1
|
Mahrous NN, Albaqami A, Saleem RA, Khoja B, Khan MI, Hawsawi YM. The known and unknown about attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) genetics: a special emphasis on Arab population. Front Genet 2024; 15:1405453. [PMID: 39165752 PMCID: PMC11333229 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2024.1405453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous neurodevelopmental syndrome characterized by behavioral appearances such as impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity. The prevalence of ADHD is high in childhood when compared to adults. ADHD has been significantly advanced by genetic research over the past 25 years. However, it is logically conceivable that both genetic and/or non-genetic factors, such as postnatal environmental and social influences, are associated with ADHD phenotype in Arab populations. While genetic influences are strongly linked with the etiology of ADHD, it remains obscure how consanguinity which is an underlying factor for many genetic diseases, contributes to ADHD subtypes. Arabian Gulf Nations have one the highest rates of consanguineous marriages, and consanguinity plays an important contributing factor in many genetic diseases that exist in higher percentages in Arabian Gulf Nations. Therefore, the current review aims to shed light on the genetic variants associated with ADHD subtypes in Arabian Gulf nations and Saudi Arabia in particular. It also focuses on the symptoms and the diagnosis of ADHD before turning to the neuropsychological pathways and subgroups of ADHD. The impact of a consanguinity-based understanding of the ADHD subtype will help to understand the genetic variability of the Arabian Gulf population in comparison with the other parts of the world and will provide novel information to develop new avenues for future research in ADHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nahed N. Mahrous
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Hafr Al-Batin, Hafr Al- Batin, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amirah Albaqami
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Turbah University College, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rimah A. Saleem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, Al-Faisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Basmah Khoja
- Research Center, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed I. Khan
- Research Center, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yousef M. Hawsawi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, Al-Faisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Research Center, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Olfson E, Farhat LC, Liu W, Vitulano LA, Zai G, Lima MO, Parent J, Polanczyk GV, Cappi C, Kennedy JL, Fernandez TV. Rare de novo damaging DNA variants are enriched in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and implicate risk genes. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5870. [PMID: 38997333 PMCID: PMC11245598 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50247-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Research demonstrates the important role of genetic factors in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). DNA sequencing of families provides a powerful approach for identifying de novo (spontaneous) variants, leading to the discovery of hundreds of clinically informative risk genes for other childhood neurodevelopmental disorders. This approach has yet to be extensively leveraged in ADHD. We conduct whole-exome DNA sequencing in 152 families, comprising a child with ADHD and both biological parents, and demonstrate a significant enrichment of rare and ultra-rare de novo gene-damaging mutations in ADHD cases compared to unaffected controls. Combining these results with a large independent case-control DNA sequencing cohort (3206 ADHD cases and 5002 controls), we identify lysine demethylase 5B (KDM5B) as a high-confidence risk gene for ADHD and estimate that 1057 genes contribute to ADHD risk. Using our list of genes harboring ultra-rare de novo damaging variants, we show that these genes overlap with previously reported risk genes for other neuropsychiatric conditions and are enriched in several canonical biological pathways, suggesting early neurodevelopmental underpinnings of ADHD. This work provides insight into the biology of ADHD and demonstrates the discovery potential of DNA sequencing in larger parent-child trio cohorts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Olfson
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Luis C Farhat
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wenzhong Liu
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Gwyneth Zai
- Tanenbaum Centre, Molecular Brain Sciences Department, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science and Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Monicke O Lima
- Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Justin Parent
- University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
- Bradley/Hasbro Children's Research Center, E.P. Bradley Hospital, Providence, RI, USA
- Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Guilherme V Polanczyk
- Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carolina Cappi
- Department of Psychiatry at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, NY, USA
| | - James L Kennedy
- Tanenbaum Centre, Molecular Brain Sciences Department, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science and Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas V Fernandez
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ribasés M, Mitjans M, Hartman CA, Soler Artigas M, Demontis D, Larsson H, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Kuntsi J, Faraone SV, Børglum AD, Reif A, Franke B, Cormand B. Genetic architecture of ADHD and overlap with other psychiatric disorders and cognition-related phenotypes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105313. [PMID: 37451654 PMCID: PMC10789879 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) co-occurs with many other psychiatric disorders and traits. In this review, we summarize and interpret the existing literature on the genetic architecture of these comorbidities based on hypothesis-generating approaches. Quantitative genetic studies indicate that genetic factors play a substantial role in the observed co-occurrence of ADHD with many different disorders and traits. Molecular genetic correlations derived from genome-wide association studies and results of studies based on polygenic risk scores confirm the general pattern but provide effect estimates that are smaller than those from twin studies. The identification of the specific genetic variants and biological pathways underlying co-occurrence using genome-wide approaches is still in its infancy. The first analyses of causal inference using genetic data support causal relationships between ADHD and comorbid disorders, although bidirectional effects identified in some instances point to complex relationships. While several issues in the methodology and inferences from the results are still to be overcome, this review shows that the co-occurrence of ADHD with many psychiatric disorders and traits is genetically interpretable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Ribasés
- Department of Mental Health, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain; Psychiatric Genetics Unit, Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addiction, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Mitjans
- Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu (IRSJD), Esplugues de Llobregat, Catalonia, Spain
| | - C A Hartman
- Department of Psychiatry, Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion regulation (ICPE), University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - M Soler Artigas
- Department of Mental Health, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain; Psychiatric Genetics Unit, Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addiction, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - D Demontis
- Department of Biomedicine/Human Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus, Denmark; The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - H Larsson
- School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden; Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - J A Ramos-Quiroga
- Department of Mental Health, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain; Psychiatric Genetics Unit, Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addiction, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Kuntsi
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - S V Faraone
- Departments of Psychiatry and of Neuroscience and Physiology, Norton College of Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - A D Børglum
- Department of Biomedicine/Human Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - A Reif
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - B Franke
- Departments of Cognitive Neuroscience and Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - B Cormand
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu (IRSJD), Esplugues de Llobregat, Catalonia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBER-ER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bauleo A, Montesanto A, Pace V, Guarasci F, Apa R, Brando R, De Stefano L, Sestito S, Concolino D, Falcone E. 7p22.2 Microduplication: A Pathogenic CNV? Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1292. [PMID: 37372471 DOI: 10.3390/genes14061292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Partial duplication of the short arm of chromosome 7 is a rare chromosome rearrangement. The phenotype spectrum associated with this rearrangement is extremely variable even if in the last decade the use of high-resolution microarray technology for the investigation of patients carrying this rearrangement allowed for the identification of the 7p22.1 sub-band causative of this phenotype and to recognize the corresponding 7p22.1 microduplication syndrome. We report two unrelated patients that carry a microduplication involving the 7.22.2 sub-band. Unlike 7p22.1 microduplication carriers, both patients only show a neurodevelopmental disorder without malformations. We better characterized the clinical pictures of these two patients providing insight into the clinical phenotype associated with the microduplication of the 7p22.2 sub-band and support for a possible role of this sub-band in the 7p22 microduplication syndrome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Bauleo
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Alberto Montesanto
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy
| | - Vincenza Pace
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Francesco Guarasci
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Rosalbina Apa
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Rossella Brando
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Laura De Stefano
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Simona Sestito
- Pediatric Unit, Department of Science of Health, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Daniela Concolino
- Pediatric Unit, Department of Science of Health, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Elena Falcone
- BIOGENET, Medical and Forensic Genetics Laboratory, 87100 Cosenza, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ma L, Xiao J, Guan Y, Wu D, Gu T, Wang J. SDK1-ALK Fusion in a Lung Adenocarcinoma Patient With Excellent Response to ALK Inhibitor Treatment: A Case Report. Front Oncol 2022; 12:860060. [PMID: 35311071 PMCID: PMC8931607 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.860060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BackgroundRearrangements of Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) have been discovered as a novel driver mutation in patients with non–small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Patients’ responses to ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) may vary depending on the variations of ALK rearrangements they have. It is imperative for clinicians to identify druggable ALK fusions in routine practice.Case PresentationIn this study, we discovered a rare ALK rearrangement type (SDK1–ALK) in a Chinese lung adenocarcinoma patient who responded well to ALK inhibitor SAF-189s. The positive expression of ALK in lung biopsy tissue was verified by IHC analysis. A new SDK1-ALK fusion was discovered using NGS. The patient was treated with SAF-189s (160 mg per day) as a first-line therapy and went into continuous remission, with a 12 months progression-free survival at the last follow-up.ConclusionThis is the first case of SDK1-ALK fusion with an excellent response to an ALK inhibitor, which will provide better understanding of ALK-TKI applications for NSCLC patients with ALK fusion in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ma
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
- Shandong Lung Cancer Institute, Jinan, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Junjuan Xiao
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
- Shandong Lung Cancer Institute, Jinan, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Yaping Guan
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
- Shandong Lung Cancer Institute, Jinan, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Dongfang Wu
- YuceBio Technology Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China
| | - Tiantian Gu
- YuceBio Technology Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
- Shandong Lung Cancer Institute, Jinan, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Jinan, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Wang,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
EWAS of Monozygotic Twins Implicate a Role of mTOR Pathway in Pathogenesis of Tic Spectrum Disorder. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12101510. [PMID: 34680906 PMCID: PMC8535383 DOI: 10.3390/genes12101510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tic spectrum disorder (TSD) is an umbrella term which includes Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) and chronic tic disorder (CTD). They are considered highly heritable, yet the genetic components remain largely unknown. In this study we aimed to investigate disease-associated DNA methylation differences to identify genes and pathways which may be implicated in TSD aetiology. For this purpose, we performed an exploratory analysis of the genome-wide DNA methylation patterns in whole blood samples of 16 monozygotic twin pairs, of which eight were discordant and six concordant for TSD, while two pairs were asymptomatic. Although no sites reached genome-wide significance, we identified several sites and regions with a suggestive significance, which were located within or in the vicinity of genes with biological functions associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. The two top genes identified (TSC1 and CRYZ/TYW3) and the enriched pathways and components (phosphoinosides and PTEN pathways, and insulin receptor substrate binding) are related to, or have been associated with, the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Genes in this pathway have previously been associated with GTS, and mTOR signalling has been implicated in a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. It is thus possible that altered mTOR signalling plays a role in the complex pathogenesis of TSD.
Collapse
|
7
|
Shohat S, Amelan A, Shifman S. Convergence and Divergence in the Genetics of Psychiatric Disorders From Pathways to Developmental Stages. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 89:32-40. [PMID: 32682568 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade, the identification of susceptibility genes for psychiatric disorders has become routine, but understanding the biology underlying these discoveries has proven extremely difficult. The large number of potential risk genes and the genetic overlap between disorders are major obstacles for studying the etiology of these conditions. Systems biology approaches relying on gene ontologies, gene coexpression, and protein-protein interactions are used to identify convergence of the genes in relation to biological processes, cell types, brain areas, and developmental stages. Across psychiatric disorders, there is a clear enrichment for genes expressed in the brain and especially in the cortex, but a higher resolution is vastly dependent on sample size and statistical power. There is indication that susceptibility genes tend to be expressed in the brain during periods preceding the typical onset of the disorders. Thus, the role of genes in prenatal brain development is more pronounced for childhood-onset disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, but is much less so for bipolar disorder and depression. One of the most consistent findings across multiple disorders and classes of genetic variants is the role of genes intolerant to mutations in psychiatric disorders, yet this association is more pronounced for disorders with a clear neurodevelopmental component. Notwithstanding, a detailed understanding of the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders is still lacking. It is possible that it will only be revealed by studying the risk genes at the level of the development and function of neuronal networks and circuits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shahar Shohat
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Alana Amelan
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Sagiv Shifman
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Many of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) molecules play pivotal roles in cell communication. The Sidekick (Sdk) gene, first described in Drosophila, encodes the single-pass transmembrane protein, Sdk, which is one of the largest among IgSF membrane proteins. Sdk first appeared in multicellular animals during the Precambrian age and later evolved to Sdk1 and Sdk2 in vertebrates by gene duplication. In flies, a single Sdk is involved in positioning photoreceptor neurons and their axons in the visual system and is responsible for dynamically rearranging cell shapes by strictly populating tricellular adherens junctions in epithelia. In vertebrates, Sdk1 and Sdk2 are expressed by unique sets of cell types and distinctively participate in the formation and/or maintenance of neural circuits in the retina, indicating that they are determinants of synaptic specificity. These functions are mediated by specific homophilic binding of their ectodomains and by intracellular association with PDZ scaffold proteins. Recent human genetic studies as well as animal experiments implicate that Sdk genes may influence various neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, addiction, and depression. The gigantic Sdk1 gene is susceptible to erratic gene rearrangements or mutations in both somatic and germ-line cells, potentially contributing to neurological disorders and some types of cancers. This review summarizes what is known about the structure and roles of Sdks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masahito Yamagata
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Maya I, Smirin-Yosef P, Kahana S, Morag S, Yacobson S, Agmon-Fishman I, Matar R, Bitton E, Shohat M, Basel-Salmon L, Salmon-Divon M. A study of normal copy number variations in Israeli population. Hum Genet 2020; 140:553-563. [PMID: 32980975 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-020-02225-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The population of Israel is ethnically diverse, and individuals from different ethnic groups share specific genetic variations. These variations, which have been passed on from common ancestors, are usually reported in public databases as rare variants. Here, we aimed to identify ethnicity-based benign copy number variants (CNVs) and generate the first Israeli CNV database. We applied a data-mining approach to the results of 10,193 chromosomal microarray tests, of which 2150 tests were from individuals of 13 common ethnic backgrounds (n ≥ 10). We found 165 CNV regions (> 50 kbp) that are unique to specific ethnic groups (uCNVRs). The frequency of more than 19% of these uCNVRs is between 1 and 20% of the common ethnic origin, while their frequency in the overall cohort is between 0.5 and 1.6%. Of these 165 uCNVRs, 98 are reported as variants of unknown significance or as not available in dbVar; we postulate that these uCNVRs should be annotated as either "likely benign" or "benign". The ethnic-specific CNVs extracted in this study will allow geneticists to distinguish between relevant pathogenic genomic aberrations and benign ethnicity-related variations, thus preventing variant misinterpretation that may lead to unnecessary pregnancy terminations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Idit Maya
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Pola Smirin-Yosef
- Genomic Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.,Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Rabin Medical Center, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Sarit Kahana
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Sne Morag
- Genomic Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Shiri Yacobson
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Ifaat Agmon-Fishman
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Reut Matar
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Elisheva Bitton
- Genomic Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Mordechai Shohat
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,The Genomic Unit, Sheba Cancer Research Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel.,Maccabi Health Services, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Lina Basel-Salmon
- Raphael Recanati Genetics Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petah Tikva, Israel.,Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Rabin Medical Center, Petah Tikva, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Pediatric Genetics Unit, Schneider Children's Medical Center of Israel, Petah Tikva, Israel
| | - Mali Salmon-Divon
- Genomic Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel. .,The Adelson School of Medicine, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Non-coding structural variation differentially impacts attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) gene networks in African American vs Caucasian children. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15252. [PMID: 32943653 PMCID: PMC7499198 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71307-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have suggested that structural variants (SVs) play an important role but these were mainly studied in subjects of European ancestry and focused on coding regions. In this study, we sought to address the role of SVs in non-European populations and outside of coding regions. To that end, we generated whole genome sequence (WGS) data on 875 individuals, including 205 ADHD cases and 670 non-ADHD controls. The ADHD cases included 116 African Americans (AA) and 89 of European Ancestry (EA) with SVs in comparison with 408 AA and 262 controls, respectively. Multiple SVs and target genes that associated with ADHD from previous studies were identified or replicated, and novel recurrent ADHD-associated SV loci were discovered. We identified clustering of non-coding SVs around neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathways, which are involved in neuronal brain function, and highly relevant to ADHD pathogenesis and regulation of gene expression related to specific ADHD phenotypes. There was little overlap (around 6%) in the genes impacted by SVs between AA and EA. These results suggest that SVs within non-coding regions may play an important role in ADHD development and that WGS could be a powerful discovery tool for studying the molecular mechanisms of ADHD
Collapse
|
11
|
Al-Mubarak BR, Omar A, Baz B, Al-Abdulaziz B, Magrashi AI, Al-Yemni E, Jabaan A, Monies D, Abouelhoda M, Abebe D, Ghaziuddin M, Al-Tassan NA. Whole exome sequencing in ADHD trios from single and multi-incident families implicates new candidate genes and highlights polygenic transmission. Eur J Hum Genet 2020; 28:1098-1110. [PMID: 32238911 PMCID: PMC7382449 DOI: 10.1038/s41431-020-0619-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several types of genetic alterations occurring at numerous loci have been described in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the role of rare single nucleotide variants (SNVs) remains under investigated. Here, we sought to identify rare SNVs with predicted deleterious effect that may contribute to ADHD risk. We chose to study ADHD families (including multi-incident) from a population with a high rate of consanguinity in which genetic risk factors tend to accumulate and therefore increasing the chance of detecting risk alleles. We employed whole exome sequencing (WES) to interrogate the entire coding region of 16 trios with ADHD. We also performed enrichment analysis on our final list of genes to identify the overrepresented biological processes. A total of 32 rare variants with predicted damaging effect were identified in 31 genes. At least two variants were detected per proband, most of which were not exclusive to the affected individuals. In addition, the majority of our candidate genes have not been previously described in ADHD including five genes (NEK4, NLE1, PSRC1, PTP4A3, and TMEM183A) that were not previously described in any human condition. Moreover, enrichment analysis highlighted brain-relevant biological themes such as "Glutamatergic synapse", "Cytoskeleton organization", and "Ca2+ pathway". In conclusion, our findings are in keeping with prior studies demonstrating the highly challenging genetic architecture of ADHD involving low penetrance, variable expressivity and locus heterogeneity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bashayer R Al-Mubarak
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia.
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Aisha Omar
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Batoul Baz
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Basma Al-Abdulaziz
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
- National center for genomics technology, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amna I Magrashi
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Eman Al-Yemni
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amjad Jabaan
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dorota Monies
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Abouelhoda
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
- Systems and Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Dejene Abebe
- Psychiatry Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Nada A Al-Tassan
- Behavioral Genetics unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia.
- Saudi Human Genome Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Cirillo A, Diniz E, Gadelha A, Asevedo E, Axelrud LK, Miguel EC, Rohde LA, Bressan RA, Pan P, Mari JDJ. Population neuroscience: challenges and opportunities for psychiatric research in low- and middle-income countries. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 42:442-448. [PMID: 32267341 PMCID: PMC7430393 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Population neuroscience is an emerging field that combines epidemiology and neuroscience to study how genes and the environment shape typical and atypical brain functioning. The objective of this study was to review key studies on population neuroscience from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and to identify potential gaps vis-à-vis studies conducted in high-income countries. Methods: We conducted a systematic review to search for longitudinal cohort studies investigating the development of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents in LMICs. We performed an electronic search in the EMBASE and MEDLINE databases from inception to July 5th, 2019. Results: We found six cohorts from four countries that met our search criteria: three cohorts from Brazil, one from China, one from South Africa, and one from Mauritius. Relevant examples of findings from these studies are reported. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate the impact of the valuable science output these cohort designs promote, allowing LMICs to have a share in frontline global psychiatry research. National and international funding agencies should invest in LMIC population neuroscience in order to promote replication and generalization of research from high-income countries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Elton Diniz
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ary Gadelha
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Elson Asevedo
- Global Mental Health Program, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Luiza K Axelrud
- Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatria do Desenvolvimento para Crianças e Adolescentes (INPD), Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Eurípedes C Miguel
- Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatria do Desenvolvimento para Crianças e Adolescentes (INPD), Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Augusto Rohde
- Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatria do Desenvolvimento para Crianças e Adolescentes (INPD), Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A Bressan
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Pedro Pan
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jair de J Mari
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) shows high heritability in formal genetic studies. In our review article, we provide an overview on common and rare genetic risk variants for ADHD and their link to clinical practice. RECENT FINDINGS The formal heritability of ADHD is about 80% and therefore higher than most other psychiatric diseases. However, recent studies estimate the proportion of heritability based on singlenucleotide variants (SNPs) at 22%. It is a matter of debate which genetic mechanisms explain this huge difference. While frequent variants in first mega-analyses of genome-wideassociation study data containing several thousand patients give the first genome-wide results, explaining only little variance, the methodologically more difficult analyses of rare variants are still in their infancy. Some rare genetic syndromes show higher prevalence for ADHD indicating a potential role for a small number of patients. In contrast, polygenic risk scores (PRS) could potentially be applied to every patient. We give an overview how PRS explain different behavioral phenotypes in ADHD and how they could be used for diagnosis and therapy prediction. Knowledge about a patient's genetic makeup is not yet mandatory for ADHD therapy or diagnosis. PRS however have been introduced successfully in other areas of clinical medicine, and their application in psychiatry will begin within the next years. In order to ensure competent advice for patients, knowledge of the current state of research is useful forpsychiatrists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grimm
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Thorsten M Kranz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Andreas Reif
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Jin J, Liu L, Chen W, Gao Q, Li H, Wang Y, Qian Q. The Implicated Roles of Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 ( CADM1) Gene and Altered Prefrontal Neuronal Activity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A "Gene-Brain-Behavior Relationship"? Front Genet 2019; 10:882. [PMID: 31616473 PMCID: PMC6775240 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Genes related to cell adhesion pathway have been implicated in the genetic architecture of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Cell adhesion molecule 1, encoded by CADM1 gene, is a protein which facilitates cell adhesion, highly expressed in the human prefrontal lobe. This study aimed to evaluate the association of CADM1 genotype with ADHD, executive function, and regional brain functions. Methods: The genotype data of 10-tag single nucleotide polymorphisms of CADM1 for 1,040 children and adolescents with ADHD and 963 controls were used for case–control association analyses. Stroop color–word interference test, Rey–Osterrieth complex figure test, and trail making test were conducted to assess “inhibition,” “working memory,” and “set-shifting,” respectively. A subsample (35 ADHD versus 56 controls) participated in the nested imaging genetic study. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance images were acquired, and the mean amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (mALFF) were captured. Results: Nominal significant genotypic effect of rs10891819 in “ADHD-alone” subgroup was detected (P = 0.008) with TT genotype as protective. The results did not survive multiple testing correction. No direct genetic effect was found for performance on executive function tasks. In the imaging genetic study for the “ADHD-whole” sample, rs10891819 genotype was significantly associated with altered mALFF in the right superior frontal gyrus (rSFG, peak t = 3.85, corrected P < 0.05). Specifically, the mALFFs in T-allele carriers were consistently higher than GG carriers in ADHD and control groups. Endophenotypic correlation analyses indicated a significant negative correlation between “word interference time” in Stroop (shorter “word interference time” indexing better inhibitory function) and mALFF in the rSFG (r = -0.29, P = 0.006). Finally, mediation analysis confirmed significant indirect effects from “rs10891819 genotype (T-allele carriers)” via “mALFF (rSFG)” to “inhibition (“word interference time”)” (Sobelz = -2.47; B = -2.61, 95% confidence interval -0.48 to -4.72; P = 0.009). Conclusions: Our study offered preliminary evidence to implicate the roles of CADM1 in relation to prefrontal brain activities, inhibition function, and ADHD, indicating a potential “gene–brain–behavior” relationship of the CADM1 gene. Future studies with larger samples may specifically test these hypotheses generated by our exploratory findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Jin
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Wai Chen
- Centre & Discipline of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and Psychotherapy, School of Medicine, Division of Paediatrics and Child Health & Division of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.,Complex Attention and Hyperactivity Disorders Service (CAHDS), Specialised Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services of Health in Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Qian Gao
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Haimei Li
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Yufeng Wang
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Qiujin Qian
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Mustafin RN, Enikeeva RF, Malykh SB, Valinurov RG, Khusnutdinova EK. [Genetics and epigenetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2019; 118:106-110. [PMID: 30335081 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro2018118091106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Molecular genetic studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have demonstrated the involvement of multiple genes in the etiology of ADHD. A polygenic hypothesis of the etiopathogenesis was formulated without clear knowledge of common mechanisms of ADHD development. Twin, family and adoption studies have established the heritability of 70-80% for ADHD. Association studies have shown the relationship between ADHD and genes of dopaminergic (DRD4, DRD5, SLC6A3), serotoninergic (HTR1B, 5-HTTLPR), glutamatergic (mGluR, NDRG2) systems, metabolic pathways (SLC2A3, SLC6A4, CDH13, CFOD1, GFOD1), membrane proteins (KChIP1, ITGA1, SNAP-25) as well as tumour-suppressor (NDRG2, NF1) and cytokine genes. The marked comorbidity of ADHD with other psychiatric disorders and shared genetic risk factors were determined. Studies of a role of copy number variations (CNVs) provided more promising evidence that suggested the possible involvement of retroelements as the unifying factors of disease etiopathogenesis. Transposons, which are sensitive to stress, may cause CNVs and are key regulators of brain development and functioning. The dysregulation of transposons is thought to be important in changes in tuning of gene regulatory pathways and epigenetic regulation of neurons in ADHD that may be a common principle underlying the heterogeneous nature of ADHD. Research on noncoding RNAs will help to confirm the hypothesis and develop diagnostic algorithms of examination of ADHD patients as an important step in the implementation of personalized medicine in psychiatry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - R F Enikeeva
- Bashkir State University, Ufa, Russia; Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, Russia
| | - S B Malykh
- Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - E K Khusnutdinova
- Bashkir State University, Ufa, Russia; Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Grimm O, Kittel-Schneider S, Reif A. Recent developments in the genetics of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018; 72:654-672. [PMID: 29722101 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental psychiatric disorder that affects children and adults. ADHD is one of the psychiatric disorders with the strongest genetic basis according to familial, twin, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP)-based epidemiological studies. In this review, we provide an update of recent insights into the genetic basis of ADHD. We discuss recent progress from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) looking at common variants as well as rare copy number variations. New analysis of gene groups, so-called functional ontologies, provide some insight into the gene networks afflicted, pointing to the role of neurodevelopmentally expressed gene networks. Bioinformatic methods, such as functional enrichment analysis and protein-protein network analysis, are used to highlight biological processes of likely relevance to the etiology of ADHD. Additionally, copy number variations seem to map on important pathways implicated in synaptic signaling and neurodevelopment. While some candidate gene associations of, for example, neurotransmitter receptors and signaling, have been replicated, they do not seem to explain significant variance in recent GWAS. We discuss insights from recent case-control SNP-GWAS that have presented the first whole-genome significant SNP in ADHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grimm
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sarah Kittel-Schneider
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Andreas Reif
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| |
Collapse
|