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Mamun M, Zheng YC, Wang N, Wang B, Zhang Y, Pang JR, Shen DD, Liu HM, Gao Y. Decoding CLU (Clusterin): Conquering cancer treatment resistance and immunological barriers. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 137:112355. [PMID: 38851158 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
One major obstacle in the treatment of cancer is the presence of proteins resistant to cancer therapy, which can impede the effectiveness of traditional approaches such as radiation and chemotherapy. This resistance can lead to disease progression and cause treatment failure. Extensive research is currently focused on studying these proteins to create tailored treatments that can circumvent resistance mechanisms. CLU (Clusterin), a chaperone protein, has gained notoriety for its role in promoting resistance to a wide range of cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapy. The protein has also been discovered to have a role in regulating the immunosuppressive environment within tumors. Its ability to influence oncogenic signaling and inhibit cell death bolster cancer cells resistant against treatments, which poses a significant challenge in the field of oncology. Researchers are actively investigating to the mechanisms by which CLU exerts its resistance-promoting effects, with the ultimate goal of developing strategies to circumvent its impact and enhance the effectiveness of cancer therapies. By exploring CLU's impact on cancer, resistance mechanisms, tumor microenvironment (TME), and therapeutic strategies, this review aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to improve cancer treatment outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maa Mamun
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Yi-Chao Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Ning Wang
- The School of Chinese Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Jing-Ru Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Dan-Dan Shen
- Key Laboratory of Endometrial Disease Prevention and Treatment, Zhengzhou China, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, Henan, China
| | - Hong-Min Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Ya Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment Institute of Drug Discovery and Development, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, 100 Kexue Avenue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China.
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Liu H, Huang M, Xin D, Wang H, Yu H, Pu W. Natural products with anti-tumorigenesis potential targeting macrophage. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 131:155794. [PMID: 38875811 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2024.155794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation is a risk factor for tumorigenesis. Macrophage, a subset of immune cells with high plasticity, plays a multifaceted role in this process. Natural products, which are bioactive compounds derived from traditional herbs or foods, have exhibited diverse effects on macrophages and tumorigenesis making them a valuable resource of drug discovery or optimization in tumor prevention. PURPOSE Provide a comprehensive overview of the various roles of macrophages in tumorigenesis, as well as the effects of natural products on tumorigenesis by modulating macrophage function. METHODS A thorough literature search spanning the past two decades was carried out using PubMed, Web of Science, Elsevier, and CNKI following the PRISMA guidelines. The search terms employed included "macrophage and tumorigenesis", "natural products, macrophages and tumorigenesis", "traditional Chinese medicine and tumorigenesis", "natural products and macrophage polarization", "macrophage and tumor related microenvironment", "macrophage and tumor signal pathway", "toxicity of natural products" and combinations thereof. Furthermore, certain articles are identified through the tracking of citations from other publications or by accessing the websites of relevant journals. Studies that meet the following criteria are excluded: (1) Articles not written in English or Chinese; (2) Full texts were not available; (3) Duplicate articles and irrelevant studies. The data collected was organized and summarized based on molecular mechanisms or compound structure. RESULTS This review elucidates the multifaceted effect of macrophages on tumorigenesis, encompassing process such as inflammation, angiogenesis, and tumor cell invasion by regulating metabolism, non-coding RNA, signal transduction and intercellular crosstalk. Natural products, including vitexin, ovatodiolide, ligustilide, and emodin, as well as herbal remedies, have demonstrated efficacy in modulating macrophage function, thereby attenuating tumorigenesis. These interventions mainly focus on mitigating the initial inflammatory response or modifying the inflammatory environment within the precancerous niche. CONCLUSIONS These mechanistic insights of macrophages in tumorigenesis offer valuable ideas for researchers. The identified natural products facilitate the selection of promising candidates for future cancer drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China
| | - Manru Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China
| | - Dandan Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China
| | - Hong Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China.
| | - Haiyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Haihe Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China.
| | - Weiling Pu
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China; Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, PR China.
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Nepal MR, Shah S, Kang KT. Dual roles of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in various diseases: a review. Arch Pharm Res 2024; 47:597-616. [PMID: 39008186 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-024-01504-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of cells that originate from bone marrow stem cells. In pathological conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, allergies, infections, and cancer, normal myelopoiesis is altered to facilitate the formation of MDSCs. MDSCs were first shown to promote cancer initiation and progression by immunosuppression with the assistance of various chemokines and cytokines. Recently, various studies have demonstrated that MDSCs play two distinct roles depending on the physiological and pathological conditions. MDSCs have protective roles in autoimmune disorders (such as uveoretinitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, type 1 diabetes, autoimmune hepatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, alopecia areata, and systemic lupus erythematosus), allergies, and organ transplantation. However, they play negative roles in infections and various cancers. Several immunosuppressive functions and mechanisms of MDSCs have been determined in different disease conditions. This review comprehensively discusses the associations between MDSCs and various pathological conditions and briefly describes therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Raj Nepal
- College of Pharmacy, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea
- Duksung Innovative Drug Center, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sajita Shah
- College of Pharmacy, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea
- Duksung Innovative Drug Center, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea
- The Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Radiation Oncology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Kyu-Tae Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea.
- Duksung Innovative Drug Center, Duksung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea.
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Cheng X, Wang H, Wang Z, Zhu B, Long H. Tumor-associated myeloid cells in cancer immunotherapy. J Hematol Oncol 2023; 16:71. [PMID: 37415162 PMCID: PMC10324139 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-023-01473-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated myeloid cells (TAMCs) are among the most important immune cell populations in the tumor microenvironment, and play a significant role on the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade. Understanding the origin of TAMCs was found to be the essential to determining their functional heterogeneity and, developing cancer immunotherapy strategies. While myeloid-biased differentiation in the bone marrow has been traditionally considered as the primary source of TAMCs, the abnormal differentiation of splenic hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, erythroid progenitor cells, and B precursor cells in the spleen, as well as embryo-derived TAMCs, have been depicted as important origins of TAMCs. This review article provides an overview of the literature with a focus on the recent research progress evaluating the heterogeneity of TAMCs origins. Moreover, this review summarizes the major therapeutic strategies targeting TAMCs with heterogeneous sources, shedding light on their implications for cancer antitumor immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Cheng
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Immunotherapy, Chongqing, 400037, China
| | - Huilan Wang
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Immunotherapy, Chongqing, 400037, China
| | - Zhongyu Wang
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Immunotherapy, Chongqing, 400037, China
| | - Bo Zhu
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, China.
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Immunotherapy, Chongqing, 400037, China.
| | - Haixia Long
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, China.
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Immunotherapy, Chongqing, 400037, China.
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Rodríguez-Mesa XM, Contreras Bolaños LA, Mejía A, Pombo LM, Modesti Costa G, Santander González SP. Immunomodulatory Properties of Natural Extracts and Compounds Derived from Bidens pilosa L.: Literature Review. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051491. [PMID: 37242733 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Bidens pilosa L. has been used in different parts of the world mainly to treat diseases associated with immune response disorders, such as autoimmunity, cancer, allergies, and infectious diseases. The medicinal properties of this plant are attributed to its chemical components. Nevertheless, there is little conclusive evidence that describes the immunomodulatory activity of this plant. In this review, a systematic search was carried out in the PubMed-NLM, EBSCO Host and BVS databases focused on the pre-clinical scientific evidence of the immunomodulatory properties of B. pilosa. A total of 314 articles were found and only 23 were selected. The results show that the compounds or extracts of Bidens modulate the immune cells. This activity was associated with the presence of phenolic compounds and flavonoids that control proliferation, oxidative stress, phagocytosis, and the production of cytokines of different cells. Most of the scientific information analyzed in this paper supports the potential use of B. pilosa mainly as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumoral, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial immune response modulator. It is necessary that this biological activity be corroborated through the design of specialized clinical trials that demonstrate the effectiveness in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and infectious diseases. Until now there has only been one clinical trial in phase I and II associated with the anti-inflammatory activity of Bidens in mucositis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xandy Melissa Rodríguez-Mesa
- Phytoimmunomodulation Research Group, Juan N. Corpas University Foundation, Bogotá Carrera 111 #159A-61, Bogota 111321, Colombia
| | | | - Antonio Mejía
- Phytoimmunomodulation Research Group, Juan N. Corpas University Foundation, Bogotá Carrera 111 #159A-61, Bogota 111321, Colombia
- Plant Pharmacology and Alternative Therapeutics, Juan N. Corpas University Foundation, Bogotá Carrera 111 #159A-61, Bogota 111321, Colombia
| | - Luis Miguel Pombo
- Plant Pharmacology and Alternative Therapeutics, Juan N. Corpas University Foundation, Bogotá Carrera 111 #159A-61, Bogota 111321, Colombia
| | - Geison Modesti Costa
- Phytochemistry Research Group (GIFUJ), Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá Carrera 7 #40-62, Bogota 110231, Colombia
| | - Sandra Paola Santander González
- Phytoimmunomodulation Research Group, Juan N. Corpas University Foundation, Bogotá Carrera 111 #159A-61, Bogota 111321, Colombia
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Jiang VC, Hao D, Jain P, Li Y, Cai Q, Yao Y, Nie L, Liu Y, Jin J, Wang W, Lee HH, Che Y, Dai E, Han G, Wang R, Rai K, Futreal A, Flowers C, Wang L, Wang M. TIGIT is the central player in T-cell suppression associated with CAR T-cell relapse in mantle cell lymphoma. Mol Cancer 2022; 21:185. [PMID: 36163179 PMCID: PMC9513944 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-022-01655-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy using brexucabtagene autoleucel (BA) induces remission in many patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), and BA is the only CAR T-cell therapy approved by the FDA for MCL. However, development of relapses to BA is recognized with poor patient outcomes. Multiple CAR T-cell therapies have been approved for other lymphomas and the resistance mechanisms have been investigated. However, the mechanisms underlying BA relapse in MCL have not been investigated and whether any previously reported resistance mechanisms apply to BA-relapsed patients with MCL is unknown. METHODS To interrogate BA resistance mechanisms in MCL, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on 39 longitudinally collected samples from 15 BA-treated patients, and multiplex cytokine profiling on 80 serial samples from 20 patients. RESULTS We demonstrate that after BA relapse, the proportion of T cells, especially cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), decreased among non-tumor cells, while the proportion of myeloid cells correspondingly increased. TIGIT, LAG3, and CD96 were the predominant checkpoint molecules expressed on exhausted T cells and CTLs; only TIGIT was significantly increased after relapse. CTLs expanded during remission, and then contracted during relapse with upregulated TIGIT expression. Tumor cells also acquired TIGIT expression after relapse, leading to the enhanced interaction of tumor cell TIGIT with monocyte CD155/PVR. In myeloid cells, post-relapse HLA-II expression was reduced relative to pretreatment and during remission. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were enriched after relapse with elevated expression of activation markers, including CLU (clusterin) and VCAN (versican). Extracellular chemokines (CCL4, CXCL9, CXCL13), soluble checkpoint inhibitors (sPD-L1, sTIM3, s4-1BB), and soluble receptors (sIL-2R, sTNFRII) were decreased during remission but elevated after relapse. CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that multiple tumor-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors are associated with T-cell suppression and BA relapse. Among these, TIGIT appears to be the central player given its elevated expression after BA relapse in not only CTLs but also MCL cells. The acquisition of TIGIT expression on tumor cells is MCL-specific and has not been reported in other CAR T-treated diseases. Together, our data suggest that co-targeting TIGIT may prevent CAR T relapses and thus promote long-term progression-free survival in MCL patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian Changying Jiang
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Dapeng Hao
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Preetesh Jain
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yijing Li
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Qingsong Cai
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yixin Yao
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Lei Nie
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Jingling Jin
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Heng-Huan Lee
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yuxuan Che
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Enyu Dai
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Guangchun Han
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Ruiping Wang
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Kunal Rai
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Andrew Futreal
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Christopher Flowers
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Linghua Wang
- Department of Genomic Medicine, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA. .,The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences (GSBS), Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Michael Wang
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA. .,Department of Stem Cell Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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Locy H, Verhulst S, Cools W, Waelput W, Brock S, Cras L, Schiettecatte A, Jonckheere J, van Grunsven LA, Vanhoeij M, Thielemans K, Breckpot K. Assessing Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Breast Cancer: A Proposal for Combining Immunohistochemistry and Gene Expression Analysis to Refine Scoring. Front Immunol 2022; 13:794175. [PMID: 35222378 PMCID: PMC8876933 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.794175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Scoring of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in breast cancer specimens has gained increasing attention, as TILs have prognostic and predictive value in HER2+ and triple-negative breast cancer. We evaluated the intra- and interrater variability when scoring TILs by visual inspection of hematoxylin and eosin-stained tissue sections. We further addressed whether immunohistochemical staining of these sections for immune cell surface markers CD45, CD3, CD4, and CD8 and combination with nanoString nCounter® gene expression analysis could refine TIL scoring. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded and fresh-frozen core needle biopsies of 12 female and treatment-naive breast cancer patients were included. Scoring of TILs was performed twice by three independent pathologists with a washout period of 3 days. Increasing intra- and interrater variability was observed with higher TIL numbers. The highest reproducibility was observed on tissue sections stained for CD3 and CD8. The latter TIL scores correlated well with the TIL scores obtained through nanoString nCounter® gene expression analysis. Gene expression analysis also revealed 104 and 62 genes that are positively and negatively related to both TIL scores. In conclusion, integration of immunohistochemistry and gene expression analysis is a valuable strategy to refine TIL scoring in breast tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanne Locy
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences (BMWE), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Hanne Locy, ; Karine Breckpot,
| | | | - Wilfried Cools
- Interfaculty Center Data processing and Statistics, VUB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wim Waelput
- Department of Anatomo-Pathology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefanie Brock
- Department of Anatomo-Pathology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Louise Cras
- Department of Anatomo-Pathology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | - Kris Thielemans
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences (BMWE), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karine Breckpot
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences (BMWE), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Hanne Locy, ; Karine Breckpot,
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Circulating Tumour Cells (CTCs) in NSCLC: From Prognosis to Therapy Design. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13111879. [PMID: 34834295 PMCID: PMC8619417 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Designing optimal (neo)adjuvant therapy is a crucial aspect of the treatment of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Standard methods of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy represent effective strategies for treatment. However, in some cases with high metastatic activity and high levels of circulating tumour cells (CTCs), the efficacy of standard treatment methods is insufficient and results in treatment failure and reduced patient survival. CTCs are seen not only as an isolated phenomenon but also a key inherent part of the formation of metastasis and a key factor in cancer death. This review discusses the impact of NSCLC therapy strategies based on a meta-analysis of clinical studies. In addition, possible therapeutic strategies for repression when standard methods fail, such as the administration of low-toxicity natural anticancer agents targeting these phenomena (curcumin and flavonoids), are also discussed. These strategies are presented in the context of key mechanisms of tumour biology with a strong influence on CTC spread and metastasis (mechanisms related to tumour-associated and -infiltrating cells, epithelial–mesenchymal transition, and migration of cancer cells).
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Fu X, He Y, Li M, Huang Z, Najafi M. Targeting of the tumor microenvironment by curcumin. Biofactors 2021; 47:914-932. [PMID: 34375483 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is made up of several cells and molecules that affect the survival of cancer cells. Indeed, certain (immunosuppressive) cells which promote tumors can promote the growth of tumors by stimulating the proliferation of cancer cells and promoting angiogenesis. During tumor growth, antitumoral immunity includes natural killer cells and CD8+ T cells cannot overcome immunosuppressive responses and cancer cell proliferation. In order to achieve the appropriate therapeutic response, we must kill cancer cells and suppress the release of immunosuppressive molecules. The balance between anti-tumor immunity and immunosuppressive cells, such as regulatory T cells (Tregs), cancer-associated fibroblasts, tumor-associated macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells plays a key role in the suppression or promotion of cancer cells. Curcumin is a plant-derived agent that has shown interesting properties for cancer therapy. It has shown that not only directly inhibit the growth of cancer cells, but can also modulate the growth and activity of immunosuppressant and tumor-promoting cells. In this review, we explain how curcumin modulates interactions within TME in favor of tumor treatment. The potential modulating effects of curcumin on the responses of cancer cells to treatment modalities such as immunotherapy will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Fu
- College of Basic Medicine, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang, China
| | - Yingni He
- College of Basic Medicine, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang, China
| | - Mu Li
- College of Basic Medicine, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang, China
| | - Zezhi Huang
- Shaoyang Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology Diagnosis, Shaoyang, China
| | - Masoud Najafi
- Medical Technology Research Center, Institute of Health Technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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Li K, Shi H, Zhang B, Ou X, Ma Q, Chen Y, Shu P, Li D, Wang Y. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as immunosuppressive regulators and therapeutic targets in cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2021; 6:362. [PMID: 34620838 PMCID: PMC8497485 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00670-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogenic population of immature myeloid cells with immunosuppressive effects, which undergo massive expansion during tumor progression. These cells not only support immune escape directly but also promote tumor invasion via various non-immunological activities. Besides, this group of cells are proved to impair the efficiency of current antitumor strategies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Therefore, MDSCs are considered as potential therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. Treatment strategies targeting MDSCs have shown promising outcomes in both preclinical studies and clinical trials when administrated alone, or in combination with other anticancer therapies. In this review, we shed new light on recent advances in the biological characteristics and immunosuppressive functions of MDSCs. We also hope to propose an overview of current MDSCs-targeting therapies so as to provide new ideas for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Li
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Houhui Shi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Benxia Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuejin Ou
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Qizhi Ma
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Yue Chen
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Pei Shu
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Dan Li
- Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, and Precision Medicine Center, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China.
| | - Yongsheng Wang
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center, 610041, Chengdu, China. .,Clinical Trial Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China.
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11
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Luo B, Zhang Y, Zhang C, Liu X, Shi C. Intestinal microbiota: A potential target for enhancing the antitumor efficacy and reducing the toxicity of immune checkpoint inhibitors. Cancer Lett 2021; 509:53-62. [PMID: 33845122 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that the intestinal microbiota is associated with the antitumor efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and the occurrence of immune-related adverse events (irAEs) following ICI treatment. However, the mechanisms underlying these interactions remain unclear. Recent technological advances have allowed more extensive investigation into the interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the tumor immune microenvironment. Breakthroughs by two research groups revealed that Bifidobacterium enhanced the efficacy of ICIs via the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) and adenosine 2A receptor (A2AR) signaling pathways, highlighting the molecular mechanisms through which the intestinal microbiota modulates immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize recent findings related to the potential role and mechanisms of the gut microbiota in ICI therapy, available microbiota-targeting strategies, and ongoing clinical trials. Further we discuss the associated challenges that remain in this field of research. The current review aims to evaluate the potential of the intestinal microbiota in maximizing the antitumor efficacy of ICIs while minimizing their toxic effects and guiding the development of more specific treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Luo
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510405, China; Division of Cancer Biology, Laboratory Animal Center, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Yongbin Zhang
- Laboratory Animal Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510405, China
| | - Caiqin Zhang
- Division of Cancer Biology, Laboratory Animal Center, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Xiaoqiu Liu
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510405, China
| | - Changhong Shi
- Division of Cancer Biology, Laboratory Animal Center, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China.
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12
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Frosch J, Leontari I, Anderson J. Combined Effects of Myeloid Cells in the Neuroblastoma Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1743. [PMID: 33917501 PMCID: PMC8038814 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite multimodal treatment, survival chances for high-risk neuroblastoma patients remain poor. Immunotherapeutic approaches focusing on the activation and/or modification of host immunity for eliminating tumor cells, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, are currently in development, however clinical trials have failed to reproduce the preclinical results. The tumor microenvironment is emerging as a major contributor to immune suppression and tumor evasion in solid cancers and thus has to be overcome for therapies relying on a functional immune response. Among the cellular components of the neuroblastoma tumor microenvironment, suppressive myeloid cells have been described as key players in inhibition of antitumor immune responses and have been shown to positively correlate with more aggressive disease, resistance to treatments, and overall poor prognosis. This review article summarizes how neuroblastoma-driven inflammation induces suppressive myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment and how they in turn sustain the tumor niche through suppressor functions, such as nutrient depletion and generation of oxidative stress. Numerous preclinical studies have suggested a range of drug and cellular therapy approaches to overcome myeloid-derived suppression in neuroblastoma that warrant evaluation in future clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John Anderson
- UCL Institute of Child Health, Developmental Biology and Cancer Section, University College London, London WC1N 1EH, UK; (J.F.); (I.L.)
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13
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Circulating Monocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Are Elevated and Associated with Poor Prognosis in Acute Myeloid Leukemia. J Immunol Res 2020; 2020:7363084. [PMID: 33415170 PMCID: PMC7769680 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7363084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (M-MDSCs) characterized with the phenotype of CD14+HLA-DRlow/- have attracted a lot of attention in the field of human tumor immunology. However, little is known about the roles of M-MDSCs in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) as opposed to their multiple roles in solid tumors. Methods We examined the frequencies of M-MDSCs identified for CD14+HLA-DRlow/- by flow cytometry in the peripheral circulating blood of 109 newly diagnosed adult patients with AML and 30 healthy controls (HC). Then, we, respectively, validated the clinic significance of circulating M-MDSCs on the relevance of spectral features for diagnostic stratification, induction therapy response, treatment effect maintenance, and long-term survival in AML. Results Circulating M-MDSC frequencies of AML were significantly higher than those of HC both in CD14+ monocytes (46.22% ± 2.95% vs. 1.07% ± 0.17%, p < 0.01) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (4.21% ± 0.80% vs. 0.17% ± 0.03%, p < 0.01). Elevated circulating M-MDSCs in patients with AML were significantly associated with low complete remission (CR) rate, high relapse/refractory rate, and poor long-term survival, but had no correlation with common clinic risks and cytogenetic molecular risk categories. Conclusions It was demonstrated that circulating M-MDSCs are elevated and associated with poor prognosis in AML, suggesting M-MDSCs might be a prognostic indicator for AML.
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14
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Moaaz M, Lotfy H, Elsherbini B, Motawea MA, Fadali G. TGF-β Enhances the Anti-inflammatory Effect of Tumor- Infiltrating CD33+11b+HLA-DR Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Gastric Cancer: A Possible Relation to MicroRNA-494. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2020; 21:3393-3403. [PMID: 33247701 PMCID: PMC8033108 DOI: 10.31557/apjcp.2020.21.11.3393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) constitutes a key mechanism of tumor immune evasion in gastric cancer (GC). Therefore, searching for more accurate prognostic factors affecting their immunosuppressive role has become a growing interest in cancer immunotherapy research. Increased expression of microRNA-494 was noticed in MDSCs from tumor-bearing mice, suggesting another new therapeutic objective for cancer treatment. It was also discovered that tumor-derived transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is responsible for the up-regulation of microRNA-494 in MDSCs. The purpose of this study was to address the effect of recombinant (rTGF-β) on the anti-inflammatory activity of MDSCs in GC and its possible association with micro-RNA-494 expression in tumor tissue. METHODS Freshly obtained GC tumor tissue samples and peripheral blood were used for isolation of CD33+11b+HLADR- MDSCs cells from 40 GC patients and 31 corresponding controls using flow cytometry. MDSCs were co-cultured with isolated autologous T cells to assess proliferation and cytokine production in the presence and absence of rTGF-β. Real-time PCR and Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay were used to evaluate tumor expression of miRNA-494 and TGF-β respectively. RESULTS Results showed that rTGF-β markedly increased the suppressive ability of tumor MDSCs on proliferation of autologous T cells and interferon gamma production. However, no inhibitory effect was observed for MDSCs from circulation. In addition, infiltration of MDSCs in tumors is associated with the prognosis of GC. MiRNA-494 was also extensively expressed in tumor samples with a significant correlation to MDSCs. CONCLUSION These results indicate that tumor-derived MDSCs but not circulatory MDSCs have an immunosuppressive effect on T cells, potentially involving TGF-β mediated stimulation. Results also suggest a role for miRNA-494 in GC progression. Therefore, control of TGF-β and miRNA-494 may be used as a treatment strategy to downregulate the immunosuppressive effect of MDSCs. .
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Moaaz
- Department of Immunology and Allergy, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Hassan Lotfy
- Department of Surgery, Vascular Surgery Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Bassem Elsherbini
- Department of Immunology and Allergy, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed A. Motawea
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Geylan Fadali
- Department of Pathology, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
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15
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Weng X, Zhao H, Guan Q, Shi G, Feng S, Gleave ME, Nguan CC, Du C. Clusterin regulates macrophage expansion, polarization and phagocytic activity in response to inflammation in the kidneys. Immunol Cell Biol 2020; 99:274-287. [PMID: 32935392 PMCID: PMC7984284 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Clusterin (CLU) is a multifunctional protein localized extracellularly and intracellularly. Although CLU-knockout (KO) mice are more susceptible to renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), the mechanisms underlying the actions of CLU in IRI are not fully understood. Macrophages are key regulators of IRI severity and tissue repair. Therefore, we investigated the role of CLU in macrophage polarization and phagocytosis. Renal IRI was induced in wild-type (WT) or CLU-KO C57BL/6 mice by clamping the renal pedicles for 30 min at 32°C. Peritoneal macrophages were activated via an intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Renal tissue damage was examined using histology, whereas leukocyte phenotypes were assessed using flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. We found that monocytes/macrophages expressed the CLU protein that was upregulated by hypoxia. The percentages of macrophages (F4/80+ , CD11b+ or MAC3+ ) infiltrating the kidneys of WT mice were significantly less than those in CLU-KO mice after IRI. The M1/M2 phenotype ratio of the macrophages in WT kidneys decreased at day 7 post-IRI when the injury was repaired, whereas that in KO kidneys increased consistently as tissue injury persisted. In response to LPS stimulation, WT mice produced fewer M1 macrophages, but not M2, than the control did. Phagocytosis was stimulated by CLU expression in macrophages compared with the CLU null controls and by the exogenous CLU protein. In conclusion, CLU suppresses macrophage infiltration and proinflammatory M1 polarization during the recovery period following IRI, and enhances phagocytic activity, which may be partly responsible for tissue repair in the kidneys of WT mice after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Weng
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada.,Department of Urology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430060, China
| | - Haimei Zhao
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada.,College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, 330004, China
| | - Qiunong Guan
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Ganggang Shi
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada.,Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300211, China
| | - Shijian Feng
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Martin E Gleave
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Christopher Cy Nguan
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Caigan Du
- Department of Urologic Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
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16
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Han D, Tao J, Fu R, Shao Z. Myeloid-derived suppressor cell cytokine secretion as prognostic factor in myelodysplastic syndromes. Innate Immun 2020; 26:703-715. [PMID: 33050756 PMCID: PMC7787555 DOI: 10.1177/1753425920961157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells that play a critical immunosuppressive role in the tumour micro-environment. Although biological research on MDSCs has made progress, the relationship between the secretion of cytokines by MDSCs and poor prognosis is not clear, and there are no criteria to measure the functional status of MDSCs. Here, we detected the mRNA expression of IL-10, IL-12, TGF-β and TNF-α in MDSCs and the levels of these cytokines in MDSC culture supernatants of patients with myelodysplastic syndromes, and quantified the functional status of MDSCs by IL-10/IL-12 ratio and TGF-β/TNF-α ratio. We found that the ratio of IL-10/IL-12 and TGF-β/TNF-α was significantly higher in higher-risk MDS than in lower-risk MDS and normal control groups. The TGF-β/TNF-α ratio in MDSCs was positively correlated with the percentage of blast cells and was negatively correlated with the percentage of CD3+CD8+ T lymphocytes. Meanwhile, the TGF-β/TNF-α ratio was higher in patients with a lower absolute neutrophil count. It suggested that MDSCs in higher-risk MDS have a stronger immunosuppressive effect and might be related to poor prognosis. Quantifying the functional status of MDSCs with IL-10/IL-12 and TGF-β/TNF-α ratio might help to evaluate the balance of cellular immunity of MDSCs in MDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Han
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, PR China.,Department of Lymphoma, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, PR China
| | - Jinglian Tao
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, PR China
| | - Rong Fu
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, PR China
| | - Zonghong Shao
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, PR China
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17
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Davidov V, Jensen G, Mai S, Chen SH, Pan PY. Analyzing One Cell at a TIME: Analysis of Myeloid Cell Contributions in the Tumor Immune Microenvironment. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1842. [PMID: 32983100 PMCID: PMC7492293 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-mediated regulation of the host immune system involves an intricate signaling network that results in the tumor's inherent survival benefit. Myeloid cells are central in orchestrating the mechanisms by which tumors escape immune detection and continue their proliferative programming. Myeloid cell activation has historically been classified using a dichotomous system of classical (M1-like) and alternative (M2-like) states, defining general pro- and anti-inflammatory functions, respectively. Explosions in bioinformatics analyses have rapidly expanded the definitions of myeloid cell pro- and anti-inflammatory states with different combinations of tissue- and disease-specific phenotypic and functional markers. These new definitions have allowed researchers to target specific subsets of disease-propagating myeloid cells in order to modify or arrest the natural progression of the associated disease, especially in the context of tumor-immune interactions. Here, we discuss the myeloid cell contribution to solid tumor initiation and maintenance, and strategies to reprogram their phenotypic and functional fate, thereby disabling the network that benefits tumor survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaliy Davidov
- Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States.,Center for Immunotherapy Research, Cancer Center of Excellence, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Garrett Jensen
- Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States.,Center for Immunotherapy Research, Cancer Center of Excellence, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Sunny Mai
- Center for Immunotherapy Research, Cancer Center of Excellence, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Shu-Hsia Chen
- Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States.,Center for Immunotherapy Research, Cancer Center of Excellence, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Ping-Ying Pan
- Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States.,Center for Immunotherapy Research, Cancer Center of Excellence, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
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18
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Yao M, Sai W, Zheng W, Wang L, Dong Z, Yao D. Secretory Clusterin as a Novel Molecular-targeted Therapy for Inhibiting Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:3290-3301. [PMID: 31232234 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190624161158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although secretory clusterin (sCLU) plays a crucial role in Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) cells proliferation, Multiple Drug Resistance (MDR), metastasis and so on, its targeted effects and exact mechanism are still unknown. This review summarizes some new progress in sCLU as a molecular-targeted therapy in the treatment of HCC. METHODS A systematic review of the published English-language literature about sCLU and HCC has been performed using the PubMed and bibliographic databases. Some valuable studies on sCLU in HCC progression were searched for relevant articles with the keywords: HCC, diagnosis, MDR, as molecular-targeted in treatment, and so on. RESULTS The incidence of the positive rate of sCLU was significantly higher in HCC tissues as compared to the surrounding tissues at mRNA or protein level, gradually increasing with tumor-nodemetastasis staging (P<0.05). Also, the abnormal level of sCLU was related to poor differentiation degree, and considered as a useful marker for HCC diagnosis or independent prognosis for patients. Hepatic sCLU could be silenced at mRNA level by specific sCLU-shRNA or by OGX-011 to inhibit cancer cell proliferation with an increase in apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, reversal MDR, alteration of cell migration or invasion behaviors, and a decrease in GSK-3β or AKT phosphorylation in vitro, as well as significant suppression of the xenograft growth by down-regulating β-catenin, p-GSK3β, and cyclinD1 expression in vivo. CONCLUSION Abnormal hepatic sCLU expression should not only be a new diagnostic biomarker but also a novel promising target for inhibiting HCC growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Yao
- Medical School of Nantong University, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.,Research Center of Clinical Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wenli Sai
- Research Center of Clinical Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wenjie Zheng
- Research Center of Clinical Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Li Wang
- Medical School of Nantong University, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhizhen Dong
- Department of Diagnostics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dengfu Yao
- Medical School of Nantong University, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.,Research Center of Clinical Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
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19
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Sun B, Hyun H, Li LT, Wang AZ. Harnessing nanomedicine to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2020; 41:970-985. [PMID: 32424240 PMCID: PMC7470849 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-020-0424-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has received extensive attention due to its ability to activate the innate or adaptive immune systems of patients to combat tumors. Despite a few clinical successes, further endeavors are still needed to tackle unresolved issues, including limited response rates, development of resistance, and immune-related toxicities. Accumulating evidence has pinpointed the tumor microenvironment (TME) as one of the major obstacles in cancer immunotherapy due to its detrimental impacts on tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Nanomedicine has been battling with the TME in the past several decades, and the experience obtained could be exploited to improve current paradigms of immunotherapy. Here, we discuss the metabolic features of the TME and its influence on different types of immune cells. The recent progress in nanoenabled cancer immunotherapy has been summarized with a highlight on the modulation of immune cells, tumor stroma, cytokines and enzymes to reverse the immunosuppressive TME.
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20
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Effects of Hypertonic Saline and Hydroxyethyl Starch on Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Hemorrhagic Shock Mice under Secondary Bacterial Attack. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:5417201. [PMID: 32258126 PMCID: PMC7085872 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5417201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The primary target is to reveal whether the resuscitation with hypertonic saline (HTS) or hydroxyethyl starch (HES) would have different effects on the myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) count and monocytic MDSC (M-MDSC)/granulocytic/neutrophilic MDSC (G-MDSC) rate in the peripheral blood, spleen, and bone marrow nucleated cells (BMNC) in a controlled hemorrhagic shock mouse model under secondary Escherichia coli bacterial infection attack, comparing to resuscitation with normal saline (NS) in 72 hours. Method After hemorrhagic shock with bacteremia, which is induced by Escherichia coli bacterial infection attack, comparing to resuscitation with normal saline (NS) in 72 hours. Method. After hemorrhagic shock with bacteremia, which is induced by Escherichia coli 35218 injection, the mice were distributed into control, NS, HTS, and HES groups. The peripheral blood nucleated cells (PBNC), spleen single-cell suspension, and bone marrow nucleated cells were collected. The flow cytometry was used to detect the MDSC, M-MDSC, and G-MDSC. Result In PBNC, after resuscitation with NS, the MDSC was continuously higher, while the rate of M-MDSC/G-MDSC were continuously lower (P < 0.05). In HTS, the MDSC varied, higher at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05). In HTS, the MDSC varied, higher at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05). In HTS, the MDSC varied, higher at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05). In HTS, the MDSC varied, higher at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05). In HTS, the MDSC varied, higher at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05), the M-MDSC/G-MDSC were continuously lower (P < 0.05). In the spleen, resuscitation with HTS, the M-MDSC/G-MDSC were continuously lower (P < 0.05). In BMNC, after resuscitation with HES, the M-MDSC/G-MDSC were lower at 24 and 72 hours (P < 0.05). Conclusion In mouse hemorrhagic shock model with bacterial infection, the resuscitation with NS, HTS, or HES induced difference changes in MDSC and M-MDSC/G-MDSC, which were time-dependent and organ-specific. Resuscitation with crystalloid, like NS or HTS, showed longer effects on the MDSC and M-MDSC/G-MDSC in peripheral blood; while HTS has a longer effect on M-MDSC/G-MDSC in the spleen, HES has a stronger impact on the differentiation regulation of MDSC to G-MDSC in the bone marrow.
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21
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Clappaert EJ, Murgaski A, Van Damme H, Kiss M, Laoui D. Diamonds in the Rough: Harnessing Tumor-Associated Myeloid Cells for Cancer Therapy. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2250. [PMID: 30349530 PMCID: PMC6186813 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic approaches that engage immune cells to treat cancer are becoming increasingly utilized in the clinics and demonstrated durable clinical benefit in several solid tumor types. Most of the current immunotherapies focus on manipulating T cells, however, the tumor microenvironment (TME) is abundantly infiltrated by a heterogeneous population of tumor-associated myeloid cells, including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), tumor-associated dendritic cells (TADCs), tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Educated by signals perceived in the TME, these cells often acquire tumor-promoting properties ultimately favoring disease progression. Upon appropriate stimuli, myeloid cells can exhibit cytoxic, phagocytic, and antigen-presenting activities thereby bolstering antitumor immune responses. Thus, depletion, reprogramming or reactivation of myeloid cells to either directly eradicate malignant cells or promote antitumor T-cell responses is an emerging field of interest. In this review, we briefly discuss the tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressive roles of myeloid cells in the TME, and describe potential therapeutic strategies in preclinical and clinical development that aim to target them to further expand the range of current treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emile J. Clappaert
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Aleksandar Murgaski
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Helena Van Damme
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mate Kiss
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Damya Laoui
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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22
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Bruchard M, Ghiringhelli F. Effect of Pharmaceutical Compounds on Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. Oncoimmunology 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-62431-0_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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23
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Toor SM, Elkord E. Comparison of Myeloid Cells in Circulation and in the Tumor Microenvironment of Patients with Colorectal and Breast Cancers. J Immunol Res 2017; 2017:7989020. [PMID: 29230424 PMCID: PMC5694573 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7989020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously reported levels of myeloid cells in the periphery and in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of patients with primary breast cancer (PBC) and colorectal cancer (CRC). We found that both PBC and CRC patients have significantly higher levels of granulocytic and immature myeloid cells in the TME. Additionally, we reported an expansion of circulating granulocytic myeloid cells in CRC patients, but not in PBC patients. In this report, we compared levels of myeloid cells between these two common cancers and have added data from more cancer patients. We also investigated associations between clinical stage/histological grade of tumors and levels of myeloid cells in cancer patients. We found that although granulocytic myeloid cells were expanded in the TME of both PBC and CRC patients, the levels of these cells were significantly higher in the TME of CRC patients. Moreover, our results indicate that increased levels of circulating granulocytic myeloid cells are associated with poorly differentiated tumors in CRC patients. Taken together, this work suggests that CRC patients may benefit more from the development of therapeutic agents to promote myeloid cell differentiation or inhibition for the reversal of immune suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman M. Toor
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | - Eyad Elkord
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Anderson J. Unleashing the immune response against childhood solid cancers. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2017; 64. [PMID: 28383769 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.26548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy has come to the fore fuelled by impressive clinical responses to checkpoint inhibitor antibodies in a range of adult malignancies and by the success of chimeric antigen receptor T cells targeting adult and pediatric B-cell malignancies. Clearly, if appropriately fine-tuned, the immune system has the capability to seek out and destroy cancer. Studies in pediatric solid cancers so far have not shown the therapeutic potential checkpoint inhibitors described in adult cancers and this may reflect fewer tumor-associated antigens or different immune evasion mechanisms. One potential approach to overcome these limitations will be to combine interventions to undermine immune evasion mechanisms with engineered T-cell adoptive transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Anderson
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
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25
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Jiang JK, Fang W, Hong LJ, Lu YQ. Distribution and differentiation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells after fluid resuscitation in mice with hemorrhagic shock. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2017; 18:48-58. [PMID: 28070996 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1600510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the distribution and differentiation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in hemorrhagic shock mice, which are resuscitated with normal saline (NS), hypertonic saline (HTS), and hydroxyethyl starch (HES). METHODS BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control, NS, HTS, and HES resuscitation groups. Three subgroups (n=8) in each resuscitation group were marked as 2, 24, and 72 h. Flow cytometry was used to detect the MDSCs, monocytic MDSCs (M-MDSCs), and granulocytic/neutrophilic MDSCs (G-MDSCs) in peripheral blood nucleated cells (PBNCs), spleen single-cell suspension, and bone marrow nucleated cells (BMNCs). RESULTS The MDSCs in BMNCs among three resuscitation groups were lower 2 h after shock, in PBNCs of the HTS group were higher, and in spleen of the NS group were lower (all P<0.05 vs. control). The M-MDSC/G-MDSC ratios in PBNCs of the HTS and HES groups were lower (both P<0.05 vs. control). At 24 h, the MDSCs in PBNCs of the NS and HTS groups were higher, while the spleen MDSCs in the HTS group were higher (all P<0.05 vs. control). The M-MDSC/G-MDSC ratios were all less in PBNCs, spleen, and BMNCs of the NS and HTS groups, and were lower in BMNCs of the HES group (all P<0.05 vs. control). At 72 h, the elevated MDSCs in PBNCs were presented in the HTS and HES groups, and in spleen the augment turned up in three resuscitation groups (all P<0.05 vs. control). The inclined ratios to M-MDSC were exhibited in spleen of the NS and HTS groups, and in PBNCs of the NS group; the inclination to G-MDSC in BMNCs was shown in the HES group (all P<0.05 vs. control). CONCLUSIONS HTS induces the earlier elevation of MDSCs in peripheral blood and spleen, and influences its distribution and differentiation, while HES has a less effect on the distribution but a stronger impact on the differentiation of MDSCs, especially in bone marrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiu-Kun Jiang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Wen Fang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Liang-Jie Hong
- Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-organ Transplantation, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Yuan-Qiang Lu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
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26
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Park SA, Surh YJ. Modulation of tumor microenvironment by chemopreventive natural products. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sin-Aye Park
- Tumor Microenvironment Global Core Research Center and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
| | - Young-Joon Surh
- Tumor Microenvironment Global Core Research Center and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Cancer Research Institute; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy; Seoul National University; Seoul South Korea
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27
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Shao Y, Zhu W, Da J, Xu M, Wang Y, Zhou J, Wang Z. Bisdemethoxycurcumin in combination with α-PD-L1 antibody boosts immune response against bladder cancer. Onco Targets Ther 2017; 10:2675-2683. [PMID: 28579805 PMCID: PMC5449128 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s130653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Curcumin was recently discovered to strengthen immune response through multiple mechanisms. Cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells play a critical role in modulating anticancer immune response, but is severely restricted by T-cell exhaustion. Bladder carcinomas express PD-L1 and can abrogate CD8+ T-cell response. Thus, we hypothesized that bisdemethoxycurcumin, a natural dimethoxy derivative of curcumin, may provide a favorable environment for T-cell response against bladder cancer when used in combination with α-PD-L1 antibody. Immunocompetent C56BL/6 mouse models bearing subcutaneous or lung metastasized MB79 bladder cancer were established to validate this conjecture. We found that bisdemethoxycurcumin significantly increased intratumoral CD8+ T-cell infiltration, elevated the level of IFN-γ in the blood, and decreased the number of intratumoral myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Furthermore, α-PD-L1 antibody protected these amplified CD8+ T-cells from exhaustion, and therefore facilitated the secretion of IFN-γ, granzyme B, and perforin through these CD8+ T-cells. As a result, this combination treatment strategy significantly prolonged survival of intraperitoneal metastasized bladder cancer bearing mice, suggesting that bisdemethoxycurcumin in combination with α-PD-L1 antibody may be promising for bladder cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqun Shao
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjing Zhu
- Department of Urology, Yueyang Hospital of integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Da
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingxi Xu
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiwei Wang
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Zhou
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Tumor Associated Macrophages as Therapeutic Targets for Breast Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1026:331-370. [PMID: 29282692 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-6020-5_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant inflammatory infiltrates in the tumor stroma. TAMs promote tumor growth by suppressing immunocompetent cells, including neovascularization and supporting cancer stem cells. In the chapter, we discuss recent efforts in reprogramming or inhibiting tumor-protecting properties of TAMs, and developing potential strategies to increase the efficacy of breast cancer treatment.
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