1
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Neumann AP, Sage E, Boll D, Reinhardt-Szyba M, Fon W, Masselon C, Hentz S, Sader JE, Makarov A, Roukes ML. A Hybrid Orbitrap-Nanoelectromechanical Systems Approach for the Analysis of Individual, Intact Proteins in Real Time. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202317064. [PMID: 38769756 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202317064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS)-based mass spectrometry (MS) is an emerging technique that enables determination of the mass of individual adsorbed particles by driving nanomechanical devices at resonance and monitoring the real-time changes in their resonance frequencies induced by each single molecule adsorption event. We incorporate NEMS into an Orbitrap mass spectrometer and report our progress towards leveraging the single-molecule capabilities of the NEMS to enhance the dynamic range of conventional MS instrumentation and to offer new capabilities for performing deep proteomic analysis of clinically relevant samples. We use the hybrid instrument to deliver E. coli GroEL molecules (801 kDa) to the NEMS devices in their native, intact state. Custom ion optics are used to focus the beam down to 40 μm diameter with a maximum flux of 25 molecules/second. The mass spectrum obtained with NEMS-MS shows good agreement with the known mass of GroEL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam P Neumann
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Eric Sage
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Dmitri Boll
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, 28199, Bremen, Germany
| | | | - Warren Fon
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Christophe Masselon
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG, Biologie à Grande Echelle, INSERM UA 13, F-38054, Grenoble, France
| | | | - John E Sader
- Graduate Aerospace Laboratories and Department of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Alexander Makarov
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, 28199, Bremen, Germany
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Utrecht, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michael L Roukes
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
- Departments of Physics, Applied Physics and Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
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2
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Kaynak B, Alkhaled M, Kartal E, Yanik C, Hanay MS. Atmospheric-Pressure Mass Spectrometry by Single-Mode Nanoelectromechanical Systems. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:8553-8559. [PMID: 37681677 PMCID: PMC10540252 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c02343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Weighing particles above the megadalton mass range has been a persistent challenge in commercial mass spectrometry. Recently, nanoelectromechanical systems-based mass spectrometry (NEMS-MS) has shown remarkable performance in this mass range, especially with the advance of performing mass spectrometry under entirely atmospheric conditions. This advance reduces the overall complexity and cost while increasing the limit of detection. However, this technique required the tracking of two mechanical modes and the accurate knowledge of mode shapes that may deviate from their ideal values, especially due to air damping. Here, we used a NEMS architecture with a central platform, which enables the calculation of mass by single-mode measurements. Experiments were conducted using polystyrene and gold nanoparticles to demonstrate the successful acquisition of mass spectra using a single mode with an improved areal capture efficiency. This advance represents a step forward in NEMS-MS, bringing it closer to becoming a practical application for the mass sensing of nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Batuhan
E. Kaynak
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
- UNAM
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mohammed Alkhaled
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
- UNAM
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Enise Kartal
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
- UNAM
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Cenk Yanik
- SUNUM,
Sabancı University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M. Selim Hanay
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
- UNAM
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
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3
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Luhmann N, West RG, Lafleur JP, Schmid S. Nanoelectromechanical Infrared Spectroscopy with In Situ Separation by Thermal Desorption: NEMS-IR-TD. ACS Sens 2023; 8:1462-1470. [PMID: 37067504 PMCID: PMC10152476 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c02435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel method for the quantitative analysis of mixtures of semivolatile chemical compounds. For the first time, thermal desorption is integrated directly with nanoelectromechanical infrared spectroscopy (NEMS-IR-TD). In this new technique, an analyte mixture is deposited via nebulization on the surface of a NEMS sensor and subsequently desorbed using heating under vacuum. The desorption process is monitored in situ via infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The resulting spectro-temporal maps allow for selective identification and analysis of the mixture. In addition, the corresponding thermogravimetric data allow for analysis of the desorption dynamics of the mixture components. As a demonstration, caffeine and theobromine were selectively identified and quantified from a mixture with a detection limit of less than 6 pg (about 30 fmol). With its exceptional sensitivity, NEMS-IR-TD allows for the analysis of low abundance and complex analytes with potential applications ranging from environmental sensing to life sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Luhmann
- Institute
of Sensor and Actuator Systems, TU Wien, Gusshausstrasse 27-29, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert G. West
- Institute
of Sensor and Actuator Systems, TU Wien, Gusshausstrasse 27-29, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Silvan Schmid
- Institute
of Sensor and Actuator Systems, TU Wien, Gusshausstrasse 27-29, 1040 Vienna, Austria
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4
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A microwave scattering spectral method to detect the nanomechanical vibrations embedded in a superconducting qubit. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4340. [PMID: 36928211 PMCID: PMC10020484 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30914-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanomechanical resonators (NMRs), as the quantum mechanical sensing probers, have played the important roles for various high-precision quantum measurements. Differing from the previous emission spectral probes (i.e., the NMR modified the atomic emission), in this paper we propose an alternative approach, i.e., by probing the scattering spectra of the quantum mechanical prober coupled to the driving microwaves, to characterize the physical features of the NMR embedded in a rf-SQUID based superconducting qubit. It is shown that, from the observed specifical frequency points in the spectra, i.e., either the dips or the peaks, the vibrational features (i.e., they are classical vibration or quantum mechanical one) and the physical parameters (typically such as the vibrational frequency and displacements) of the NMR can be determined effectively. The proposal is feasible with the current technique and should be useful to design the desired NMRs for various quantum metrological applications.
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5
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Cheng P, Espano J, Harkaway A, Naclerio AE, Moehring NK, Braeuninger-Weimer P, Kidambi PR. Nanoporous Atomically Thin Graphene Filters for Nanoscale Aerosols. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:41328-41336. [PMID: 36036893 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c10827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Filtering nanoparticulate aerosols from air streams is important for a wide range of personal protection equipment (PPE), including masks used for medical research, healthcare, law enforcement, first responders, and military applications. Conventional PPEs capable of filtering nanoparticles <300 nm are typically bulky and sacrifice breathability to maximize protection from exposure to harmful nanoparticulate aerosols including viruses ∼20-300 nm from air streams. Here, we show that nanopores introduced into centimeter-scale monolayer graphene supported on polycarbonate track-etched supports via a facile oxygen plasma etch can allow for filtration of aerosolized SiO2 nanoparticles of ∼5-20 nm from air steams while maintaining air permeance of ∼2.28-7.1 × 10-5 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1. Furthermore, a systematic increase in oxygen plasma etch time allows for a tunable size-selective filtration of aerosolized nanoparticles. We demonstrate a new route to realize ultra-compact, lightweight, and conformal form-factor filters capable of blocking sub-20 nm aerosolized nanoparticles with particular relevance for biological/viral threat mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peifu Cheng
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | - Jeremy Espano
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program for Material Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | - Andrew Harkaway
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | - Andrew E Naclerio
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | - Nicole K Moehring
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program for Material Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | | | - Piran R Kidambi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
- Vanderbilt Institute of Nanoscale Sciences and Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
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6
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Ezrre S, Reyna MA, Anguiano C, Avitia RL, Márquez H. Lab-on-a-Chip Platforms for Airborne Particulate Matter Applications: A Review of Current Perspectives. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:191. [PMID: 35448251 PMCID: PMC9024784 DOI: 10.3390/bios12040191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Lab-on-a-Chip (LoC) devices are described as versatile, fast, accurate, and low-cost platforms for the handling, detection, characterization, and analysis of a wide range of suspended particles in water-based environments. However, for gas-based applications, particularly in atmospheric aerosols science, LoC platforms are rarely developed. This review summarizes emerging LoC devices for the classification, measurement, and identification of airborne particles, especially those known as Particulate Matter (PM), which are linked to increased morbidity and mortality levels from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. For these devices, their operating principles and performance parameters are introduced and compared while highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Discussing the current applications will allow us to identify challenges and determine future directions for developing more robust LoC devices to monitor and analyze airborne PM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Ezrre
- Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Mexicali 21100, Mexico;
| | - Marco A. Reyna
- Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Mexicali 21100, Mexico;
| | - Citlalli Anguiano
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Mexicali 21280, Mexico; (C.A.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Roberto L. Avitia
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC), Mexicali 21280, Mexico; (C.A.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Heriberto Márquez
- Departamento de Óptica, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), Ensenada 22860, Mexico;
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7
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Erdogan RT, Alkhaled M, Kaynak BE, Alhmoud H, Pisheh HS, Kelleci M, Karakurt I, Yanik C, Şen ZB, Sari B, Yagci AM, Özkul A, Hanay MS. Atmospheric Pressure Mass Spectrometry of Single Viruses and Nanoparticles by Nanoelectromechanical Systems. ACS NANO 2022; 16:3821-3833. [PMID: 35785967 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c08423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry of intact nanoparticles and viruses can serve as a potent characterization tool for material science and biophysics. Inaccessible by widespread commercial techniques, the mass of single nanoparticles and viruses (>10MDa) can be readily measured by nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS)-based mass spectrometry, where charged and isolated analyte particles are generated by electrospray ionization (ESI) in air and transported onto the NEMS resonator for capture and detection. However, the applicability of NEMS as a practical solution is hindered by their miniscule surface area, which results in poor limit-of-detection and low capture efficiency values. Another hindrance is the necessity to house the NEMS inside complex vacuum systems, which is required in part to focus analytes toward the miniscule detection surface of the NEMS. Here, we overcome both limitations by integrating an ion lens onto the NEMS chip. The ion lens is composed of a polymer layer, which charges up by receiving part of the ions incoming from the ESI tip and consequently starts to focus the analytes toward an open window aligned with the active area of the NEMS electrostatically. With this integrated system, we have detected the mass of gold and polystyrene nanoparticles under ambient conditions and with two orders-of-magnitude improvement in capture efficiency compared to the state-of-the-art. We then applied this technology to obtain the mass spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 and BoHV-1 virions. With the increase in analytical throughput, the simplicity of the overall setup, and the operation capability under ambient conditions, the technique demonstrates that NEMS mass spectrometry can be deployed for mass detection of engineered nanoparticles and biological samples efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Cenk Yanik
- Sabancı University, SUNUM Nanotechnology Research and Application Center, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Burak Sari
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabancı University, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Aykut Özkul
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Virology, Ankara University, 06110 Ankara, Turkey
- Biotechnology Institute, Ankara University, 06135 Ankara, Turkey
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8
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Poenar DP. Microfluidic and Micromachined/MEMS Devices for Separation, Discrimination and Detection of Airborne Particles for Pollution Monitoring. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10070483. [PMID: 31323826 PMCID: PMC6681025 DOI: 10.3390/mi10070483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Most of the microfluidics-related literature describes devices handling liquids, with only a small part dealing with gas-based applications, and a much smaller number of papers are devoted to the separation and/or detection of airborne inorganic particles. This review is dedicated to this rather less known field which has become increasingly important in the last years due to the growing attention devoted to pollution monitoring and air quality assessment. After a brief introduction summarizing the main particulate matter (PM) classes and the need for their study, the paper reviews miniaturized devices and/or systems for separation, detection and quantitative assessment of PM concentration in air with portable and easy-to-use platforms. The PM separation methods are described first, followed by the key detection methods, namely optical (scattering) and electrical. The most important miniaturized reported realizations are analyzed, with special attention given to microfluidic and micromachined or micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) chip-based implementations due to their inherent capability of being integrated in lab-on-chip (LOC) type of smart microsystems with increased functionalities that can be portable and are easy to use. The operating principles and (when available) key performance parameters of such devices are presented and compared, also highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the most relevant conclusions are discussed in the last section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Puiu Poenar
- VALENS Centre for Bio Devices and Signal Analysis, School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering (EEE), Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639978, Singapore.
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9
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Kwon HB, Yoo SJ, Hong US, Kim K, Han J, Kim MK, Kang DH, Hwang J, Kim YJ. MEMS-based condensation particle growth chip for optically measuring the airborne nanoparticle concentration. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:1471-1483. [PMID: 30896011 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00035f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To monitor airborne nanoparticles at a particular point of interest sensitively and accurately, we developed a compact and inexpensive but highly-precise nanoparticle detection system. The proposed system, based on nucleation light-scattering, consists of two components: a microelectromechanical system (MEMS)-based particle growth chip that grows nanoparticles to micro-sized droplets through condensation and a miniaturized optical particle counter (mini-OPC) that detects individual grown droplets using a light-scattering method. To minimize the dimensions and cost of this system, all elements of the particle growth chip were integrated onto a glass slide through simple photolithography and 3D printing. Moreover, a passive cooling technique was adopted, which eliminated the need for an active cooling system. Thus, our system was much more compact, inexpensive, and power-efficient than conventional nanoparticle detection instruments. Through quantitative experiments using Ag nanoparticles in the size range of 5 to 70 nm, it was found that our system could count extremely small nanoparticles (12.4 nm) by growing them to micrometer-sized droplets. Furthermore, our system could provide an accurate number concentration of nanoparticles (the maximum difference was within 15% compared to the reference instrument), regardless of high (3500 N cm-3) and low (0.05 N cm-3) concentration environments. These results indicate that our system can be applied successfully to the monitoring of nanoparticles in various kinds of fields including not only indoor and outdoor environments but also high-tech industries utilizing cleanrooms, air filtration systems, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Beom Kwon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Single-Molecule Detection of DNA in a Nanochannel by High-Field Strength-Assisted Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10030189. [PMID: 30875869 PMCID: PMC6470947 DOI: 10.3390/mi10030189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Many researchers have fabricated micro and nanofluidic devices incorporating optical, chemical, and electrical detection systems with the aim of achieving on-chip analysis of macromolecules. The present study demonstrates a label-free detection of DNA using a nanofluidic device based on impedance measurements that is both sensitive and simple to operate. Using this device, the electrophoresis and dielectrophoresis effect on DNA conformation and the length dependence were examined. A low alternating voltage was applied to the nanogap electrodes to generate a high intensity field (>0.5 MV/m) under non-faradaic conditions. In addition, a 100 nm thick gold electrode was completely embedded in the substrate to allow direct measurements of a solution containing the sample passing through the gap, without any surface modification required. The high intensity field in this device produced a dielectrophoretic force that stretched the DNA molecule across the electrode gap at a specific frequency, based on back and forth movements between the electrodes with the DNA in a random coil conformation. The characteristics of 100 bp, 500 bp, 1 kbp, 5 kbp, 10 kbp, and 48 kbp λ DNA associated with various conformations were quantitatively analyzed with high resolution (on the femtomolar level). The sensitivity of this system was found to be more than about 10 orders of magnitude higher than that obtained from conventional linear alternating current (AC) impedance for the analysis of bio-polymers. This new high-sensitivity process is expected to be advantageous with regard to the study of complex macromolecules and nanoparticles.
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11
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Strategy toward Miniaturized, Self-out-Readable Resonant Cantilever and Integrated Electrostatic Microchannel Separator for Highly Sensitive Airborne Nanoparticle Detection. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19040901. [PMID: 30795547 PMCID: PMC6412668 DOI: 10.3390/s19040901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, a self-out-readable, miniaturized cantilever resonator for highly sensitive airborne nanoparticle (NP) detection is presented. The cantilever, which is operated in the fundamental in-plane resonance mode, is used as a microbalance with femtogram resolution. To maximize sensitivity and read-out signal amplitude of the piezo-resistive Wheatstone half bridge, the geometric parameters of the sensor design are optimized by finite element modelling (FEM). The electrical read-out of the cantilever movement is realized by piezo-resistive struts at the sides of the cantilever resonator that enable real-time tracking using a phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit. Cantilevers with minimum resonator mass of 1.72 ng and resonance frequency of ~440 kHz were fabricated, providing a theoretical sensitivity of 7.8 fg/Hz. In addition, for electrostatic NP collection, the cantilever has a negative-biased electrode located at its free end. Moreover, the counter-electrode surrounding the cantilever and a µ-channel, guiding the particle-laden air flow towards the cantilever, are integrated with the sensor chip. µ-channels and varying sampling voltages will also be used to accomplish particle separation for size-selective NP detection. To sum up, the presented airborne NP sensor is expected to demonstrate significant improvements in the field of handheld, micro-/nanoelectromechanical systems (M/NEMS)-based NP monitoring devices.
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12
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Piezoelectric MEMS Resonators for Cigarette Particle Detection. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10020145. [PMID: 30795635 PMCID: PMC6413230 DOI: 10.3390/mi10020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we demonstrate the potential of a piezoelectric resonator for developing a low-cost sensor system to detect microscopic particles in real-time, which can be present in a wide variety of environments and workplaces. The sensor working principle is based on the resonance frequency shift caused by particles collected on the resonator surface. To test the sensor sensitivity obtained from mass-loading effects, an Aluminum Nitride-based piezoelectric resonator was exposed to cigarette particles in a sealed chamber. In order to determine the resonance parameters of interest, an interface circuit was implemented and included within both open-loop and closed-loop schemes for comparison. The system was capable of tracking the resonance frequency with a mass sensitivity of 8.8 Hz/ng. Although the tests shown here were proven by collecting particles from a cigarette, the results obtained in this application may have interest and can be extended towards other applications, such as monitoring of nanoparticles in a workplace environment.
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13
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Karl M, Larsen PE, Rangacharya VP, Hwu ET, Rantanen J, Boisen A, Rades T. Ultrasensitive Microstring Resonators for Solid State Thermomechanical Analysis of Small and Large Molecules. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:17522-17531. [PMID: 30468581 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b09034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Thermal analysis plays an important role in both industrial and fundamental research and is widely used to study thermal characteristics of a variety of materials. However, despite considerable effort using different techniques, research struggles to resolve the physicochemical nature of many thermal transitions such as amorphous relaxations or structural changes in proteins. To overcome the limitations in sensitivity of conventional techniques and to gain new insight into the thermal and mechanical properties of small- and large-molecule samples, we have developed an instrumental analysis technique using resonating low-stress silicon nitride microstrings. With a simple sample deposition method and postprocess data analysis, we are able to perform rapid thermal analysis of direct instrumental triplicate samples with only pico- to nanograms of material. Utilizing this method, we present the first measurement of amorphous alpha and beta relaxation, as well as liquid crystalline transitions and decomposition of small-molecule samples deposited onto a microstring resonator. Furthermore, sensitive measurements of the glass transition of polymers and yet unresolved thermal responses of proteins below their apparent denaturation temperature, which seem to include the true solid state glass transition of pure protein, are reported. Where applicable, thermal events detected with the setup were in good agreement with conventional techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis. The sensitive detection of even subtle thermal transitions highlights further possibilities and applications of resonating microstrings in instrumental physicochemical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Karl
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2 , 2100 Copenhagen , Denmark.,Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Ørsteds Plads , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark
| | - Peter E Larsen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Ørsteds Plads , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark
| | - Varadarajan P Rangacharya
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Ørsteds Plads , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark
| | - En Te Hwu
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Ørsteds Plads , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark
| | - Jukka Rantanen
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2 , 2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Anja Boisen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Ørsteds Plads , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark.,Danish National Research Foundation and Villum Fondens Center for Intelligent Drug Delivery and Sensing Using Microcontainers and Nanomechanics (IDUN) , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby , Denmark
| | - Thomas Rades
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2 , 2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
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14
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Kwon HB, Kim HL, Hong US, Yoo SJ, Kim K, Han J, Kim MK, Hwang J, Kim YJ. Particle size spectrometer using inertial classification and electrical measurement techniques for real-time monitoring of particle size distribution. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2642-2652. [PMID: 30069567 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00429c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To achieve real-time monitoring of aerodynamic submicron particle size distributions at a point-of-interest, we developed a high-performance particle size spectrometer that is compact, low-cost, and portable. The present system consists of four key components: a unipolar mini-discharger for electrically charging particles, an inertial size-separator for classifying charged particles into five size fractions in terms of their aerodynamic sizes, a portable multi-channel electrometer for detecting femto-ampere currents carried by charged particles at each stage, and a retrieval algorithm for converting the current data into a smooth particle size distribution. The unipolar mini-discharger and inertial size separator were quantitatively characterised by using standard polystyrene latex (PSL) particles. The experimentally determined cut-off diameters at each stage in the inertial size separator were 1.17, 0.94, 0.71, 0.54, and 0.23 μm, respectively. Then, the system was compared with a commercial reference aerodynamic particle sizer (APS) in the environment where the number concentration and the average size of TiO2 particles were changing. The present system resolved peak size and geometric standard deviation of particles to within 11.2%, and 6.3%, respectively, indicating that the system can be used to accurately monitor submicron particle size distributions in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Beom Kwon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Sader JE, Hanay MS, Neumann AP, Roukes ML. Mass Spectrometry Using Nanomechanical Systems: Beyond the Point-Mass Approximation. NANO LETTERS 2018; 18:1608-1614. [PMID: 29369636 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b04301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The mass measurement of single molecules, in real time, is performed routinely using resonant nanomechanical devices. This approach models the molecules as point particles. A recent development now allows the spatial extent (and, indeed, image) of the adsorbate to be characterized using multimode measurements ( Hanay , M. S. , Nature Nanotechnol. , 10 , 2015 , pp 339 - 344 ). This "inertial imaging" capability is achieved through virtual re-engineering of the resonator's vibrating modes, by linear superposition of their measured frequency shifts. Here, we present a complementary and simplified methodology for the analysis of these inertial imaging measurements that exhibits similar performance while streamlining implementation. This development, together with the software that we provide, enables the broad implementation of inertial imaging that opens the door to a range of novel characterization studies of nanoscale adsorbates.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Sader
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, School of Mathematics and Statistics , The University of Melbourne , Victoria 3010 , Australia
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering , California Institute of Technology , Pasadena , California 91125 , United States
| | - M Selim Hanay
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering , California Institute of Technology , Pasadena , California 91125 , United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and National Nanotechnology Research Center (UNAM) , Bilkent University , Ankara 06800 , Turkey
| | - Adam P Neumann
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering , California Institute of Technology , Pasadena , California 91125 , United States
| | - Michael L Roukes
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering , California Institute of Technology , Pasadena , California 91125 , United States
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16
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Kim H, Shin DH, McAllister K, Seo M, Lee S, Kang IS, Park BH, Campbell EEB, Lee SW. Accurate and Precise Determination of Mechanical Properties of Silicon Nitride Beam Nanoelectromechanical Devices. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:7282-7287. [PMID: 28156098 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b16278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Accurate and precise determination of mechanical properties of nanoscale materials is mandatory since device performances of nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are closely related to the flexural properties of the materials. In this study, the intrinsic mechanical properties of highly stressed silicon nitride (SiN) beams of varying lengths are investigated using two different techniques: Dynamic flexural measurement using optical interferometry and quasi-static flexural measurement using atomic force microscopy. The resonance frequencies of the doubly clamped, highly stressed beams are found to be inversely proportional to their length, which is not usually observed from a beam but is expected from a string-like structure. The mass density of the SiN beams can be precisely determined from the dynamic flexural measurements by using the values for internal stress and Young's modulus determined from the quasi-static measurements. As a result, the mass resolution of the SiN beam resonators was predicted to be a few attograms, which was found to be in excellent agreement with the experimental results. This work suggests that accurate and precise determination of mechanical properties can be achieved through combined flexural measurement techniques, which is a crucial key for designing practical NEMS applications such as biomolecular sensors and gas detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakseong Kim
- Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS) , Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Shin
- Department of Physics, Ewha Womans University , Seoul 03760, Korea
| | | | - Miri Seo
- Department of Physics, Ewha Womans University , Seoul 03760, Korea
| | - Sangik Lee
- Division of Quantum Phases & Devices, School of Physics, Konkuk University , Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Il-Suk Kang
- National Nanofab Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology , Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Bae Ho Park
- Division of Quantum Phases & Devices, School of Physics, Konkuk University , Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Eleanor E B Campbell
- Division of Quantum Phases & Devices, School of Physics, Konkuk University , Seoul 05029, Korea
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, Edinburgh University , David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, U.K
| | - Sang Wook Lee
- Department of Physics, Ewha Womans University , Seoul 03760, Korea
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17
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Resonating Behaviour of Nanomachined Holed Microcantilevers. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17837. [PMID: 26643936 PMCID: PMC4672296 DOI: 10.1038/srep17837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The nanofabrication of a nanomachined holed structure localized on the free end of a microcantilever is here presented, as a new tool to design micro-resonators with enhanced mass sensitivity. The proposed method allows both for the reduction of the sensor oscillating mass and the increment of the resonance frequency, without decreasing the active surface of the device. A theoretical analysis based on the Rayleigh method was developed to predict resonance frequency, effective mass, and effective stiffness of nanomachined holed microresonators. Analytical results were checked by Finite Element simulations, confirming an increase of the theoretical mass sensitivity up to 250%, without altering other figures of merit. The nanomachined holed resonators were vibrationally characterized, and their Q-factor resulted comparable with solid microcantilevers with same planar dimensions.
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18
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Sauer VTK, Diao Z, Freeman MR, Hiebert WK. Wavelength-division multiplexing of nano-optomechanical doubly clamped beam systems. OPTICS LETTERS 2015; 40:1948-1951. [PMID: 25927755 DOI: 10.1364/ol.40.001948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wavelength-division multiplexing is demonstrated for a set of two doubly clamped beams. Using a single input/output waveguide in a nanophotonic detection system, the two mechanical beams are independently addressable using different wavelength channels as determined by their respective racetrack resonator detection cavities. The two cavities slightly overlap, which also enables the mechanical frequency of both beams to be detected simultaneously with a single wavelength. Finally, to physically map which wavelength channel corresponds to which specific device, a heating laser is targeted individually on each beam to create a reversible mechanical frequency shift. This multiplexing method would allow for the simpler detection of large arrays of nanomechanical devices in a sensor system.
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19
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Hanay MS, Kelber SI, O’Connell CD, Mulvaney P, Sader JE, Roukes ML. Inertial imaging with nanomechanical systems. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 10:339-44. [PMID: 25822931 PMCID: PMC5283574 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2015.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Mass sensing with nanoelectromechanical systems has advanced significantly during the last decade. With nanoelectromechanical systems sensors it is now possible to carry out ultrasensitive detection of gaseous analytes, to achieve atomic-scale mass resolution and to perform mass spectrometry on single proteins. Here, we demonstrate that the spatial distribution of mass within an individual analyte can be imaged--in real time and at the molecular scale--when it adsorbs onto a nanomechanical resonator. Each single-molecule adsorption event induces discrete, time-correlated perturbations to all modal frequencies of the device. We show that by continuously monitoring a multiplicity of vibrational modes, the spatial moments of mass distribution can be deduced for individual analytes, one-by-one, as they adsorb. We validate this method for inertial imaging, using both experimental measurements of multimode frequency shifts and numerical simulations, to analyse the inertial mass, position of adsorption and the size and shape of individual analytes. Unlike conventional imaging, the minimum analyte size detectable through nanomechanical inertial imaging is not limited by wavelength-dependent diffraction phenomena. Instead, frequency fluctuation processes determine the ultimate attainable resolution. Advanced nanoelectromechanical devices appear capable of resolving molecular-scale analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Selim Hanay
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and National Nanotechnology Research Center (UNAM), Bilkent University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Scott I. Kelber
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Cathal D. O’Connell
- Bio21 Institute & School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Paul Mulvaney
- Bio21 Institute & School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - John E. Sader
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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| | - Michael L. Roukes
- Kavli Nanoscience Institute and Departments of Physics & Applied Physics and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
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20
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Villanueva LG, Schmid S. Evidence of Surface Loss as Ubiquitous Limiting Damping Mechanism in SiN Micro- and Nanomechanical Resonators. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2014; 113:227201. [PMID: 25494083 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.113.227201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Silicon nitride (SiN) micro- and nanomechanical resonators have attracted a lot of attention in various research fields due to their exceptionally high quality factors (Qs). Despite their popularity, the origin of the limiting loss mechanisms in these structures has remained controversial. In this Letter we propose an analytical model combining acoustic radiation loss with intrinsic loss. The model accurately predicts the resulting mode-dependent Qs of low-stress silicon-rich and high-stress stoichiometric SiN membranes. The large acoustic mismatch of the low-stress membrane to the substrate seems to minimize radiation loss and Qs of higher modes (n∧m≥3) are limited by intrinsic losses. The study of these intrinsic losses in low-stress membranes reveals a linear dependence with the membrane thickness. This finding was confirmed by comparing the intrinsic dissipation of arbitrary (membranes, strings, and cantilevers) SiN resonators extracted from literature, suggesting surface loss as ubiquitous damping mechanism in thin SiN resonators with Q_{surf}=βh and β=6×10^{10}±4×10^{10} m^{-1}. Based on the intrinsic loss the maximal achievable Qs and Qf products for SiN membranes and strings are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G Villanueva
- Advanced NEMS Group, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - S Schmid
- Department of Micro-and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Nanotech, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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21
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Yamada S, Schmid S, Larsen T, Hansen O, Boisen A. Photothermal infrared spectroscopy of airborne samples with mechanical string resonators. Anal Chem 2013; 85:10531-5. [PMID: 24083320 DOI: 10.1021/ac402585e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Micromechanical photothermal infrared spectroscopy is a promising technique, where absorption-related heating is detected by frequency detuning of microstring resonators. We present photothermal infrared spectroscopy with mechanical string resonators providing rapid identification of femtogram-scale airborne samples. Airborne sample material is directly collected on the microstring with an efficient nondiffusion limited sampling method based on inertial impaction. Resonance frequency shifts, proportional to the absorbed heat in the microstring, are recorded as monochromatic IR light is scanned over the mid-infrared range. As a proof-of-concept, we sample and analyze polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and the IR spectrum measured by photothermal spectroscopy matches the reference IR spectrum measured by an FTIR spectrometer. We further identify the organic surface coating of airborne TiO2 nanoparticles with a total mass of 4 pg. With an estimated detection limit of 44 fg, the presented sensor demonstrates a new paradigm in ultrasensitive vibrational spectroscopy for identification of airborne species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoko Yamada
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark , 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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22
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Larsen T, Schmid S, Villanueva LG, Boisen A. Photothermal analysis of individual nanoparticulate samples using micromechanical resonators. ACS NANO 2013; 7:6188-6193. [PMID: 23799869 DOI: 10.1021/nn402057f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The ability to detect and analyze single sample entities such as single nanoparticles, viruses, spores, or molecules is of fundamental interest. This can provide insight into the individual specific properties which may differ from the statistical sample average. Here we introduce resonant photothermal spectroscopy, a novel method that enables the analysis of individual nanoparticulate samples. Absorption of light by an individual sample placed on a microstring resonator results in local heating of the string, which is reflected in its resonance frequency. The working principle of the spectrometer is demonstrated by analyzing the optical absorption of different micro- and nanoparticles on a microstring. We present the measurement of a simple absorption spectrum of multiple polystyrene microparticles illuminated with an unfocused LED light source. Using a diode laser, single 170 nm polystyrene nanoparticles are detected. With the current setup, nanoparticulate samples with a mass of ~40 ag are detectable. By using nanostrings, visible and infrared photothermal spectroscopy in the subattogram mass regime is possible and single molecule detection is within reach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Larsen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Nanotech, Building 345 East, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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