6-gene-deficient mice and analyzed them for intestinal smooth muscle function in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS In intestinal smooth muscle cells TRPC4 forms a 55 pS cation channel and underlies more than 80% of the muscarinic receptor-induced cation current (mI(CAT)). The residual mI(CAT) depends on the expression of TRPC6, indicating that TRPC6 and TRPC4 determine mI(CAT) channel activity independent of other channel subunits. In TRPC4-deficient ileal myocytes the carbachol-induced membrane depolarizations are diminished greatly and the atropine-sensitive contraction elicited by acetylcholine release from excitatory motor neurons is reduced greatly. Additional deletion of TRPC6 aggravates these effects. Intestinal transit is slowed down in mice lacking TRPC4 and TRPC6. CONCLUSIONS In intestinal smooth muscle cells TRPC4 and TRPC6 channels are gated by muscarinic receptors and are responsible for mI(CAT). They couple muscarinic receptors to depolarization of intestinal smooth muscle cells and voltage-activated Ca(2+)-influx and contraction, and thereby accelerate small intestinal motility in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volodymyr V. Tsvilovskyy
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Alexander V. Zholos
- Centre for Vision & Vascular Science, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queens’s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Thomas Aberle
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Stephan E. Philipp
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Dietrich
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Medizinische Fakultät, Universität Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Michael X. Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience, Biochemistry, and Center for Molecular Neurobiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus OH 43210, USA
| | - Lutz Birnbaumer
- Signal Transduction and Neurobiology Laboratories, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Marc Freichel
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Veit Flockerzi
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66421 Homburg, Germany
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16
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Zhang HM, Chen SR, Cai YQ, Richardson TE, Driver LC, Lopez-Berestein G, Pan HL. Signaling mechanisms mediating muscarinic enhancement of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the spinal cord. Neuroscience 2008; 158:1577-88. [PMID: 19110040 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2008] [Revised: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) inhibits spinal nociceptive transmission by potentiation of GABAergic tone through M(2), M(3), and M(4) subtypes. To study the signaling mechanisms involved in this unique mAChR action, GABAergic spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) of lamina II neurons were recorded using whole-cell patch clamp techniques in rat spinal cord slices. The mAChR agonist oxotremorine-M caused a profound increase in the frequency of GABAergic sIPSCs, which was abolished in the Ca(2+)-free solution. Inhibition of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels with Cd(2+) and Ni(2+) largely reduced the effect of oxotremorine-M on sIPSCs. Blocking nonselective cation channels (NSCCs) with SKF96365 or 2-APB also largely attenuated the effect of oxotremorine-M. However, the KCNQ channel blocker XE991 and the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor MDL12330A had no significant effect on oxotremorine-M-induced increases in sIPSCs. Furthermore, the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin or LY294002 significantly reduced the potentiating effect of oxotremorine-M on sIPSCs. In the spinal cord in which the M(3) subtype was specifically knocked down by intrathecal small interfering RNA (siRNA) treatment, SKF96365 and wortmannin still significantly attenuated the effect of oxotremorine-M. In contrast, SKF96365 and wortmannin both failed to alter the effect of oxotremorine-M on sIPSCs when the M(2)/M(4) mAChRs were blocked. Therefore, our study provides new evidence that activation of mAChRs increases synaptic GABA release through Ca(2+) influx and voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. The PI3K-NSCC signaling cascade is primarily involved in the excitation of GABAergic interneurons by the M(2)/M(4) mAChRs in the spinal dorsal horn.
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Affiliation(s)
- H-M Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Sakamoto T, Matsuyama H, Yamamoto M, Tanahashi Y, Kitazawa T, Taneike T, Komori S, Unno T. A non-selective cationic channel activated by diacylglycerol in mouse intestinal myocytes. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 599:54-7. [PMID: 18845139 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2008] [Revised: 09/11/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Application of 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), an analogue of diacylglycerol (DAG) formed via M(3) muscarinic receptors, induced inward cationic currents via a protein kinase C-independent mechanism and produced membrane depolarization with increased action potential discharges in mouse intestinal myocytes. Outside-out patches from the myocytes responded to OAG with openings of 115-pS channels characterized by a mean open time (O(tau)) of 0.15 ms. M(3) receptor stimulation is reportedly capable of causing brief openings (O(tau)=0.23 ms) of 120-pS cationic channels in intestinal myocytes, thus the present results strongly support the idea that the M(3)-mediated 120-pS channel opening is brought about via DAG-dependent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Sakamoto
- Department of Pathogenetic Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
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18
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Kim BJ, Kim MT, Jeon JH, Kim SJ, So I. Involvement of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in the desensitization of canonical transient receptor potential 5. Biol Pharm Bull 2008; 31:1733-1738. [PMID: 18758068 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.31.1733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
The classic transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) is a candidate for Ca(2+)-permeable cation channel in mammalian cells. TRPC5 is desensitized rapidly after activation by G protein-coupled receptor. Here we investigate the mechanisms of desensitization of TRPC5 using patch-clamp recording. TRPC5 was initially activated by muscarinic stimulation using 50 microM carbachol (CCh) and decayed rapidly in the presence of CCh (desensitization). Intracellularly-applied phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) slowed the rate of desensitization. In contrast, several other phosphoinositides, including PI(3,4)P(2), PI(3,5)P(2), PI(3,4,5)P(3) and PI(4)P, had no effect on the desensitization of the TRPC5 current. This indicates that PIP(2) attenuates the desensitization of the TRPC5 current in a highly selective manner. Neither wortmannin, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase, or poly-L-lysine (PLL), a scavenger of PIP(2), had any effect on desensitization of the TRPC5 current. PIP(2) breakdown appears to be a required step in the desensitization of TRPC5 current, but PIP(2) depletion alone was insufficient for channel desensitization. TRPC5 was inhibited by cytochalasin D treatment. In mouse ileal myocytes, the desensitization of CCh-activated inward current (I(CCh)) also slowed in the presence of PIP(2) in recording pipettes. These results indicate that PIP(2) is involved in the desensitization of TRPC5 currents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung Joo Kim
- Center for Bio-Artificial Muscle and Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Kim BJ, Jeon JH, Kim SJ, So I. Role of calmodulin and myosin light chain kinase in the activation of carbachol-activated cationic current in murine ileal myocytes. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 85:1254-62. [PMID: 18066127 DOI: 10.1139/y07-118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effect of calmodulin (CaM) and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) on murine ileal myocytes using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Under the voltage clamp, at the holding potential of -60 mV, 50 micromol/L carbachol (CCh) induced inward currents (I CCh), and spontaneous decay of I CCh occurred. The peak inward currents induced by the repetitive application of CCh (50 micromol/L) tended to decrease in amplitude. Intracellular application of 0.2 mmol/L guanosine 5'-O-(gamma-thio)triphosphate (GTP gammaS) from the patch electrode induced an inward current at a holding potential of -60m V, and the peak inward currents induced by the repetitive application of Cs tended to decrease slightly in amplitude. The amplitude of I CCh was reduced by pretreatment either with W-7, trifluoroperazine, W-5, and melittin (CaM inhibitors) or with ML-7 and ML-9 (selective MLCK inhibitors), and the inhibitory effects were reversible. However, when we pretreated with 50 micromol/L W-7 or 5 micromol/L ML-7 on GTP gammaS-induced inward currents, almost no inhibition was observed in the inward currents. Application of both Rho kinase inhibitor and MLCK inhibitor inhibited GTP gammaS-induced currents. We conclude that CaM and MLCK modulate the activation process of I CCh in murine ileal myocytes and suggest that the classical type transient receptor potential (TRPC) channel 5 might be a candidate for nonselective cationic currents (NSCC) activated by muscarinic stimulation in gastrointestinal smooth muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung Joo Kim
- Center for Bio-Artificial Muscle and Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea
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Yamamoto M, Unno T, Matsuyama H, Kohda M, Masuda N, Nishimura M, Ishii T, Komori S. Two Types of Cation Channel Activated by Stimulation of Muscarinic Receptors in Guinea-Pig Urinary Bladder Smooth Muscle. J Pharmacol Sci 2008; 108:248-57. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.08138fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Sakamoto T, Unno T, Kitazawa T, Taneike T, Yamada M, Wess J, Nishimura M, Komori S. Three distinct muscarinic signalling pathways for cationic channel activation in mouse gut smooth muscle cells. J Physiol 2007; 582:41-61. [PMID: 17463038 PMCID: PMC2075272 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.133165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Using mutant mice genetically lacking certain subtypes of muscarinic receptor, we have studied muscarinic signal pathways mediating cationic channel activation in intestinal smooth muscle cells. In cells from M2 subtype-knockout (M2-KO) or M3-KO mice, carbachol (100 microM) evoked a muscarinic cationic current (mI(Cat)) as small as approximately 10% of mI(Cat) in wild-type (WT) cells. No appreciable current was evoked in M2/M3 double-KO cells. All mutant type cells preserved normal G-protein-cationic channel coupling. The M3-KO and WT mI(Cat) each showed a U-shaped current-voltage (I-V) relationship, whereas the M2-KO mI(Cat) displayed a linear I-V relationship. Channel analysis in outside-out patches recognized 70-pS and 120-pS channels as the major muscarinic cationic channels. Active patches of M2-KO cells exhibited both 70-pS and 120-pS channel activity usually together, either of which consisted of brief openings (the respective mean open times O(tau) = 0.55 and 0.23 ms). In contrast, active M3-KO patches showed only 70-pS channel activity, which had three open states (O(tau) = 0.55, 3.1 and 17.4 ms). In WT patches, besides the M2-KO and M3-KO types, another type of channel activity was also observed that consisted of 70-pS channel openings with four open states (O(tau) = 0.62, 2.7, 16.9 and 121.1 ms), and patch current of this channel activity showed a U-shaped I-V curve similar to the WT mI(Cat). The present results demonstrate that intestinal myocytes are endowed with three distinct muscarinic pathways mediating cationic channel activation and that the M2/M3 pathway targeting 70-pS channels, serves as the major contributor to mI(Cat) generation. The delineation of this pathway is consistent with the formation of a functional unit by the M2-Go protein and the M3-PLC systems predicted to control cationic channels.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Carbachol/pharmacology
- Cations/metabolism
- GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gi-Go/metabolism
- Guanosine 5'-O-(3-Thiotriphosphate)/pharmacology
- Ileum/cytology
- Ileum/drug effects
- Ileum/metabolism
- In Vitro Techniques
- Ion Channel Gating
- Ion Channels/chemistry
- Ion Channels/metabolism
- Jejunum/cytology
- Jejunum/drug effects
- Jejunum/metabolism
- Kinetics
- Membrane Potentials
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Models, Molecular
- Muscarinic Agonists/pharmacology
- Muscle, Smooth/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth/metabolism
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/drug effects
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/metabolism
- Patch-Clamp Techniques
- Protein Conformation
- Receptor, Muscarinic M2/agonists
- Receptor, Muscarinic M2/deficiency
- Receptor, Muscarinic M2/genetics
- Receptor, Muscarinic M2/metabolism
- Receptor, Muscarinic M3/agonists
- Receptor, Muscarinic M3/deficiency
- Receptor, Muscarinic M3/genetics
- Receptor, Muscarinic M3/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Sakamoto
- Department of Pathogenetic Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
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