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Manfo FPT, Nimako C, Nantia EA, Suh CF, Chenwi SP, Cho-Ngwa F, Moundipa PF, Nakayama SMM, Ishizuka M, Ikenaka Y. Exposure of Male Farmers and Nonfarmers to Neonicotinoid Pesticides in the South-West and Littoral Regions of Cameroon: A Comparative Study. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2024. [PMID: 38517100 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Pesticides, especially the newly developed neonicotinoids, are increasingly used in many countries around the world, including Cameroon, to control pests involved in crop destruction or disease transmission. Unfortunately, the pesticides also pose tremendous environmental problems because a predominant amount of their residues enter environmental matrices to affect other nontargeted species including humans. This therefore calls for continuous biomonitoring of these insecticides in human populations. The present study sought to assess the neonicotinoid insecticide exposures in two agrarian regions of Cameroon, the South-West region and Littoral region. The study involved 188 men, including 125 farmers and 63 nonfarmers. Spot urine samples were obtained from these subjects and subjected to liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric analysis for concentrations of neonicotinoid compounds, including acetamiprid, clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid, thiacloprid, nitenpyram, thiamethoxam, and N-dm-acetamiprid. Neonicotinoid compounds were detected in all study participants, and residues of all the screened pesticides were detected among participants. N-dm-Acetamiprid and imidacloprid were the most prevalent among the subjects (100.0% and 93.1%, respectively), whereas nitenpyram was less common (3.2%). The median values of imidacloprid and total urinary neonicotinoid concentrations were elevated among farmers (0.258 vs. 0.126 µg/L and 0.829 vs. 0.312 µg/L, respectively). Altogether the findings showed that both the farmer and nonfarmer study populations of Cameroon were exposed to multiple residues of neonicotinoids, with relatively higher levels of pesticides generally recorded among farmers. Although exposure levels of the neonicotinoids were generally lower than their respective reference doses, these results warrant further research on the health risk evaluation of multiple residues of the pesticides and reinforcement of control measures to minimize the exposure risks, especially among farmers. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-13. © 2024 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faustin Pascal Tsagué Manfo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
- Laboratory for Drugs and Molecular Diagnostics Research (ANDI Centre of Excellence for Onchocerciasis Drug Research), Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Collins Nimako
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- One Health Research Center, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Edouard Akono Nantia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Cameroon
| | - Christian Fusi Suh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Shu Policap Chenwi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Fidelis Cho-Ngwa
- Laboratory for Drugs and Molecular Diagnostics Research (ANDI Centre of Excellence for Onchocerciasis Drug Research), Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
- National Higher Polytechnic Institute, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Cameroon
| | - Paul Fewou Moundipa
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Shouta M M Nakayama
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- One Health Research Center, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
- Translational Research Unit, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Romualdo GR, Valente LC, de Souza JLH, Rodrigues J, Barbisan LF. Modifying effects of 2,4-D and Glyphosate exposures on gut-liver-adipose tissue axis of diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in mice. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 268:115688. [PMID: 37992649 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which is linked to western diet (WD) intake, affects 30% of the world's population and involves the crosstalk of liver steatosis, hypertrophy/inflammation of adipose tissue and deregulation of gut microbiome. Glyphosate and 2,4-D are some of the most applied herbicides worldwide, and their roles in NAFLD have not been investigated. Thus, the present study evaluated whether glyphosate and 2,4-D, in single or mixed exposure, alter WD-induced NAFLD in a mouse model. Male C57Bl/6 mice (n = 10/group) received a fat (30% lard, 0.02% cholesterol), and sucrose-rich diet (20%) and high sugar solution (23.1 and 18.9 g/L of fructose and glucose) for 6 months. Simultaneously, animals received glyphosate (0.05 or 5 mg/kg/day), 2,4-D (0.02 or 2 mg/kg/day), or their combination (0.05 +0.02 or 5 +2 mg/kg/day) by intragastrical administration (5 ×/week). Doses were based on the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADIs) or No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) levels. Herbicide exposures featured differential responses. WD-induced obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperglycemia remained unaltered. Compared to the group receiving only WD, only the concomitant exposure to WD and 2,4-D (2 mg) enhanced the percentage of mice with moderate/severe hepatic inflammation, CD68 macrophage infiltration, and malondialdehyde levels in the liver. In line, this herbicide modulated immune response- (including Cd4, C8b, Cd28, Cxcr3, Cxcr6) and oxidative stress-related (such as Gsta1, Gsta2, Gsta4, Gstm1, Gstm2, Gstm3, Gstm4, Nqo1, Gpx2) genes in the hepatic transcriptome analysis. This exposure also enriched pro-inflammatory Deferribacteres phylum in fecal microbiome. In general, the herbicide mixtures did not feature the same effects attributed to 2,4-D isolated exposure. Our findings indicate that 2,4-D, at a dose within the toxicological limits, was able to induce disturbances in mainly at the liver and gut axes involved in NAFLD development in male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme R Romualdo
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Experimental Research Unit (UNIPEX), Multimodel Drug Screening Platform, Laboratory of Chemically Induced and Experimental Carcinogenesis (MDSP-LCQE), Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Department of Pathology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Biosciences Institute, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil.
| | - Letícia Cardoso Valente
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Experimental Research Unit (UNIPEX), Multimodel Drug Screening Platform, Laboratory of Chemically Induced and Experimental Carcinogenesis (MDSP-LCQE), Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Department of Pathology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Biosciences Institute, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil; Federal University of Grande Dourados (UFGD), Faculty of Health Sciences, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Luri Hisano de Souza
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Experimental Research Unit (UNIPEX), Multimodel Drug Screening Platform, Laboratory of Chemically Induced and Experimental Carcinogenesis (MDSP-LCQE), Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Biosciences Institute, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Josias Rodrigues
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Biosciences Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Luís Fernando Barbisan
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, Experimental Research Unit (UNIPEX), Multimodel Drug Screening Platform, Laboratory of Chemically Induced and Experimental Carcinogenesis (MDSP-LCQE), Botucatu, SP, Brazil; São Paulo State University (UNESP), Biosciences Institute, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Botucatu, SP, Brazil.
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Kallayanatham N, Pengpumkiat S, Kongtip P, Pundee R, Nankongnab N, Kongtawelert A, Woskie SR. Air, Dermal, and Urinary Metabolite Levels of Backpack and Tractor Sprayers Using the Herbicide Acetochlor in Thailand. TOXICS 2023; 11:622. [PMID: 37505587 PMCID: PMC10385972 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11070622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Acetochlor is a chloroacetanilide selective pre-emergent herbicide used for controlling grass and broadleaf weeds in crops. This study compared the acetochlor exposures of backpack and tractor sprayers and assessed whether dermal or air exposures were more important contributors to the overall body burden as measured by urinary metabolites. Sixty sugarcane farmers in Nakhonsawan province, Thailand participated in the study, and breathing zone air and dermal patch samples were collected during spraying. Urine samples were collected before spraying, at the end of the spraying task, and on the day after spraying. For backpack and tractor sprayers, there was no significant difference in their breathing zone air concentrations, total body dermal samples, or urinary 2-methy-6-methyaniline (EMA) concentrations on the day after spraying. In addition, although most backpack and tractor sprayers wore long pants and long sleeve shirts, they were still exposed to acetochlor, as evidenced by a significant increase in the urinary EMA from before spraying (GM = 11.5 µg/g creatinine) to after spraying (GM = 88.5 µg/g creatinine) to the next day (GM = 111.0 µg/g creatinine). Breathing zone air samples were significantly correlated with those of total body dermal patch samples and with urinary EMA concentrations after spraying. This suggests that both air and dermal exposure contribute to urinary EMA levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichcha Kallayanatham
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Rajvidhi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Sumate Pengpumkiat
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Rajvidhi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Pornpimol Kongtip
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Rajvidhi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | | | - Noppanun Nankongnab
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Rajvidhi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Amarin Kongtawelert
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Rajvidhi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Susan R Woskie
- Department of Public Health, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA
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Freisthler MS, Robbins CR, Benbrook CM, Young HA, Haas DM, Winchester PD, Perry MJ. Association between increasing agricultural use of 2,4-D and population biomarkers of exposure: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2014. Environ Health 2022; 21:23. [PMID: 35139875 PMCID: PMC8830015 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-021-00815-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is one of the most extensively used herbicides in the United States. In 2012, 2,4-D was the most widely used herbicide in non-agricultural settings and the fifth most heavily applied pesticide in the US agricultural sector. The objective of this study was to examine trends in 2,4-D urinary biomarker concentrations to determine whether increases in 2,4-D application in agriculture are associated with increases in biomonitoring levels of urine 2,4-D. METHODS Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with available urine 2,4-D biomarker measurements from survey cycles between 2001 and 2014 were utilized. Urine 2,4-D values were dichotomized using the highest limit of detection (LOD) across all cycles (0.40 μg/L or 0.4 ppb). Agricultural use of 2,4-D was estimated by compiling publicly available federal and private pesticide application data. Logistic regression models adjusted for confounders were fitted to evaluate the association between agricultural use of 2,4-D and urine 2,4-D level above the dichotomization threshold. RESULTS Of the 14,395 participants included in the study, 4681 (32.5%) had urine 2,4-D levels above the dichotomization threshold. The frequency of participants with high 2,4-D levels increased significantly (p < .0001), from a low of 17.1% in 2001-2002 to a high of 39.6% in 2011-2012. The adjusted odds of high urinary 2,4-D concentrations associated with 2,4-D agricultural use (per ten million pounds applied) was 2.268 (95% CI: 1.709, 3.009). Children ages 6-11 years (n = 2288) had 2.1 times higher odds of having high 2,4-D urinary concentrations compared to participants aged 20-59 years. Women of childbearing age (age 20-44 years) (n = 2172) had 1.85 times higher odds than men of the same age. CONCLUSIONS Agricultural use of 2,4-D has increased substantially from a low point in 2002 and it is predicted to increase further in the coming decade. Because increasing use is likely to increase population level exposures, the associations seen here between 2,4-D crop application and biomonitoring levels require focused biomonitoring and epidemiological evaluation to determine the extent to which rising use and exposures cause adverse health outcomes among vulnerable populations (particularly children and women of childbearing age) and highly exposed individuals (farmers, other herbicide applicators, and their families).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlaina S Freisthler
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - C Rebecca Robbins
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | | | - Heather A Young
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - David M Haas
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Paul D Winchester
- Neonatology, Indiana University School of Medicine/Riley Hospital, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Melissa J Perry
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA.
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Oerlemans A, Figueiredo DM, Mol JGJ, Nijssen R, Anzion RBM, van Dael MFP, Duyzer J, Roeleveld N, Russel FGM, Vermeulen RCH, Scheepers PTJ. Personal exposure assessment of pesticides in residents: The association between hand wipes and urinary biomarkers. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 199:111282. [PMID: 34015296 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Residential exposure to pesticides may occur via inhalation of airborne pesticides, direct skin contacts with pesticide-contaminated surfaces, and consumption of food containing pesticide residues. The aim was to study the association of dermal exposure to pesticides between the use and non-use periods, between farmer and non-farmer families and between dermal exposure and the excretion of metabolites from urine in residents living close to treated agricultural fields. METHODS In total, 112 hand wipes and 206 spot urine samples were collected from 16 farmer and 38 non-farmer participants living within 50 m from an agricultural field in the Netherlands. The study took place from May 2016 to December 2017 during the use as well as the non-use periods of pesticides. Hand wipes were analysed for the parent compound and urines samples for the corresponding urinary metabolite of five applied pesticides: asulam, carbendazim (applied as thiophanate-methyl), chlorpropham, prochloraz and tebuconazole. Questionnaire data was used to study potential determinants of occurrence and levels of pesticides in hand wipes according to univariate and multivariate analysis. RESULTS Carbendazim and tebuconazole concentrations in hand wipes were statistically significantly higher in the pesticide-use period compared to the non-use period. In addition, especially during the use periods, concentrations were statistically significantly higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. For asulam, chlorpropham and prochloraz, the frequency of non-detects was too high (57-85%) to be included in this analysis. The carbendazim contents in urine samples and hand wipes were correlated on the first and second day after taking the hand wipe, whereas chlorpropham was only observed to be related on the second day following the spray event. CONCLUSIONS Concentrations in hand wipes were overall higher in pesticide use periods compared to non-use periods and higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. Only for carbendazim a strong correlation between concentrations in hand wipes and its main metabolite in urine was observed, indicating dermal exposure via contaminated indoor surfaces. We expect this to be related to the lower vapour pressure and longer environmental lifetime of carbendazim compared to the other pesticides studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Oerlemans
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - D M Figueiredo
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, University Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - J G J Mol
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R Nijssen
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R B M Anzion
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - M F P van Dael
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - J Duyzer
- TNO Urban Environment and Safety, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - N Roeleveld
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - F G M Russel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - R C H Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, University Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - P T J Scheepers
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Curl CL, Meierotto L, Castellano RLS, Spivak MR, Kannan K. Measurement of urinary pesticide biomarkers among Latina farmworkers in southwestern Idaho. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2021; 31:538-548. [PMID: 33473152 PMCID: PMC8134048 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-020-00285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Women who work in agriculture may have greater risk of pesticide exposure than men who share this occupation. Despite an increase in the fraction of the agricultural workforce comprised by women, few studies have characterized pesticide exposure in the USA with a focus on among these workers. OBJECTIVE This pilot study aimed to describe pesticide exposure in a cohort of Latina farmworkers in farming communities in southwestern Idaho. METHODS We collected urine samples from 29 Latina farmworkers, which were analyzed for 11 pesticide biomarkers. We evaluated the effect of pesticide spray season on urinary biomarker levels, and explored the effect of self-reported status as a pesticide handler on measured exposures. RESULTS No significant differences were found between biomarker levels in samples collected during the nonspray and spray seasons. We observed 11 extreme outlying values in samples collected during the pesticide spray season. The most extreme outlying values (MDA: 51.7 ng/mL; 3-PBA: 11.8 ng/mL; trans-DCCA: 23.4 ng/mL; and 2,4-D: 31.1 ng/mL) were all provided during the spray season by women who reported loading, mixing or applying pesticides. CONCLUSIONS These results provide suggestive evidence that Latina farmworkers who handle pesticides during the spray season may be at an increased risk of exposure to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, as well as the herbicide 2,4-D. We recommend that future research into pesticide exposures among farmworkers should include particular focus on this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia L Curl
- Department of Community and Environmental Health, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA.
| | - Lisa Meierotto
- School of Public Service, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
| | | | - Meredith R Spivak
- Center for Excellence in Environmental Health and Safety, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
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Bootsikeaw S, Kongtip P, Nankongnab N, Chantanakul S, Sujirarat D, Mahaboonpeeti R, Khangkhun P, Woskie S. Urinary glyphosate biomonitoring of sprayers in vegetable farm in Thailand. HUMAN AND ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT : HERA 2020; 27:1019-1036. [PMID: 34539173 PMCID: PMC8448205 DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2020.1797471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In Thailand, glyphosate is popular herbicide to control pests in the agricultural sector. This study aimed to measure glyphosate exposure concentrations through inhalation, dermal contact, and urinary glyphosate concentrations among 43 vegetable farmers spraying glyphosate in Bungphra Subdistrict, Phitsanulok Province. Four types of spraying equipment were used, manual pump backpack (n = 3), motorized spray backpack (n = 22), battery pump backpack (n = 16), and high pressure pump (n = 2). Breathing zone air samples were collected using glass fiber filters; dermal contact samples were collected using 100 cm2 cotton patches attached on 10 body locations and urine samples were collected at 3 time points: morning void urine the day before spraying, the end of spraying event, and the morning void urine the next day of spraying. The results showed that the geometric mean (GM; geometric standard deviation [GSD]) of breathing zone concentrations of glyphosate exposure were 9.37 (10.17) μg/m3. The GM (GSD) of total dermal patches exposure concentrations were 7.57 (0.01) mg/h. The legs, back, and arms were the most exposed body areas. The GM (GSD) of urinary glyphosate was found highest among vegetable farmers using manual backpack 46.90 (1.35) μg/g creatinine. Farmers should wear masks and boots to reduce glyphosate exposure by inhalation and dermal contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasivimol Bootsikeaw
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Mahidol University Faculty of Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Pornpimol Kongtip
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Mahidol University Faculty of Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Noppanun Nankongnab
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Mahidol University Faculty of Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suttinun Chantanakul
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Mahidol University Faculty of Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Dusit Sujirarat
- Department of Biostatistics, Mahidol University Faculty of Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Redeerat Mahaboonpeeti
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Phanthawee Khangkhun
- Department of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Bureau of Elderly Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Susan Woskie
- Department of Public Health, Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, USA
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8
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Barrón Cuenca J, Tirado N, Vikström M, Lindh CH, Stenius U, Leander K, Berglund M, Dreij K. Pesticide exposure among Bolivian farmers: associations between worker protection and exposure biomarkers. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2020; 30:730-742. [PMID: 30787424 PMCID: PMC8608618 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-019-0128-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The use of pesticides has increased during the past decades, also increasing the risk of exposure to toxic pesticides that can cause detrimental health effects in the future. This is of special concern among farmers in low-to-middle-income countries that may lack proper training in the safe use of these chemicals. To assess the situation in Bolivia a cross-sectional study in three agricultural communities was performed (n = 297). Handling, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and pesticide exposure were assessed by a questionnaire and measurements of urinary pesticide metabolites (UPMs). Results showed that methamidophos (65%) and paraquat (52%) were the most commonly used pesticides and that 75% of the farmers combined several pesticides while spraying. Notably, only 17% of the farmers used recommended PPEs while 84% reported to have experienced symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning after spraying. UPM measurements indicated high levels of exposure to chlorpyrifos, pyrethroids and 2,4D and that men generally were more highly exposed compared to women. Our study demonstrates that farmers who are better at following recommendations for pesticide handling and use of PPE had a significantly lower risk of having high UPM levels of most measured pesticides. Our results thus confirm the need of proper training of farmers in low-to-middle-income countries in proper protection and pesticide handling in order to reduce exposure levels and health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessika Barrón Cuenca
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Genetic Institute, Medicine Faculty, Mayor of San Andres University, Saavedra Av., #2246, Miraflores, La Paz, Bolivia.
| | - Noemi Tirado
- Genetic Institute, Medicine Faculty, Mayor of San Andres University, Saavedra Av., #2246, Miraflores, La Paz, Bolivia
| | - Max Vikström
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christian H Lindh
- Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Lund University, Lund, 22363, Lund, Sweden
| | - Ulla Stenius
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karin Leander
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marika Berglund
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kristian Dreij
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden.
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9
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Park AS, Ritz B, Yu F, Cockburn M, Heck JE. Prenatal pesticide exposure and childhood leukemia - A California statewide case-control study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 226:113486. [PMID: 32087503 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of epidemiologic studies with a variety of exposure assessment approaches have implicated pesticides as risk factors for childhood cancers. Here we explore the association of pesticide exposure in pregnancy and early childhood with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) utilizing land use and pesticide use data in a sophisticated GIS tool. METHODS We identified cancer cases less than 6 years of age from the California Cancer Registry and cancer-free controls from birth certificates. Analyses were restricted to those living in rural areas and born 1998-2011, resulting in 162 cases of childhood leukemia and 9,805 controls. Possible carcinogens were selected from the Environmental Protection Agency's classifications and pesticide use was collected from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation's (CDPR) Pesticide Use Reporting (PUR) system and linked to land-use surveys. Exposures for subjects were assessed using a 4000m buffer around the geocoded residential addresses at birth. Unconditional logistic and hierarchical regression models were used to assess individual pesticide and pesticide class associations. RESULTS We observed elevated risks for ALL with exposure to any carcinogenic pesticide (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR): 2.83, 95% CI: 1.67-4.82), diuron (Single-pesticide model, adjusted (OR): 2.38, 95% CI: 1.57-3.60), phosmet (OR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.46-3.02), kresoxim-methyl (OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.14-2.75), and propanil (OR: 2.58, 95% CI: 1.44-4.63). Analyses based on chemical classes showed elevated risks for the group of 2,6-dinitroanilines (OR: 2.50, 95% CI: 1.56-3.99), anilides (OR: 2.16, 95% CI: 1.38-3.36), and ureas (OR: 2.18, 95% CI: 1.42-3.34). CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that in rural areas of California exposure to certain pesticides or pesticide classes during pregnancy due to residential proximity to agricultural applications may increase the risk of childhood ALL and AML. Future studies into the mechanisms of carcinogenicity of these pesticides may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Park
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, 650 Charles E. Young Dr. S, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, 650 Charles E. Young Dr. S, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA
| | - Fei Yu
- Department of Biostatistics, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, 650 Charles E. Young Dr. S, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA
| | - Myles Cockburn
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 2001, N. Soto Street, Suite 318-A, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Julia E Heck
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, 650 Charles E. Young Dr. S, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Box 951781, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1781, USA.
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10
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Holásková I, Elliott M, Brundage K, Lukomska E, Schafer R, Barnett JB. Long-term Immunotoxic Effects of Oral Prenatal and Neonatal Atrazine Exposure. Toxicol Sci 2019; 168:497-507. [PMID: 30629250 PMCID: PMC6432865 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrazine and its metabolites are present at high concentrations in many water supplies in agro-intensive areas. Because residents in these areas drink water from sources fed from these contaminated supplies, we investigated the long-term immunotoxicity of combined prenatal and neonatal (perinatal) exposure to atrazine via drinking water, on the immune system in mice. At 6 months of age, upon immunization with heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae, the serum IgG antibody response against the T independent antigen phosphorylcholine was significantly higher in male, but not female, atrazine-exposed mice as compared with that in untreated controls. No alterations were present in all offspring in the serum antibody response against the T-dependent antigen pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA). ELISpot analysis showed only a small, insignificant reduction in PspA-specific IgG producing splenocytes in atrazine-treated male offspring. Interestingly, upon ex vivo stimulation with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies, significant decreases in interleukin (IL)-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-17A and a decreasing trend in IL-10 were observed in splenocytes from atrazine-exposed male, but not female mice. Analysis of thymic and splenic cell populations showed no effects of atrazine exposure in either sex. This is the first time that long-term changes in the immune response were observed after a perinatal exposure to atrazine and it demonstrates that these early life exposures can result in permanent changes to the immune system as well as a male bias in these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Holásková
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
| | - Meenal Elliott
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
| | - Kathleen Brundage
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
- West Virginia University Cancer Institute, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
| | - Ewa Lukomska
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
| | - Rosana Schafer
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
| | - John B Barnett
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
- West Virginia University Cancer Institute, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
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11
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Islam F, Wang J, Farooq MA, Khan MSS, Xu L, Zhu J, Zhao M, Muños S, Li QX, Zhou W. Potential impact of the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid on human and ecosystems. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 111:332-351. [PMID: 29203058 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is applied directly to aquatic and conventional farming systems to control weeds, and is among the most widely distributed pollutants in the environment. Non-target organisms are exposed to 2,4-D via several ways, which could produce toxic effects depending on the dose, frequency of exposure, and the host factors that influence susceptibility and sensitivity. An increasing number of experimental evidences have shown concerns about its presence/detection in the environment, because several investigations have pointed out its potential lethal effects on non-target organisms. In this review, we critically evaluated the environmental fate and behavior of 2,4-D along with its eco-toxicological effects on aquatic, plants and human life to provide concise assessment in the light of recently published reports. The findings demonstrate that 2,4-D is present in a low concentration in surface water of regions where its usage is high. The highest concentrations of 2,4-D were detected in soil, air and surface water surrounded by crop fields, which suggest that mitigation strategies must be implanted locally to prevent the entry of 2,4-D into the environment. A general public may have frequent exposure to 2,4-D due to its wide applications at home lawns and public parks, etc. Various in vivo and in vitro investigations suggest that several species (or their organs) at different trophic levels are extremely sensitive to the 2,4-D exposure, which may explain variation in outcomes of reported investigations. However, implications for the prenatal exposure to 2,4-D remain unknown because 2,4-D-induced toxicity thresholds in organism have only been derived from juveniles or adults. In near future, introduction of 2,4-D resistant crops will increase its use in agriculture, which may cause relatively high and potentially unsafe residue levels in the environment. The recent findings indicate the urgent need to further explore fate, accumulation and its continuous low level exposure impacts on the environment to generate reliable database which is key in drafting new regulation and policies to protect the population from further exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Islam
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jian Wang
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Muhammad A Farooq
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad S S Khan
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ling Xu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Plant Secondary Metabolism and Regulation, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Jinwen Zhu
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Subtropical Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Stéphane Muños
- Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes Micro-organismes, Université de Toulouse, CNRS-INRA, 441-2594, France
| | - Qing X Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu 96822, USA
| | - Weijun Zhou
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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LaKind JS, Burns CJ, Naiman DQ, O'Mahony C, Vilone G, Burns AJ, Naiman JS. Critical and systematic evaluation of data for estimating human exposures to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) - quality and generalizability. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2017; 20:423-446. [PMID: 29157177 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2017.1396704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has been commercially available since the 1940's. Despite decades of data on 2,4-D in food, air, soil, and water, as well as in humans, the quality the quality of these data has not been comprehensively evaluated. Using selected elements of the Biomonitoring, Environmental Epidemiology, and Short-lived Chemicals (BEES-C) instrument (temporal variability, avoidance of sample contamination, analyte stability, and urinary methods of matrix adjustment), the quality of 156 publications of environmental- and biomonitoring-based 2,4-D data was examined. Few publications documented steps were taken to avoid sample contamination. Similarly, most studies did not demonstrate the stability of the analyte from sample collection to analysis. Less than half of the biomonitoring publications reported both creatinine-adjusted and unadjusted urine concentrations. The scope and detail of data needed to assess temporal variability and sources of 2,4-D varied widely across the reviewed studies. Exposures to short-lived chemicals such as 2,4-D are impacted by numerous and changing external factors including application practices and formulations. At a minimum, greater transparency in reporting of quality control measures is needed. Perhaps the greatest challenge for the exposure community is the ability to reach consensus on how to address problems specific to short-lived chemical exposures in observational epidemiology investigations. More extensive conversations are needed to advance our understanding of human exposures and enable interpretation of these data to catch up to analytical capabilities. The problems defined in this review remain exquisitely difficult to address for chemicals like 2,4-D, with short and variable environmental and physiological half-lives and with exposures impacted by numerous and changing external factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy S LaKind
- f School of Arts and Sciences , University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - Carol J Burns
- a LaKind Associates, LLC; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health , University of Maryland School of Medicine , Catonsville , MD , USA
| | | | - Cian O'Mahony
- c Department of Applied Mathematics & Statistics , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Giulia Vilone
- c Department of Applied Mathematics & Statistics , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Annette J Burns
- d Creme Global, Trinity Technology and Enterprise Campus , Grand Canal Quay , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Joshua S Naiman
- e Department of Anthropology , Alma College , Alma , MI , USA
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13
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Suarez-Lopez JR, Butcher CR, Gahagan S, Checkoway H, Alexander BH, Al-Delaimy WK. Acetylcholinesterase activity and time after a peak pesticide-use period among Ecuadorian children. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2017; 91:175-184. [PMID: 29026987 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-017-1265-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Mother's Day (May) is a holiday with substantial demand for flowers, associated with heightened flower production and escalated pesticide use. The effect of spray seasons on pesticide exposures of children living in agricultural communities but who do not work in agriculture is poorly understood. In this study, we estimated the association of time after Mother's Day harvest with children's acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. AChE is a physiological marker of organophosphate/carbamate pesticide exposures that may take up to 3 months to normalize after its inhibition. METHODS We examined 308 children, aged 4-9 years, in Ecuadorian agricultural communities during a low flower-production season but within 63-100 days (mean: 81.5 days, SD: 10.9) after Mother's Day harvest. We quantified AChE activity (mean: 3.14 U/mL, SD: 0.49) from a single finger-stick sample. RESULTS We observed positive linear associations between time after the harvest and AChE among participants living near plantations. The associations were strongest among participants living within 233 m [(0.15 U/mL (95% CI 0.02, 0.28)], slightly weaker among participants living within 234-532 m [0.11 U/mL (0.00, 0.23)], and not associated among participants at greater distances. Similar findings were observed across categories of areas of flower plantations within 500 m of homes. CONCLUSIONS These cross-sectional findings suggest that a peak pesticide-use period can decrease AChE activity of children living near plantations. These seasonal pesticide exposures could induce short- and long-term developmental alterations in children. Studies assessing exposures at multiple times in relation to pesticide spray seasons among children who do not work in agriculture are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Ricardo Suarez-Lopez
- Division of Global Health, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego. 9500 Gilman Drive #0725, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0725, USA.
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive #0725, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0725, USA.
| | - Cheyenne R Butcher
- Division of Global Health, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego. 9500 Gilman Drive #0725, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0725, USA
| | - Sheila Gahagan
- Division of Academic General Pediatrics, Child Development and Community Health, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive #0832, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0832, USA
| | - Harvey Checkoway
- Division of Global Health, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego. 9500 Gilman Drive #0725, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0725, USA
| | - Bruce H Alexander
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 420 Delaware St. SE, MMC 807, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Wael K Al-Delaimy
- Division of Global Health, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego. 9500 Gilman Drive #0725, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0725, USA
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14
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Venners SA, Khoshnood N, Jeronimo M, Sobkowicz A, Provencher P, Tang G, Chu W, Copes R. Adult and child urinary 2,4-D in cities with and without cosmetic pesticide bylaws: a population-based cross-sectional pilot study. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2017; 27:484-490. [PMID: 27531372 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2016.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) exposure in four municipalities with and without cosmetic pesticide bylaws in British Columbia, Canada. We recruited a child (aged 1.5-5 years) and adult from 10 households in each city, who provided urine samples in May and June, 2009. No households had used pesticides for 7 days prior to sample collection. We quantified urinary 2,4-D using LC/MS/MS. Quantities of 2,4-D in urine were similar across cities and below biomonitoring equivalents corresponding to references doses in the United State of America and Canada. When adult's and children's urines were analyzed together in linear mixed-effects regression models, natural log urinary 2,4-D was significantly associated with having a diet of ⩾50% organic food (β=-0.6 (0.3) μg/l, P=0.05). Without natural log transformation, median concentration of urinary 2,4-D among those who ate ⩾50% organic food (n=12) was 1.4 μg/l versus 1.5 μg/l for others (n=59). Lack of a significant association (two-sided alpha=0.05) between pesticide bylaws and urinary 2,4-D might reflect small sample size, lack of recent acute exposure, or that 2,4-D exposure is primarily influenced by sources of exposure not addressed through bylaws. Food might be a route of exposure to 2,4-D, consistent with other studies. Future research will require larger sample sizes for sufficient statistical power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Venners
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Neda Khoshnood
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Matthew Jeronimo
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Aaron Sobkowicz
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Philip Provencher
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Guanting Tang
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Winnie Chu
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ray Copes
- University of Toronto and Public Health Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Quinteros E, Ribó A, Mejía R, López A, Belteton W, Comandari A, Orantes CM, Pleites EB, Hernández CE, López DL. Heavy metals and pesticide exposure from agricultural activities and former agrochemical factory in a Salvadoran rural community. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:1662-1676. [PMID: 27796975 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7899-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Pesticide handling in farming activities involves substantial hazards for the rural population and for the environment. In Latin America, it is estimated that the population at risk of being affected by heavy metals is over 4 million. This research describes the different types of exposure to pesticides and heavy metals in a rural population (Loma del Gallo), considering both environmental and occupational exposure. This study consists of an inspection in a former pesticide factory (QUIMAGRO), analysis of heavy metals in samples from surface and ground water in the community close to the factory, and a survey to the local population about their perceptions of pesticide exposures. Containers with 34.6 tons of chemicals improperly stored were identified in the former factory and removed by the government. Arsenic and cadmium were found in groundwater, and the highest values were 0.012 and 0.004 mg/l, respectively. These contaminants were also detected in most surface water samples, with maximum values of 0.026 and 0.0001 mg/l, respectively. Results of the survey show that of the 44 participants 42 % were farmers. Farmers used 19 different pesticide products containing 11 active ingredients. The most used active ingredients were paraquat (65 %), methamidophos (35 %), and atrazina (29 %). Eighty-two percent of the farmers did not use personal protective equipment. In addition to the pesticides used in the agriculture of the area, pesticide containers were removed from the QUIMAGRO area, but the pollution was still present at time of sampling and it is evident by the odor of the site. Surface water had the major concentration of heavy metals than the groundwater. Loma del Gallo population has been exposed to toxic pesticide from QUIMAGRO and agriculture for many years. The farmers carry out mishandling of pesticides and they not use PPE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Quinteros
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador.
| | - Alexandre Ribó
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Roberto Mejía
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Alejandro López
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Wilfredo Belteton
- National Reference Laboratory, Ministry of Health El Salvador, Alameda Roosvelt, Edificio Max Bloch, frente a parque Cuscatlán, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Aimee Comandari
- Department of General Science, College of Southern Nevada, 6375 W. Charleston Blvd, Las Vegas, NV, 89146, USA
| | - Carlos M Orantes
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Ernesto B Pleites
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Carlos E Hernández
- Ministry of Health El Salvador, Calle Gabriela Mistral Avenida del Prado, National Institute of Health, N° J-234, Col. Buenos Aires I, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | - Dina L López
- Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, Clippinger Laboratories 316, Athens, OH, 45701-2979, USA
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Ye M, Beach J, Martin JW, Senthilselvan A. Pesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 51:361-370. [PMID: 28115149 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2016.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Human exposures to pesticides can occur in the workplace, in the household and through the ambient environment. While several articles have reviewed the impact of pesticide exposures on human respiratory health in occupational settings, to the best of our knowledge, this article is the first one to review published studies on the association between pesticide exposures and human respiratory health in the general populations. In this article, we critically reviewed evidences up to date studying the associations between non-occupational pesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations. This article also highlighted questions arising from these studies, including our recent analyses using the data from the Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS), for future research. We found few studies have addressed the impact of environmental pesticide exposures on respiratory health, especially on lung function, in general populations. In the studies using the data from CHMS Cycle 1, exposures to OP insecticides, pyrethroid insecticides, and the organochlorine pesticide DDT were associated with impaired lung function in the Canadian general population, but no significant associations were observed for the herbicide 2,4-D. Future research should focus on the potential age-specific and pesticide-specific effect on respiratory health in the general population, and repeated longitudinal study design is critical for assessing the temporal variations in pesticide exposures. Research findings from current studies of non-occupational pesticide exposures and their health impact in general population will help to improve the role of regulatory policies in mitigating pesticide-related public health problems, and thereafter providing greater benefit to the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ye
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada..
| | - Jeremy Beach
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada.; Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2T4, Canada
| | - Jonathan W Martin
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
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Terry C, Hays S, McCoy AT, McFadden LG, Aggarwal M, Rasoulpour RJ, Juberg DR. Implementing a framework for integrating toxicokinetics into human health risk assessment for agrochemicals. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 75:89-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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18
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Ye M, Beach J, Martin JW, Senthilselvan A. Occupational pesticide exposures and respiratory health. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:6442-71. [PMID: 24287863 PMCID: PMC3881124 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10126442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pesticides have been widely used to control pest and pest-related diseases in agriculture, fishery, forestry and the food industry. In this review, we identify a number of respiratory symptoms and diseases that have been associated with occupational pesticide exposures. Impaired lung function has also been observed among people occupationally exposed to pesticides. There was strong evidence for an association between occupational pesticide exposure and asthma, especially in agricultural occupations. In addition, we found suggestive evidence for a link between occupational pesticide exposure and chronic bronchitis or COPD. There was inconclusive evidence for the association between occupational pesticide exposure and lung cancer. Better control of pesticide uses and enforcement of safety behaviors, such as using personal protection equipment (PPE) in the workplace, are critical for reducing the risk of developing pesticide-related symptoms and diseases. Educational training programs focusing on basic safety precautions and proper uses of personal protection equipment (PPE) are possible interventions that could be used to control the respiratory diseases associated with pesticide exposure in occupational setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ye
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-276 Edmonton Heath Clinic Academy, 11405-87 Avenue, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Jeremy Beach
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-276 Edmonton Heath Clinic Academy, 11405-87 Avenue, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada; E-Mail:
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, 5-30 University Terrace, 8303-112 Street, Edmonton, AB T6G 2T4, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Jonathan W. Martin
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, 10-102C Clinical Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G3, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Ambikaipakan Senthilselvan
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-276 Edmonton Heath Clinic Academy, 11405-87 Avenue, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada; E-Mail:
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19
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Dermal exposure associated with occupational end use of pesticides and the role of protective measures. Saf Health Work 2013; 4:136-41. [PMID: 24106643 PMCID: PMC3791087 DOI: 10.1016/j.shaw.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Occupational end users of pesticides may experience bodily absorption of the pesticide products they use, risking possible health effects. The purpose of this paper is to provide a guide for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers working in the field of agricultural health or other areas where occupational end use of pesticides and exposure issues are of interest. METHODS This paper characterizes the health effects of pesticide exposure, jobs associated with pesticide use, pesticide-related tasks, absorption of pesticides through the skin, and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for reducing exposure. CONCLUSIONS Although international and national efforts to reduce pesticide exposure through regulatory means should continue, it is difficult in the agricultural sector to implement engineering or system controls. It is clear that use of PPE does reduce dermal pesticide exposure but compliance among the majority of occupationally exposed pesticide end users appears to be poor. More research is needed on higher-order controls to reduce pesticide exposure and to understand the reasons for poor compliance with PPE and identify effective training methods.
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von Stackelberg K. A Systematic Review of Carcinogenic Outcomes and Potential Mechanisms from Exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA in the Environment. J Toxicol 2013; 2013:371610. [PMID: 23533401 PMCID: PMC3600329 DOI: 10.1155/2013/371610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorophenoxy compounds, particularly 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid (MCPA), are amongst the most widely used herbicides in the United States for both agricultural and residential applications. Epidemiologic studies suggest that exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA may be associated with increased risk non-Hodgkins lymphoma (NHL), Hodgkin's disease (HD), leukemia, and soft-tissue sarcoma (STS). Toxicological studies in rodents show no evidence of carcinogenicity, and regulatory agencies worldwide consider chlorophenoxies as not likely to be carcinogenic or unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity. This systematic review assembles the available data to evaluate epidemiologic, toxicological, pharmacokinetic, exposure, and biomonitoring studies with respect to key cellular events noted in disease etiology and how those relate to hypothesized modes of action for these constituents to determine the plausibility of an association between exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of 2,4-D and MCPA and lymphohematopoietic cancers. The combined evidence does not support a genotoxic mode of action. Although plausible hypotheses for other carcinogenic modes of action exist, a comparison of biomonitoring data to oral equivalent doses calculated from bioassay data shows that environmental exposures are not sufficient to support a causal relationship. Genetic polymorphisms exist that are known to increase the risk of developing NHL. The potential interaction between these polymorphisms and exposures to chlorophenoxy compounds, particularly in occupational settings, is largely unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine von Stackelberg
- E Risk Sciences, LLP, 12 Holton Street, Allston, MA 02134, USA
- Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 401 Park Drive, Landmark 404J, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Hartnett S, Musah S, Dhanwada KR. Cellular effects of metolachlor exposure on human liver (HepG2) cells. CHEMOSPHERE 2013; 90:1258-1266. [PMID: 23084262 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.09.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Metolachlor is one of the most commonly used herbicides in the United States. Protein synthesis is inhibited when roots and shoots of susceptible plants absorb this synthetic herbicide. While quite effective in killing weeds, several studies have shown that exposure to metolachlor results in decreased cell proliferation, growth and reproductive ability of non-target organisms. However, the mode of metolachlor action in non-target organisms has not yet been elucidated. The current study assessed effects of metolachlor exposure on immortalized human liver (HepG2) cells. Results from cell proliferation assays showed that a 72-h exposure to 50 parts per billion (ppb) metolachlor significantly inhibited growth of these cells compared to untreated controls while a decrease in the cell division rate required exposure to 500 ppb metolachlor for 48 h. Flow cytometry analysis of cell cycle distribution revealed that 500 ppb metolachlor treatment resulted in fewer HepG2 cells in G2/M phase after 72 h. Real-time PCR analysis showed a significant decrease in the abundance of the cyclin A transcripts after 12h in cells exposed to 300 ppb metolachlor. These results suggest metolachlor may affect progression through the S phase of the cell cycle and entrance into the G2 phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Hartnett
- Department of Biology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0421, United States
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Hays SM, Aylward LL, Driver J, Ross J, Kirman C. 2,4-D Exposure and risk assessment: Comparison of external dose and biomonitoring based approaches. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 64:481-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
A qualitative review of the epidemiological literature on the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and health after 2001 is presented. In order to compare the exposure of the general population, bystanders and occupational groups, their urinary levels were also reviewed. In the general population, 2,4-D exposure is at or near the level of detection (LOD). Among individuals with indirect exposure, i.e. bystanders, the urinary 2,4-D levels were also very low except in individuals with opportunity for direct contact with the herbicide. Occupational exposure, where exposure was highest, was positively correlated with behaviors related to the mixing, loading and applying process and use of personal protection. Information from biomonitoring studies increases our understanding of the validity of the exposure estimates used in epidemiology studies. The 2,4-D epidemiology literature after 2001 is broad and includes studies of cancer, reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. In general, a few publications have reported statistically significant associations. However, most lack precision and the results are not replicated in other independent studies. In the context of biomonitoring, the epidemiology data give no convincing or consistent evidence for any chronic adverse effect of 2,4-D in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol J Burns
- Department of Epidemiology, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48671, USA.
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Determination of terbuthylazine and desethylterbuthylazine in human urine and hair samples by eletrospray ionization-liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 404:875-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6184-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Mendaš G, Vuletić M, Galić N, Drevenkar V. Urinary metabolites as biomarkers of human exposure to atrazine: Atrazine mercapturate in agricultural workers. Toxicol Lett 2012; 210:174-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Abstract
Triazine herbicides are very common and only 0.1 % reach the target pests, while the rest moves into other environmental compartments. Their fate in the environment depends on their movement through the air, water, and soil and on the rate of their degradation or transformation. Triazine compounds may be transformed by water, microorganisms, and sunlight. Widespread use and persistence of triazine herbicides in soil has resulted in contamination of surface, drinking, and even rain water with parent compounds and degradation products, posing a risk to the general population.The metabolism and effects of triazine herbicides have been studied in experimental animals and in experiments in vitro. There are only a few studies of their metabolism and excretion in humans. Agricultural and manufacturing workers are exposed to triazines during application and production. Human exposure is monitored by determining parent compounds and their metabolites in urine. Due to the low concentrations of urinary metabolites in occupationally exposed persons, very sensitive analytical methods are required. This paper describes the structure and properties of symmetric triazine herbicides, their metabolism, and effects in humans and animals and the levels of these compounds in the urine of occupationally exposed persons.
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Barr DB, Wong LY, Bravo R, Weerasekera G, Odetokun M, Restrepo P, Kim DG, Fernandez C, Whitehead RD, Perez J, Gallegos M, Williams BL, Needham LL. Urinary concentrations of dialkylphosphate metabolites of organophosphorus pesticides: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:3063-98. [PMID: 21909292 PMCID: PMC3166728 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8083063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphorus (OP) insecticides were among the first pesticides that EPA reevaluated as part of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Our goal was to assess exposure to OP insecticides in the U.S. general population over a six-year period. We analyzed 7,456 urine samples collected as part of three two-year cycles of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999–2004. We measured six dialkylphosphate metabolites of OP pesticides to assess OP pesticide exposure. In NHANES 2003–2004, dimethylthiophosphate was detected most frequently with median and 95th percentile concentrations of 2.03 and 35.3 μg/L, respectively. Adolescents were two to three times more likely to have diethylphosphate concentrations above the 95th percentile estimate of 15.5 μg/L than adults and senior adults. Conversely, for dimethyldithiophosphate, senior adults were 3.8 times and 1.8 times more likely to be above the 95th percentile than adults and adolescents, respectively, while adults were 2.1 times more likely to be above the 95th percentile than the adolescents. Our data indicate that the most vulnerable segments of our population—children and older adults—have higher exposures to OP pesticides than other population segments. However, according to DAP urinary metabolite data, exposures to OP pesticides have declined during the last six years at both the median and 95th percentile levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Boyd Barr
- Emory University, Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-404-727-9605; Fax: +1-404-727-8744
| | - Lee-Yang Wong
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Roberto Bravo
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Gayanga Weerasekera
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Martins Odetokun
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Paula Restrepo
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Do-Gyun Kim
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Carolina Fernandez
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Ralph D. Whitehead
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Jose Perez
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Maribel Gallegos
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Bryan L. Williams
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
| | - Larry L. Needham
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; E-Mails: (L.-Y.W.); (R.B.); (M.O.); (P.R.); (D.-G.K.); (C.F.); (R.D.W); (J.P.); (M.G.); (B.L.W.)
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Parks CG, Walitt BT, Pettinger M, Chen JC, de Roos AJ, Hunt J, Sarto G, Howard BV. Insecticide use and risk of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63:184-94. [PMID: 20740609 DOI: 10.1002/acr.20335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Farming and agricultural pesticide use has been associated with 2 autoimmune rheumatic diseases, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, risk associated with other residential or work place insecticide use is unknown. METHODS We analyzed data from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (n=76,861 postmenopausal women, ages 50-79 years). Incident cases (n=213: 178 for RA, 27 for SLE, and 8 for both) were identified based on self-report and use of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs at year 3 of followup. We examined self-reported residential or work place insecticide use (personally mixing/applying by self and application by others) in relation to RA/SLE risk, overall and in relation to farm history. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were adjusted for age, race, region, education, occupation, smoking, reproductive factors, asthma, other autoimmune diseases, and comorbidities. RESULTS Compared with never used, personal use of insecticides was associated with increased RA/SLE risk, with significant trends for greater frequency (HR 2.04, 95% CI 1.17-3.56 for ≥6 times/year) and duration (HR 1.97, 95% CI 1.20-3.23 for ≥20 years). Risk was also associated with long-term insecticide application by others (HR 1.85, 95% CI 1.07-3.20 for ≥20 years) and frequent application by others among women with a farm history (HR 2.73, 95% CI 1.10-6.78 for ≥6 times/year). CONCLUSION These results suggest residential and work place insecticide exposure is associated with the risk of autoimmune rheumatic diseases in postmenopausal women. Although these findings require replication in other populations, they support a role for environmental pesticide exposure in the development of autoimmune rheumatic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine G Parks
- National Institute for Environmental Health Science, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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Melnyk LJ, Hieber TE, Turbeville T, Vonderheide AP, Morgan JN. Influences on transfer of selected synthetic pyrethroids from treated Formica to foods. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2011; 21:186-96. [PMID: 20029459 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2009.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Children's unstructured eating habits and activities may lead to excess dietary exposures not traditionally measured by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Influence of these activities on transfer of pesticides from treated Formica to foods was studied. The objective was to perform simulation experiments using four foods (bread, apple slices, bologna, and sugar cookies) exposed to treated Formica after varied time intervals between surface contamination and contact (1, 6, and 24 h) and frequency of contact with and without recontamination. Pesticides investigated included permethrin, bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, and deltamethrin. Data will be used as input parameters for transfer efficiencies (TEs) within the Children's Dietary Intake Model (CDIM), which predicts total dietary exposure of a child. Pesticide transfer from surfaces to bologna and apples was more efficient than to bread and cookies. For the bread and cookies, all pyrethroids had a TE that ranged from below detectible levels to ≤ 4%. A combined average of 32-64% and 19-43% was transferred to bologna and apples, respectively, for the three contact times for all pyrethroids. The TEs of the varied time intervals indicated that increased time between contamination and contact showed little difference for bologna, bread, and cookies, but a significant difference for apples. As long as pesticide levels are measureable on surfaces in children's eating environment, it can be concluded that transfer of pesticides to foods will take place. Foods' characteristics had an important function in the transfer of pesticides when multiple contacts occurred. Regardless of recontamination, pesticides were efficiently transferred from the treated surface to bologna. The bologna did not reach a saturation point during the contacts. Pesticides were also efficiently transferred to apples, but reached a maximum TE during the second contact. The distribution of activity factors within CDIM needs to reflect the differences in the characteristics of the foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Jo Melnyk
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, USA.
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Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Faustman EM, Thompson B. Where's the dust? Characterizing locations of azinphos-methyl residues in house and vehicle dust among farmworkers with young children. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2010; 7:663-71. [PMID: 20945243 PMCID: PMC2956613 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2010.521028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate pesticides are commonly used in the United States, and farmworkers are at risk for chronic exposure. Using data from a community randomized trial to interrupt the take-home pathway of pesticide exposure, we examined the association between floor surface type (smooth floor, thin carpet, and thick carpet) and rooms in which dust samples were collected (living room vs. non-living room) and concentrations of azinphos-methyl residues in home environments. We also examined the association between vehicle type (truck, auto, or other) and footwell floor surfaces (carpeted, smooth surface, or no mat) and concentrations of azinphos-methyl in vehicle dust samples. Dust samples were collected from 203 and 179 households and vehicles, respectively. All households had at least one child aged 2-6. Vehicle dust samples were collected from footwells of the vehicle used for commuting to and from work. A total of 183 samples were collected from living rooms, and 20 were collected from other rooms in the home. Forty-two samples were collected from thick carpets, 130 from thin carpets, and 27 from smooth floor surfaces. Thick and thin carpets had a significantly greater dust mass than smooth floor surfaces (6.0 g/m(2) for thick carpets, 7.8 g/m(2) for thin carpets, and 1.5 g/m(2) for smooth surfaces). Of the 179 vehicle samples, 113 were from cars, 34 from trucks, and 32 from other vehicles. Vehicles with no mats had a significantly higher mass of dust (21.3 g) than those with hard mats (9.3 g) but did not differ from vehicles with plush mats (12.0 g). Further research is needed to characterize the environment in which children may be exposed to pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria D Coronado
- Cancer Prevention Research Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.
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Bardullas U, Giordano M, Rodríguez VM. Chronic atrazine exposure causes disruption of the spontaneous locomotor activity and alters the striatal dopaminergic system of the male Sprague-Dawley rat. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 33:263-72. [PMID: 20850525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Revised: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The herbicide atrazine (ATR) is widely used around the world, and is a potential toxicant of the dopaminergic systems. Nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems are the two major dopaminergic pathways of the central nervous system; they play key roles mediating a wide array of critical motor and cognitive functions. We evaluated the effects of exposing male rats for one year to 10 mg ATR/kg B.W. on these systems using motor and cognitive tasks and measuring monoamine content in the striatum, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus. ATR administration resulted in impaired motor coordination and greater spontaneous locomotor activity only after 10 to 12 months of exposure. Chronic exposure to 10 mg ATR decreased striatal dopamine, but had no effect on accumbal, hypothalamic or cortical monoamine content. Chronic ATR exposure caused discrete changes in learning tasks that involve either the striatum or the nucleus accumbens. These results indicate that chronic exposure to ATR preferentially targets the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway, in comparison to the other dopaminergic pathways evaluated in this study, inducing behavioral and neurochemical alterations. In order to unveil the full extent of atrazine's effects on the nervous system, other neurochemical systems should be considered in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulises Bardullas
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro, Querétaro 76230, México
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Curwin BD, Hein MJ, Barr DB, Striley C. Comparison of immunoassay and HPLC-MS/MS used to measure urinary metabolites of atrazine, metolachlor, and chlorpyrifos from farmers and non-farmers in Iowa. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2010; 20:205-12. [PMID: 19277069 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2009.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Urine samples were collected from 51 participants in a study investigating pesticide exposure among farm families in Iowa. Aliquots from the samples were sent to two different labs and analyzed for metabolites of atrazine (atrazine mercapturate), metolachlor (metolachlor mercapturate) and chlorpyrifos (TCP) by two different analytical methods: immunoassay and high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). HPLC-MS/MS methods tend to be highly specific, but are costly and time consuming. Immunoassay methods are cheaper and faster, but can be less sensitive due to cross reactivity and matrix effects. Three statistical methods were employed to compare the two analytical methods. Each statistical method differed in how the samples that had results below the limit of detection (LOD) were treated. The first two methods involved an imputation procedure and the third method used maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). A fourth statistical method that modeled each lab separately using MLE was used for comparison. The immunoassay and HPLC-MS/MS methods were moderately correlated (correlation 0.40-0.49), but the immunoassay methods consistently had significantly higher geometric mean (GM) estimates for each pesticide metabolite. The GM estimates for atrazine mercapturate, metolachlor mercapturate, and TCP by immunoassay ranged from 0.16-0.98 microg l(-1), 0.24-0.45 microg l(-1) and 14-14 microg l(-1), respectively and by HPLC-MS/MS ranged from 0.0015-0.0039 microg l(-1), 0.12-0.16 microg l(-1), and 2.9-3.0 microg l(-1), respectively. Immunoassays tend to be cheaper and faster than HPLC-MS/MS, however, they may result in an upward bias of urinary pesticide metabolite levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Curwin
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226, USA.
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Aylward LL, Morgan MK, Arbuckle TE, Barr DB, Burns CJ, Alexander BH, Hays SM. Biomonitoring data for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the United States and Canada: interpretation in a public health risk assessment context using Biomonitoring Equivalents. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:177-81. [PMID: 20123603 PMCID: PMC2831914 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0900970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several extensive studies of exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) using urinary concentrations in samples from the general population, farm applicators, and farm family members are now available. Reference doses (RfDs) exist for 2,4-D, and Biomonitoring Equivalents (BEs; concentrations in urine or plasma that are consistent with those RfDs) for 2,4-D have recently been derived and published. OBJECTIVE We reviewed the available biomonitoring data for 2,4-D from the United States and Canada and compared them with BE values to draw conclusions regarding the margin of safety for 2,4-D exposures within each population group. DATA SOURCES Data on urinary 2,4-D excretion in general and target populations from recent published studies are tabulated and the derivation of BE values for 2,4-D summarized. DATA SYNTHESIS The biomonitoring data indicate margins of safety (ratio of BE value to biomarker concentration) of approximately 200 at the central tendency and 50 at the extremes in the general population. Median exposures for applicators and their family members during periods of use appear to be well within acute exposure guidance values. CONCLUSIONS Biomonitoring data from these studies indicate that current exposures to 2,4-D are below applicable exposure guidance values. This review demonstrates the value of biomonitoring data in assessing population exposures in the context of existing risk assessments using the BE approach. Risk managers can use this approach to integrate the available biomonitoring data into an overall assessment of current risk management practices for 2,4-D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesa L Aylward
- Summit Toxicology, LLP, Falls Church, Virginia 22044, USA.
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Barr DB, Ananth CV, Yan X, Lashley S, Smulian JC, Ledoux TA, Hore P, Robson MG. Pesticide concentrations in maternal and umbilical cord sera and their relation to birth outcomes in a population of pregnant women and newborns in New Jersey. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2010; 408:790-5. [PMID: 19900697 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Revised: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 10/02/2009] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated in utero exposures to pesticides by measuring maternal and cord serum biomarkers in a New Jersey cohort of pregnant women and the birth outcomes of their neonates. The study was based on 150 women that underwent an elective cesarean delivery at term in a hospital in central New Jersey. We evaluated the following pesticide compounds in both maternal and umbilical cord sera: chlorpyrifos, diazinon, carbofuran, chlorothalonil, dacthal, metolachlor, trifluralin and diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). Of these compounds, chlorpyrifos, carbofuran, chlorothalonil, trifluralin, metolachlor and DEET were the pesticides most frequently detected in the serum samples. We found high (> or =75th percentile) metolachlor concentrations in cord blood that were related to birth weight (3605 g in upper quartile vs 3399 g; p=0.05). We also observed an increase in abdominal circumference with increasing cord dichloran concentrations (p=0.031). These observations suggest that in utero exposures to certain pesticides may alter birth outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Boyd Barr
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Bakke B, De Roos AJ, Barr DB, Stewart PA, Blair A, Freeman LB, Lynch CF, Allen RH, Alavanja MC, Vermeulen R. Exposure to atrazine and selected non-persistent pesticides among corn farmers during a growing season. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2009; 19:544-54. [PMID: 19052531 PMCID: PMC3048843 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2008.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 06/09/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The aim was to develop quantitative estimates of farmers' pesticide exposure to atrazine and to provide an overview of background levels of selected non-persistent pesticides among corn farmers in a longitudinal molecular epidemiologic study. The study population consisted of 30 Agricultural Health Study farmers from Iowa and 10 non-farming controls. Farmers completed daily and weekly diaries from March to November in 2002 and 2003 on pesticide use and other exposure determinants. Urine samples were collected at 10 time points relative to atrazine application and other farming activities. Pesticide exposure was assessed using urinary metabolites and diaries. The analytical limit of detection (LOD) ranged between 0.1 and 0.2 microg/l for all pesticide analytes except for isazaphos (1.5 microg/l) and diazinon (0.7 microg/l). Farmers had higher geometric mean urinary atrazine mercapturate (AZM) values than controls during planting (1.1 vs <LOD microg/g creatinine; P<0.05). AZM levels among farmers were significantly related to the amount of atrazine applied (P=0.015). Interestingly, farmers had a larger proportion of samples above the LOD than controls even after exclusion of observations with an atrazine application within 7 days before urine collection (38% vs 6%, P<0.0001). A similar pattern was observed for 2,4-D and acetochlor (92% vs 47%, P<0.0001 and 45% vs 4%, P<0.0001, respectively). Urinary AZM levels in farmers were largely driven by recent application of atrazine. Therefore, the amount of atrazine applied is likely to provide valid surrogates of atrazine exposure in epidemiologic studies. Elevated background levels of non-persistent pesticides, especially 2,4-D, indicate importance in epidemiologic studies of capturing pesticide exposures that might not be directly related to the actual application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berit Bakke
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
- National Institute of Occupational Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anneclaire J. De Roos
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and University of Washington Department of Epidemiology, Seattle, WA, US
| | - Dana B. Barr
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, US
| | - Patricia A. Stewart
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
| | - Aaron Blair
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
| | - Laura Beane Freeman
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
| | - Charles F. Lynch
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, US
| | - Ruth H. Allen
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, US
| | - Michael C.R. Alavanja
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, US
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Center, Utrecht Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Eaton DL, Daroff RB, Autrup H, Bridges J, Buffler P, Costa LG, Coyle J, McKhann G, Mobley WC, Nadel L, Neubert D, Schulte-Hermann R, Spencer PS. Review of the Toxicology of Chlorpyrifos With an Emphasis on Human Exposure and Neurodevelopment. Crit Rev Toxicol 2008; 38 Suppl 2:1-125. [PMID: 18726789 DOI: 10.1080/10408440802272158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 422] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Morgan MK, Sheldon LS, Thomas KW, Egeghy PP, Croghan CW, Jones PA, Chuang JC, Wilson NK. Adult and children's exposure to 2,4-D from multiple sources and pathways. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2008; 18:486-94. [PMID: 18167507 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jes.7500641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicide exposures of 135 preschool-aged children and their adult caregivers at 135 homes in North Carolina (NC) and Ohio (OH). Participants were randomly recruited from six NC and six OH counties. Monitoring was performed over a 48-h period at the participants' homes. Environmental samples included soil, outdoor air, indoor air, and carpet dust. Personal samples collected by the adult caregivers concerning themselves and their children consisted of solid food, liquid food, hand wipe, and spot urine samples. All samples were analyzed for 2,4-D (free acid form) by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. 2,4-D was detected in all types of environmental samples but most often in carpet dust samples, with detection frequencies of 83% and 98% in NC and OH, respectively. The median level of 2,4-D in the carpet dust samples was about three times higher in OH homes compared to NC homes (156 vs. 47.5 ng/g, P<0.0002). For personal samples, 2,4-D was more frequently detected in the hand wipe samples from OH participants (>48%) than from NC participants (<9%). Hand wipe levels at the 95th percentile were about five times higher for OH children (0.1 ng/cm(2)) and adults (0.03 ng/cm(2)) than for the NC children (0.02 ng/cm(2)) and adults (<0.005 ng/cm(2)). 2,4-D was detected in more than 85% of the child and adult urine samples in both states. The median urinary 2,4-D concentration was more than twice as high for OH children compared to NC children (1.2 vs. 0.5 ng/ml, P<0.0001); however, the median concentration was identical at 0.7 ng/ml for both NC and OH adults. The intraclass correlation coefficient of reliability for an individual's urinary 2,4-D measurements, estimated from the unadjusted (0.31-0.62) and specific gravity-adjusted (0.37-0.73) values, were somewhat low for each group in this study. The variability in urinary 2,4-D measurements over the 48-h period for both children and adults in NC and OH suggests that several spot samples were needed to adequately assess these participants' exposures to 2,4-D in residential settings. Results from this study showed that children and their adult caregivers in NC and OH were likely exposed to 2,4-D through several pathways at their homes. In addition, our findings suggest that the OH children might have been exposed to higher levels of 2,4-D through the dermal and nondietary routes of exposure than the NC children and the NC and OH adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marsha K Morgan
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, USEPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, USA.
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Multiresidue determination of chlorophenoxy acid herbicides in human urine samples by use of solid-phase extraction and capillary LC–UV detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 390:759-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1701-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2007] [Revised: 10/08/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Curwin BD, Hein MJ, Sanderson WT, Striley C, Heederik D, Kromhout H, Reynolds SJ, Alavanja MC. Pesticide dose estimates for children of Iowa farmers and non-farmers. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2007; 105:307-15. [PMID: 17659274 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2007.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Revised: 05/23/2007] [Accepted: 06/04/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Farm children have the potential to be exposed to pesticides. Biological monitoring is often employed to assess this exposure; however, the significance of the exposure is uncertain unless doses are estimated. In the spring and summer of 2001, 118 children (66 farm, 52 non-farm) of Iowa farm and non-farm households were recruited to participate in a study investigating potential take-home pesticide exposure. Each child provided an evening and morning urine sample at two visits spaced approximately 1 month apart, with the first sample collection taken within a few days after pesticide application. Estimated doses were calculated for atrazine, metolachlor, chlorpyrifos, and glyphosate from urinary metabolite concentrations derived from the spot urine samples and compared to EPA reference doses. For all pesticides except glyphosate, the doses from farm children were higher than doses from the non-farm children. The difference was statistically significant for atrazine (p<0.0001) but only marginally significant for chlorpyrifos and metolachlor (p = 0.07 and 0.1, respectively). Among farm children, geometric mean doses were higher for children on farms where a particular pesticide was applied compared to farms where that pesticide was not applied for all pesticides except glyphosate; results were significant for atrazine (p = 0.030) and metolachlor (p = 0.042), and marginally significant for chlorpyrifos (p = 0.057). The highest estimated doses for atrazine, chlorpyrifos, metolachlor, and glyphosate were 0.085, 1.96, 3.16, and 0.34 microg/kg/day, respectively. None of the doses exceeded any of the EPA reference values for atrazine, metolachlor, and glyphosate; however, all of the doses for chlorpyrifos exceeded the EPA chronic population adjusted reference value. Doses were similar for male and female children. A trend of decreasing dose with increasing age was observed for chlorpyrifos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Curwin
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, MS R-14, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA.
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Barr DB, Hines CJ, Olsson AO, Deddens JA, Bravo R, Striley CAF, Norrgran J, Needham LL. Identification of human urinary metabolites of acetochlor in exposed herbicide applicators by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2007; 17:559-66. [PMID: 17534384 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jes.7500583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Acetochlor is a preemergent chloroacetanilide herbicide used to control annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds. It is the second most abundantly applied herbicide on corn crops in the United States; however, human metabolites associated with known exposure to acetochlor have not been positively identified and confirmed. We positively identified acetochlor mercapturate (ACM) as a metabolite of acetochlor in urine samples collected during a 24-h period from custom (commercial) applicators who had applied acetochlor on either the day of or the day before urine collection. Concentrations in applicator urine samples ranged from 0.5 to 449 microg/l (0.3-121 microg/g creatinine). We found that ACM accounted for as much as 42% of the total acetochlor-derived metabolites; however, as the exposure level decreased (based on total acetochlor metabolite level), ACM became a less abundant metabolite of acetochlor (<17%). Unmetabolized acetochlor was also measured in the urine samples analyzed. At high exposures (classified as >100 microg/l), acetochlor accounted for about 0.8% of the total excreted acetochlor metabolites (approximately 2% of the ACM concentrations). At lower exposures (classified as ACM<10 microg/l), ACM and acetochlor concentrations were similar. Additionally, we tentatively identified another acetochlor metabolite that appeared to be important at low levels of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana B Barr
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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Enoch RR, Stanko JP, Greiner SN, Youngblood GL, Rayner JL, Fenton SE. Mammary gland development as a sensitive end point after acute prenatal exposure to an atrazine metabolite mixture in female Long-Evans rats. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2007; 115:541-7. [PMID: 17450222 PMCID: PMC1852649 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2006] [Accepted: 12/18/2006] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atrazine (ATR), a widely used chlorotriazine herbicide, inhibits a number of endocrine-dependent processes, including gonadotrophin surges and mammary gland development in rats. Chlorotriazine herbicides are rapidly metabolized in plants and animals to form a group of metabolites that are detected both in the environment and in exposed animals. The extent to which these metabolites are responsible directly for the observed health effects is not understood. OBJECTIVES Our goal was to determine if a mixture of ATR metabolites, in proportions found in the environment, might produce developmental effects in Long-Evans rats following exposure late in pregnancy. METHODS We administered an ATR metabolite mixture (AMM) containing ATR, hydroxyatrazine, diaminochlorotriazine, deethylatrazine, and deisopropylatrazine orally to pregnant Long-Evans rats at 0.09, 0.87, or 8.73 mg/kg body weight (bw)/day, on gestation days 15-19, using 0 and 100 mg ATR/kg bw/day as negative and positive controls, respectively. RESULTS We observed no significant effect of acute AMM exposure on body weight gain in dams during the dosing period, weight loss in pups on postnatal day (PND)4, or pubertal timing, as is seen with ATR alone. However, as with ATR, we detected delayed mammary gland development, evaluated by whole mount analysis, as early as PND4 in all treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that acute exposure to AMM at levels as low as 0.09 mg/kg bw during late pregnancy causes persistent alterations in mammary gland development of female offspring, and that these effects do not appear to be related to bw or associated with pubertal timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolondo R. Enoch
- North Carolina Central University, Department of Biology, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jason P. Stanko
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Reproductive Toxicology Division, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sara N. Greiner
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Reproductive Toxicology Division, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Geri L. Youngblood
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Reproductive Toxicology Division, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jennifer L. Rayner
- University of North Carolina, School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Suzanne E. Fenton
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Reproductive Toxicology Division, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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Alexander BH, Mandel JS, Baker BA, Burns CJ, Bartels MJ, Acquavella JF, Gustin C. Biomonitoring of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid exposure and dose in farm families. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2007; 115:370-6. [PMID: 17431485 PMCID: PMC1849924 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2005] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We estimated 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) exposure and systemic dose in farm family members following an application of 2,4-D on their farm. METHODS Farm families were recruited from licensed applicators in Minnesota and South Carolina. Eligible family members collected all urine during five 24-hr intervals, 1 day before through 3 days after an application of 2,4-D. Exposure profiles were characterized with 24-hr urine 2,4-D concentrations, which then were related to potential predictors of exposure. Systemic dose was estimated using the urine collections from the application day through the third day after application. RESULTS Median urine 2,4-D concentrations at baseline and day after application were 2.1 and 73.1 microg/L for applicators, below the limit of detection, and 1.2 microg/L for spouses, and 1.5 and 2.9 microg/L for children. The younger children (4-11 years of age) had higher median post-application concentrations than the older children (> or = 12 years of age) (6.5 vs. 1.9 microg/L). The geometric mean systemic doses (micrograms per kilogram body weight) were 2.46 (applicators), 0.8 (spouses), 0.22 (all children), 0.32 (children 4-11 years of age), and 0.12 (children > or = 12 years of age). Exposure to the spouses and children was primarily determined by direct contact with the application process and the number of acres treated. Multivariate models identified glove use, repairing equipment, and number of acres treated as predictors of exposure in the applicators. CONCLUSIONS We observed considerable heterogeneity of 2,4-D exposure among farm family members, primarily attributable to level of contact with the application process. Awareness of this variability and the actual magnitude of exposures are important for developing exposure and risk characterizations in 2,4-D-exposed agricultural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce H Alexander
- University of Minnesota, School of Public Health, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.
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Mage DT, Wallace LA, Kollander M, Ott WR. Statistical issues in farmworker studies. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:A688-9; author reply A689-90. [PMID: 17185250 PMCID: PMC1764171 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.114-1764171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
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Koivunen ME, Dettmer K, Vermeulen R, Bakke B, Gee SJ, Hammock BD. Improved methods for urinary atrazine mercapturate analysis—Assessment of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a novel liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) method utilizing online solid phase extraction (SPE). Anal Chim Acta 2006; 572:180-9. [PMID: 17723476 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2006] [Revised: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Elimination of interfering substances in urine by solid phase extraction (SPE) prior to analysis resulted in 10-fold improvement in the sensitivity of atrazine mercapturate (AM) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) compared to previous reports. Of the two tested SPE systems, Oasis HLB and MCX, the mixed-mode MCX gave good recoveries (82%) of AM in spiked samples measured by ELISA, whereas the reverse-phase HLB phase was not compatible with the immunochemical method. At relatively high concentrations of urinary AM (>20 ng mL(-1)), sample dilution was effective enough for the elimination of interfering substances. The new liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method developed for AM utilizes online-SPE with Oasis HLB, column switching and a stable-isotope internal standard. The limit of quantification (0.05 ng mL(-1)) indicates improved sensitivity compared with most previously published LC-MS methods for AM. Validation of all three methods, LC-MS, ELISA+SPE and ELISA+dilution with spiked urine samples showed good correlation between the known and measured concentrations with R2 values of 0.996, 0.957 and 0.961, respectively. When a set (n=70 plus 12 blind duplicates) of urine samples from farmers exposed to atrazine was analyzed, there was a good agreement (R2=0.917) between the log normalized data obtained by ELISA+SPE and LC-MS. High correlation among the data obtained by the two tested methods and the LC-MS method by the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), together with low variability among the blind duplicates, suggests that both methods reported here would be suitable for the analysis of urinary AM as a biomarker for human exposure of atrazine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja E Koivunen
- Department of Entomology and the UC Davis Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, United States
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