Induction of Autophagy and Apoptosis via PI3K/AKT/TOR Pathways by Azadirachtin A in Spodoptera litura Cells

Limonoids from neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) are potential anticancer drug candidates

Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.), a versatile evergreen tree recognized for its ethnopharmacological value, is a rich source of limonoids of the triterpenoid class, endowed with potent medicinal properties. Extracts of neem have been documented to display anticancer effects in diverse malignant cell lines as well as in preclinical animal models that has largely been attributed to the constituent limonoids. Of late, neem limonoids have become the cynosure of research attention as potential candidate agents for cancer prevention and therapy. Among the various limonoids found in neem, azadirachtin, epoxyazadiradione, gedunin, and nimbolide, have been extensively investigated for anticancer activity. Azadirachtin, a potent biodegradable pesticide, exhibits profound antiproliferative effects by preventing mitotic spindle formation and cell division. The antiproliferative activity of gedunin has been demonstrated to be mediated primarily via inhibition of heat shock protein90 and its client proteins. Epoxyazadiradione inhibits pro-inflammatory and kinase-driven signaling pathways to block tumorigenesis. Nimbolide, the most potent cytotoxic neem limonoid, inhibits the growth of cancer cells by regulating the phosphorylation of keystone kinases that drive oncogenic signaling besides modulating the epigenome. There is overwhelming evidence to indicate that neem limonoids exert anticancer effects by preventing the acquisition of hallmark traits of cancer, such as cell proliferation, apoptosis evasion, inflammation, invasion, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. Neem limonoids are value additions to the armamentarium of natural compounds that target aberrant oncogenic signaling to inhibit cancer development and progression.

Therapeutic effects of hederacolchiside A1 on particulate matter-induced pulmonary injury

Particulate matter (PM) comprises a hazardous mixture of inorganic and organic particles that carry health risks. Inhaling fine PM particles with a diameter of ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) can promote significant lung damage. Hederacolchiside A1 (HA1) exhibits notable in vivo antitumor effects against various solid tumors. However, our understanding of its therapeutic potential for individuals with PM2.5-induced lung injuries remains limited. Here, we explored the protective properties of HA1 against lung damage caused by PM2.5 exposure. HA1 was administered to the mice 30 min after intratracheal tail vein injection of PM2.5. Various parameters, such as changes in lung tissue wet/dry (W/D) weight ratio, total protein/total cell ratio, lymphocyte counts, inflammatory cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), vascular permeability, and histology, were assessed in mice exposed to PM2.5. Our data showed that HA1 mitigated lung damage, reduced the W/D weight ratio, and suppressed hyperpermeability caused by PM2.5 exposure. Moreover, HA1 effectively decreased plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines in those exposed to PM2.5, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and nitric oxide, while also lowering the total protein concentration in BALF and successfully alleviating PM2.5-induced lymphocytosis. Furthermore, HA1 significantly decreased the expression levels of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation primary response (MyD) 88, and autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1 but increased the protein phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). The anti-inflammatory characteristics of HA1 highlights its potential as a promising therapeutic agent for mitigating PM2.5-induced lung injuries by modulating the TLR4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways.

Limosomes versus hyalurolimosomes loaded with piperine for management of skin cancer

Skin cancer is considered the fifth most commonly occurring cancer worldwide hampering both health and economy. Piperine had proven efficacy in fighting skin cancer cells. Unfortunately, this natural agent had limited ability to penetrate the skin. The aim of the current study was to formulate piperine-loaded limosomes and hyalurolimosomes incorporating limonene as an edge activator and hyaluronic acid as bioactive gelling agent for managing skin cancer. Titration method followed by homogenization was adopted to prepare the nanoliposomal formulations. Characterization involved size, & zeta potential measurements, examination using transmission electron microscope (TEM) and stability study. Biological evaluation of the antitumor activity of piperine nanoliposomal formulations against Ehrlich's (EAC) solid tumor was also performed. Drug loaded limosomes and hyalurolimosomes had particle size; 346.55 ± 8.55 & 372.70 ± 10.83 nm, respectively. Zeta potential was high enough to ensure their stability. TEM micrographs detected the surrounding layer of Hyaluronic acid formed around the spherical limosomal nano-carrier ensuring the formation of Hyalurolimosomes. All stored formulations showed non-significant differences compared with freshly prepared ones at p < 0.05. In addition, A DAD-HPLC method was developed and validated for Piperine analysis in the skin. Upon application of this method, it was found that hyalurolimosomes deliver double the concentration delivered by limosomes. The piperine hyalurolimosome group showed a significant reduction in tumor size with a smaller AUC compared to piperine gel, which was confirmed by in vivo studies. Consequently, hyalurolimosomes loaded with piperine is considered a promising nanocarrier system and a step forward better management of skin cancer introducing new hope in beating this deadly disease.

Therapeutic Effects of (+)-Afzelechin on Particulate Matter-Induced Pulmonary Injury

Particulate matter (PM) constitutes a hazardous blend of organic and inorganic particles that poses health risks. Inhalation of fine airborne PM with a diameter of ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5) can lead to significant lung impairments. (+)-afzelechin (AZC), a natural compound sourced from Bergenia ligulata, boasts a range of attributes, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and cardiovascular effects. However, knowledge about the therapeutic potential of AZC for patients with PM2.5-induced lung injuries remains limited. Thus, in this study, we investigated the protective attributes of AZC against lung damage caused by PM2.5 exposure. AZC was administered to the mice 30 min after intratracheal instillation of PM2.5. Various parameters, such as changes in lung tissue wet/dry (W/D) weight ratio, total protein/total cell ratio, lymphocyte counts, levels of inflammatory cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), vascular permeability, and histology, were evaluated in mice exposed to PM2.5. Data demonstrated that AZC mitigated lung damage, reduced W/D weight ratio, and curbed hyperpermeability induced by PM2.5 exposure. Furthermore, AZC effectively lowered plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines produced by PM2.5 exposure. It reduced the total protein concentration in BALF and successfully alleviated PM2.5-induced lymphocytosis. Additionally, AZC substantially diminished the expression levels of Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1. In contrast, it elevated the protein phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Consequently, the anti-inflammatory attribute of AZC positions it as a promising therapeutic agent for mitigating PM2.5-induced lung injuries by modulating the TLR4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways.

Jujuboside B post-treatment attenuates PM2.5-induced lung injury in mice

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is an air pollutant that causes severe lung injury. We investigated the effects of Jujuboside B (JB), a component of Zizyphi Spinosi Semen, on lung toxicity caused by PM2.5, and we identified the mechanism of its protective effect. Lung injury in an animal model was induced by intratracheal administration of a PM2.5 suspension. After 2 days of PM2.5 pretreatment, mice were administered JB via the tail vein three times over a 2-day period. JB significantly reduced the histological lung damage as well as the lung wet/dry weight ratio. JB also considerably reduced PM2.5-induced autophagy dysfunction, apoptosis, inflammatory cytokine levels, and the number of PM2.5-induced lymphocytes in the bronchial alveolar fluid. We conclude that by regulating TLR2, 4-MyD88, and mTOR-autophagy pathways, JB exerts a protective effect on lung injury. Thus, JB can be used as a potential therapeutic agent for PM2.5-induced lung damage.

Insulin Inhibits Autophagy by Inhibiting the Binding of FoXO1 to the Promoter Region of GABARAPL1

Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance in T2D have a potent suppressive effect on hepatic autophagy, however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To explore the effect of insulin on hepatic autophagy and its possible signaling pathways, HL-7702 cells were treated with insulin with or without insulin signaling inhibitors. The interaction between insulin and the promoter region of GABARAPL1 was assessed through luciferase assay and EMSA. There were significant dose-dependent decreases in the number of intracellular autophagosomes and the protein levels of GABARAPL1 and beclin1 in insulin-treated HL-7702 cells. Insulin signaling inhibitors reversed the inhibitory effect of insulin on rapamycin-induced autophagy and autophagy-related gene upregulation. Insulin blocks the binding of FoxO1 to putative insulin response elements in GABARAPL1 gene promoter, leading to the repressed transcription of GABARAPL1 gene and the suppression of hepatic autophagy. Our study identified GABARAPL1 as a novel target of insulin in suppressing hepatic autophagy.

Dinotefuran exposure induces autophagy and apoptosis through oxidative stress in Bombyx mori

As a third-generation neonicotinoid insecticide, dinotefuran is extensively used in agriculture, and its residue in the environment has potential effects on nontarget organisms. However, the toxic effects of dinotefuran exposure on nontarget organism remain largely unknown. This study explored the toxic effects of sublethal dose of dinotefuran on Bombyx mori. Dinotefuran upregulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the midgut and fat body of B. mori. Transcriptional analysis revealed that the expression levels of many autophagy and apoptosis-associated genes were significantly altered after dinotefuran exposure, consistent with ultrastructural changes. Moreover, the expression levels of autophagy-related proteins (ATG8-PE and ATG6) and apoptosis-related proteins (BmDredd and BmICE) were increased, whereas the expression level of an autophagic key protein (sequestosome 1) was decreased in the dinotefuran-exposed group. These results indicate that dinotefuran exposure leads to oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis in B. mori. In addition, its effect on the fat body was apparently greater than that on the midgut. In contrast, pretreatment with an autophagy inhibitor effectively downregulated the expression levels of ATG6 and BmDredd, but induced the expression of sequestosome 1, suggesting that dinotefuran-induced autophagy may promote apoptosis. This study reveals that ROS generation regulates the impact of dinotefuran on the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis, laying the foundation for studying cell death processes such as autophagy and apoptosis induced by pesticides. Furthermore, this study provides a comprehensive insight into the toxicity of dinotefuran on silkworm and contributes to the ecological risk assessment of dinotefuran in nontarget organisms.

Eurycomanone (EN) Activates Transcription Factor FoxO by Inhibiting the Insulin Signaling Pathway to Suppress the Development of Spodoptera frugiperda

The insulin-like signaling (IIS) pathway is essential for insect growth and development. In this study, we showed that eurycomanone (EN) is an active compound with growth inhibitory activity against Spodoptera frugiperda larvae. Experiments in cells and RNA-seq analysis in the midgut showed that EN targeted the IIS pathway in S. frugiperda to activate the transcription factor SfFoxO (S. frugiperda forkhead boxO) to regulate mRNA levels associated with nutrient catabolism. Additionally, mass spectrometry imaging revealed that EN was distributed in the larval gut and enriched in the inner membrane of the gut. Immunofluorescence, western blotting, and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) results showed that EN induced program cell death (PCD) in the larvae midgut. Thus, EN targeted the insulin receptor to inhibit the IIS signaling pathway, exerting inhibitory activity on the growth and development of S. frugiperda larvae. Our results suggest that EN has great potential as a botanical pesticide, and the IIS signaling pathway may be an effective target for botanical pesticides.

Autophagy-Activated Self-reporting Photosensitizer Promoting Cell Mortality in Cancer Starvation Therapy

Cancer starvation therapy have received continuous attention as an efficient method to fight against wide-spectrum cancer. However, during cancer starvation therapy, the protective autophagy promotes cancer cells survival, compromising the therapeutic effect. Herein, a novel strategy by combination of autophagy-activated fluorescent photosensitizers (PSs) and cancer starvation therapy to realize the controllable and efficient ablation of tumor is conceived. Two dual-emissive self-reporting aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens), TPAQ and TPAP, with autophagy-activated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation are prepared to fight against the protective autophagy in cancer starvation therapy. When protective autophagy occurs, a portion of TPAQ and TPAP will translocate from lipid droplets to acidic lysosomes with significant redshift in fluorescence emission and enhanced ROS generation ability. The accumulation of ROS induced by TPAQ-H and TPAP-H causes lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP), which further results in cell apoptosis and promotes cell death. In addition, TPAQ and TPAP can enable the real-time self-reporting to cell autophagy and cell death process by observing the change of red-emissive fluorescence signals. Particularly, the efficient ablation of tumor via the combination of cancer starvation therapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) induced by TPAQ has been successfully confirmed in 3D tumor spheroid chip, suggesting the validation of this strategy.

Azadirachtin-based insecticide impairs testis morphology and spermatogenesis of the southern armyworm Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

BACKGROUND

In the search for alternative tools for integrated pest management, azadirachtin, a botanical insecticide, has been used with the most promising activity against Spodoptera spp., but the mechanism of cytotoxicity on reproductive organs remains unclear. Spodoptera eridania (Stoll, 1782) is a polyphagous pest with great economic importance that has become an important target to elucidate the action of azadirachtin on the reproductive organs of insect pests, helping to understand the deleterious effects caused by its exposure. This study evaluated the effects of chronic exposure to azadirachtin on the morphology and ultrastructure of S. eridania larval testes as well as larval development.

RESULTS

Azadirachtin exposure (6 or 18 mg a.i. L^-1 ) caused a progressive increase in cumulative mortality and reduced gain in body mass after 5 days. Testicular structure indicated a reduction in their size with internal morphological changes such as spermatogonia, spermatogonial, spermatocytes and spermatid cysts in degeneration. The occurrence of cell death in germ and somatic cells was evidenced by the TUNEL technique. Electron microscopy revealed changes in cystic cells, such as cytoplasmic membrane rupture and cytoplasmic vacuolization. Chromatin compaction, changes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex cisternae were observed in germ cells. Apoptotic bodies occurred between germ cell cysts.

CONCLUSION

Azadirachtin damaged the testes of S. eridania larvae, and these changes compromised spermatogenesis and consequently the development of the reproductive potential of this specimen, making azadirachtin a promising botanical insecticide for application in integrated pest management programs. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Endothelial cell autophagy in the context of disease development

Endothelial cells (EC) are the anatomical boundaries between the intravascular and extravascular space. Damage to ECs is catastrophic and induces endothelial cell dysfunction. The pathogenesis is multifactorial and involves dysregulation in the signaling pathways, membrane lipids ratio disturbance, cell-cell adhesion disturbance, unfolded protein response, lysosomal and mitochondrial stress, autophagy dysregulation, and oxidative stress. Autophagy is a lysosomal-dependent turnover of intracellular components. Autophagy was recognized early in the pathogenesis of endothelial dysfunction. Autophagy is a remarkable patho (physiological) process in the cell homeostasis regulation including EC. Regulation of autophagy rate is disease-dependent and impaired with aging. Up-regulation of autophagy induces endothelial cell regeneration/differentiation and improves the function of impaired ones. The paper scrutinizes the molecular mechanisms and triggers of EC dysregulation and current perspectives for future therapeutic strategies by autophagy targeting.

Therapeutic Effects of Cornuside on Particulate Matter-Induced Lung Injury

Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture comprising both organic and inorganic particles, both of which are hazardous to health. The inhalation of airborne PM with a diameter of ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5) can cause considerable lung damage. Cornuside (CN), a natural bisiridoid glucoside derived from the fruit of Cornus officinalis Sieb, exerts protective properties against tissue damage via controlling the immunological response and reducing inflammation. However, information regarding the therapeutic potential of CN in patients with PM_2.5-induced lung injury is limited. Thus, herein, we examined the protective properties of CN against PM_2.5-induced lung damage. Mice were categorized into eight groups (n = 10): a mock control group, a CN control group (0.8 mg/kg mouse body weight), four PM_2.5+CN groups (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/kg mouse body weight), and a PM_2.5+CN group (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/kg mouse body weight). The mice were administered with CN 30 min following intratracheal tail vein injection of PM_2.5. In mice exposed to PM_2.5, different parameters including changes in lung tissue wet/dry (W/D) lung weight ratio, total protein/total cell ratio, lymphocyte counts, inflammatory cytokine levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), vascular permeability, and histology were examined. Our findings revealed that CN reduced lung damage, the W/D weight ratio, and hyperpermeability caused by PM_2.5. Moreover, CN reduced the plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines produced because of PM_2.5 exposure, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and nitric oxide, as well as the total protein concentration in the BALF, and successfully attenuated PM_2.5-associated lymphocytosis. In addition, CN substantially reduced the expression levels of Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1, and increased protein phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Thus, the anti-inflammatory property of CN renders it a potential therapeutic agent for treating PM_2.5-induced lung injury by controlling the TLR4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways.

Insect Cell-Based Models: Cell Line Establishment and Application in Insecticide Screening and Toxicology Research

During the past decades, research on insect cell culture has grown tremendously. Thousands of lines have been established from different species of insect orders, originating from several tissue sources. These cell lines have often been employed in insect science research. In particular, they have played important roles in pest management, where they have been used as tools to evaluate the activity and explore the toxic mechanisms of insecticide candidate compounds. This review intends to first briefly summarize the progression of insect cell line establishment. Then, several recent studies based on insect cell lines coupled with advanced technologies are introduced. These investigations revealed that insect cell lines can be exploited as novel models with unique advantages such as increased efficiency and reduced cost compared with traditional insecticide research. Most notably, the insect cell line-based models provide a global and in-depth perspective to study the toxicology mechanisms of insecticides. However, challenges and limitations still exist, especially in the connection between in vitro activity and in vivo effectiveness. Despite all this, recent advances have suggested that insect cell line-based models promote the progress and sensible application of insecticides, which benefits pest management.

Hydrogen sulfide alleviates uremic cardiomyopathy by regulating PI3K/PKB/mTOR-mediated overactive autophagy in 5/6 nephrectomy mice

The gasotransmitter hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) plays important physiological and pathological roles in the cardiovascular system. However, the involvement of H₂S in recovery from uremic cardiomyopathy (UCM) remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the therapeutic efficacy and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of H₂S in UCM. A UCM model was established by 5/6 nephrectomy in 10-week-old C57BL/6 mice. Mice were treated with sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS, H₂S donor), L-cysteine [L-Cys, cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE) substrate], and propargylglycine (PPG, CSE inhibitor). Treatment of H9C2 cardiomyocytes utilized different concentrations of uremic serum, NaHS, PPG, and PI3K inhibitors (LY294002). Mouse heart function was assessed by echocardiography. Pathological changes in mouse myocardial tissue were identified using hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome staining. Cell viability was assessed using the Cell Counting Kit-8. The protein expressions of CSE, p-PI3K, PI3K, p-PKB, PKB, p-mTOR, mTOR, and autophagy-related markers (Beclin-1, P62, and LC3) were detected using Western blotting. We found that NaHS and L-Cys treatment attenuated myocardial disarray, fibrosis, and left ventricular dysfunction in UCM mice. These abnormalities were further aggravated by PPG supplementation. Enhanced autophagy and decreased phosphorylation of PI3K, PKB, and mTOR protein expression by UCM were altered by NaHS and L-Cys treatment. In vitro, uremic serum increased overactive autophagy and decreased the phosphorylation levels of PI3K, PKB, and mTOR in cardiomyocytes, which was substantially exacerbated by endogenous H₂S deficiency and attenuated by pre-treatment with 100 µm NaHS. However, the protective effects of NaHS were completely inhibited by LY294002. These findings support a protective effect of H₂S exerted against UCM by reducing overactive autophagy through activation of the PI3K/PKB/mTOR pathway.

Cirsilineol Treatment Attenuates PM2.5-Induced Lung Injury in Mice

Ultrafine particulate matter with less than 2.5 μm diameter (PM_2.5) is an air pollutant that causes severe lung damage. Currently, effective treatment and preventive methods for PM_2.5-induced lung damage are limited. Cirsilineol (CSL) is a small natural compound isolated from Artemisia vestita. In this study, the efficacy of CSL on PM_2.5-induced lung toxicity was tested, and its mechanism was identified. Lung injury was caused by intratracheal administration of PM_2.5 suspension in animal models. Two days after PM_2.5 pretreatment, CSL was injected via mouse tail vein for two days. The effects of CSL on PM_2.5-induced lung damage, autophagy, apoptosis, and pulmonary inflammation in a mouse model and their mechanisms were investigated. CSL significantly suppressed histological lung damage and lung wet/dry weight proportion. CSL also significantly reduced PM_2.5-induced autophagy dysfunction, apoptosis, lymphocyte suppression, and inflammatory cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar fluid (BALF). Furthermore, CSL increased mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation and significantly inhibited the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4, MyD88, and the autophagy proteins, Beclin1 and LC3II. Thus, CSL exerts protective effects on pulmonary damage by regulating mTOR and TLR2,4-myD88 autophagy pathways. Therefore, CSL can be used as an effective treatment for PM_2.5-induced lung damage.

Chemoprevention of 4NQO-Induced Mouse Tongue Carcinogenesis by AKT Inhibitor through the MMP-9/RhoC Signaling Pathway and Autophagy

Oral cancer (OC), the most common cancer in the head and neck, which has a poor prognosis, histopathologically follows a stepwise pattern of hyperplasia, dysplasia, and cancer. Blocking the progression of OC in the precancer stage could greatly improve the survival and cure rates. AKT protein plays a critical role in the signal transduction of cancer cells, and we found that AKT was overexpressed in human OC samples through analysis of TCGA database. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the chemopreventive effect of an AKT inhibitor (MK2206 2HCl) on OC. In vivo, we established a 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide- (4NQO-) induced mouse tongue carcinogenesis model to investigate the potential chemopreventive effect of MK2206 2HCl on mouse OC resulting from 4NQO. The results showed that MK2206 2HCl could significantly reduce the incidence rate and growth of OC, inhibit the transformation of dysplasia to cancer in the 4NQO-induced mouse tongue carcinogenesis model, and simultaneously markedly suppress cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and mast cell (MC) infiltration in 4NQO-induced mouse tongue cancers. In vitro, our results revealed that MK2206 2HCl could also inhibit oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell malignant biological behaviors, including cell proliferation, colony formation, cell invasion, and migration, while promoting apoptosis. Mechanistic studies revealed that MK2206 2HCl suppressed matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and RhoC expression and promoted autophagy gene LC3 II expression. In summary, our findings demonstrated the chemopreventive effect of MK2206 2HCl on the 4NQO-induced mouse tongue carcinogenesis model, which likely has an underlying mechanism mediated by the MMP-9/RhoC signaling pathway and autophagy.

The Insulin Receptor: An Important Target for the Development of Novel Medicines and Pesticides

The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane protein that is activated by ligands in insulin signaling pathways. The IR has been considered as a novel therapeutic target for clinical intervention, considering the overexpression of its protein and A-isoform in multiple cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, and Type 2 diabetes mellitus in humans. Meanwhile, it may also serve as a potential target in pest management due to its multiple physiological influences in insects. In this review, we provide an overview of the structural and molecular biology of the IR, functions of IRs in humans and insects, physiological and nonpeptide small molecule modulators of the IR, and the regulating mechanisms of the IR. Xenobiotic compounds and the corresponding insecticidal chemicals functioning on the IR are also discussed. This review is expected to provide useful information for a better understanding of human IR-related diseases, as well as to facilitate the development of novel small-molecule activators and inhibitors of the IR for use as medicines or pesticides.

L-Borneol 7-O-[β-D-Apiofuranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-D-Glucopyranoside Alleviates Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rats and Hypoxic/Reoxygenated Injured Myocardial Cells via Regulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is a primary cause of morbidity and mortality in acute myocardial infarction (AMI). L-Borneol 7-O-[β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside (LBAG), extracted from the Radix Ophiopogonis, is the main bioactive component that may be exerting cardiovascular protection in AMI. The purpose was to examine the effects of LBAG on myocardial I/R injury (MIRI) in rats and H9c2 cells treated with hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). MIRI was induced through the combination of ischemia with reperfusion for 30 min and 24 h, respectively. LBAG was administered 7 days before vascular ligation. Myocardial function was detected by an electrocardiograph, histological, TTC, and TUNEL staining analyses. The influences of LBAG on the content concentration of cardiac enzymes in the serum were measured by ELISA. Moreover, H9c2 cells were exposed to LBAG or combined with AKT inhibitor (perifosine) and then exposed to H/R for simulating the cardiac injury process. Afterward, cell viability, LDH, CD-KM release, apoptosis, and autophagy were evaluated by CCK-8 and ELISA assays, flow cytometry, TUNEL, and immunofluorescence staining, respectively. Additionally, the proteins of apoptosis, autophagy, and PI3K/mTOR pathway were determined by western blotting. In I/R rats, LBAG pretreatment significantly ameliorated cardiac function, as illustrated by reducing the infarct size, myocardial autophagy, and apoptosis levels. In H/R-induced H9c2 cells, LBAG pretreatment significantly decreased cell apoptosis, LC3 II/I, and Beclin 1 levels, elevated the Bcl-2 levels, attenuated LDH, and CD-KM production. Moreover, LBAG pretreatment markedly increased the PI3K/mTOR pathway activation, and the protective influences of LBAG were partly abolished with the AKT inhibitor perifosine treatment. These findings demonstrated the protective functions of LBAG on I/R by regulating apoptosis and autophagy in vitro and in vivo by activating the PI3K/mTOR pathway.

LyeTxI-b, a Synthetic Peptide Derived From a Spider Venom, Is Highly Active in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells and Acts Synergistically With Cisplatin

Breast cancer is the most common cancer that affects women globally and is among the leading cause of women’s death. Triple-negative breast cancer is more difficult to treat because hormone therapy is not available for this subset of cancer. The well-established therapy against triple-negative breast cancer is mainly based on surgery, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Among the drugs used in the therapy are cisplatin and carboplatin. However, they cause severe toxicity to the kidneys and brain and cause nausea. Therefore, it is urgent to propose new chemotherapy techniques that provide new treatment options to patients affected by this disease. Nowadays, peptide drugs are emerging as a class of promising new anticancer agents due to their lytic nature and, apparently, a minor drug resistance compared to other conventional drugs (reviewed in Jafari et al., 2022). We have recently reported the cytotoxic effect of the antimicrobial peptide LyeTx I-b against glioblastoma cells (Abdel-Salam et al., 2019). In this research, we demonstrated the cytotoxic effect of the peptide LyeTx I-b, alone and combined with cisplatin, against triple-negative cell lines (MDA-MD-231). LyeTx-I-b showed a selectivity index 70-fold higher than cisplatin. The peptide:cisplatin combination (P:C) 1:1 presented a synergistic effect on the cell death and a selective index value 16 times greater than the cisplatin alone treatment. Therefore, an equi-effective reduction of cisplatin can be reached in the presence of LyeTx I-b. Cells treated with P:C combinations were arrested in the G2/M cell cycle phase and showed positive staining for acridine orange, which was inhibited by bafilomycin A1, indicating autophagic cell death (ACD) as a probable cell death mechanism. Furthermore, Western blot experiments indicated a decrease in P21 expression and AKT phosphorylation. The decrease in AKT phosphorylation is indicative of ACD. However, other studies are still necessary to better elucidate the pathways involved in the cell death mechanism induced by the peptide and the drug combinations. These findings confirmed that the peptide LyeTx I-b seems to be a good candidate for combined chemotherapy to treat breast cancer. In addition, in vivo studies are essential to validate the use of LyeTx I-b as a therapeutic drug candidate, alone and/or combined with cisplatin.

Liquidambar orientalis Mill. gum extract induces autophagy via PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in prostate cancer cells

Liquidambar orientalis Mill (LOM), is an endemic species having a local distribution in the southwestern coastal district of Turkey. Styrax liquidus gum (SLG), is a gum-like resinous which exudates in response to injury of the trunk of LOM. The aim of the study was to investigate the cytotoxic effects and the molecular mechanisms of the ethanolic SLG extract in human prostate cancer cells. GC-MS analysis was performed to identify the volatile compound composition. Cytotoxicity was determined by XTT analysis. Apoptosis and necrosis were evaluated via ELISA assay. Autophagic cell death was detected via monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining and by measuring the levels of LC3I and LC3II. The protein levels of p-PI3K, p-Akt and p-mTOR were evaluated by western blot analysis. In the present study, it is shown that the SLG extract containing a considerable amount of ravidomycin derivate induced autophagic cell death in prostate cancer cells via inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.

Effects and Mechanism of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides in the Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) have renal protection effect but there was no study on the diabetic nephropathy. This study was designed to investigate its effect and mechanism using a diabetic rat model induced by streptozotocin (50 mg/kg, i.p.). The diabetic rats were treated with GLP (300 mg/kg/day) for 10 weeks. The blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin, body weight, and the levels of blood creatinine, urea nitrogen, and urine protein were assessed. And renal pathologies were assessed by the tissue sections stained with hematoxylin-eosin, Masson’s trichome, and periodic acid-Schiff. The expression of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3 kinase (p-PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt), and phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTOR), the autophagy proteins beclin-1, LC3-II, LC3-I, and P62; the apoptosis-related proteins caspase-3 and caspase-9; and the inflammation markers IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-ɑ were assessed. Results showed that GLP alleviated the impairment of renal function by reducing urinary protein excretion and the blood creatinine level and ameliorated diabetic nephropathy. The expression of p-PI3K, p-Akt, and p-mTOR in the diabetic kidney were significantly reduced in the GLP treatment group compared to the without treatment group. GLP treatment activated the autophagy indicators of beclin-1 and the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I but reduced p62 and also inhibited the expression of caspase-3, caspase-9 and IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-ɑ. In conclusion, the effect of GLP amelioration diabetic nephropathy may be via the PI3k/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway by inhibition of the apoptosis and inflammation and activation of the autophagy process.

3β,23-Dihydroxy-12-ene-28-ursolic Acid Isolated from Cyclocarya paliurus Alleviates NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Gout via PI3K-AKT-mTOR-Dependent Autophagy

Gout is regarded as a painful inflammatory arthritis induced by the deposition of monosodium urate crystals in joints and soft tissues. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-mediated IL-1β production plays a crucial role in the pathological process of gout. Cyclocarya paliurus (CP) tea was found to have an effect on reducing the blood uric acid level of people with hyperuricemia and gout. However, its medicinal ingredients and mechanism for the treatment of gout are still unclear. Thus, this study was designed to investigate the effects of the active triterpenoids isolated from C. paliurus on gout and explore the underlying mechanism. The results showed that compound 2 (3β,23-dihydroxy-12-ene-28-ursolic acid) from C. paliurus significantly decreased the protein expression of IL-1β, caspase-1, pro-IL-1β, pro-caspase-1, and NLRP3. Furthermore, the production of ROS in the intracellular was reduced after compound 2 treatment. However, ROS agonist rotenone remarkably reversed the inhibitory effect of compound 2 on the protein expression of NLRP3 inflammasome. Additionally, the expression level of LC3 and the ratio of LC3II/LC3I were increased, but the expression level of p62 was suppressed by compound 2 whereas an autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) significantly abolished the inhibitory effects of compound 2 on the generation of ROS and the protein expression of NLRP3 inflammasome. Moreover, compound 2 could ameliorate the expression ratio of p-PI3K/PI3K, p-AKT/AKT, and p-mTOR/mTOR. Interestingly, mTOR activator MHY-1485 could block the promotion effect of compound 2 on autophagy regulation and inhibitory effect of compound 2 on induction of ROS and IL-1β. In conclusion, these findings suggested that compound 2 may effectively improve NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated gout via PI3K-AKT-mTOR-dependent autophagy and could be further investigated as a potential agent against gout.

Fluroxypyr-1-methylheptyl ester causes apoptosis of bovine mammary gland epithelial cells by regulating PI3K and MAPK signaling pathways and endoplasmic reticulum stress

Fluroxypyr-1-methylheptyl ester (FPMH) is an auxin herbicide that is widely applied to crops and pastures to block growth of post-emergence weeds. Several studies have reported the toxicity of FPMH in aquatic vertebrates. However, the adverse impacts of FPMH on mammals, including domestic animals, have not been reported. The purpose of our current study is to assess the impact of FPMH on the bovine mammary system and milk production. To evaluate the toxicity of FPMH on the mammary glands of lactating cows, the bovine mammary gland epithelial cell line, MAC-T, was exposed to various concentrations (0, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, and 20 μM) of FPMH for 24 h, and then various assessments were performed. The results showed that FPMH dose-dependently reduced MAC-T cell viability following exposure to FPMH and induced mitochondrial depolarization and apoptosis. FPMH also modulated signaling through the PI3K and MAPK pathways. In addition, the expression levels of proteins related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress were upregulated, indicating induction of ER stress, and calcium homeostasis was disrupted following FPMH treatment. In conclusion, our investigation suggests that FPMH may be toxic to the bovine mammary system and may decrease dairy production.

The Yin and Yang dualistic features of autophagy in thermal burn wound healing

Burn healing should be regarded as a dynamic process consisting of two main, interrelated phases: (a) the inflammatory phase when neutrophils and monocytes infiltrate the injury site, through localized vasodilation and fluid extravasation, and (b) the proliferative-remodeling phase, which represents a key event in wound healing. In the skin, both canonical autophagy (induced by starvation, oxidative stress, and environmental aggressions) and non-canonical or selective autophagy have evolved to play a discrete, but, essential, “housekeeping” role, for homeostasis, immune tolerance, and survival. Experimental data supporting the pro-survival roles of autophagy, highlighting its Yang, luminous and positive feature of this complex but insufficient explored molecular pathway, have been reported. Autophagic cell death describes an “excessive” degradation of important cellular components that are necessary for normal cell function. This deadly molecular mechanism brings to light the darker, concealed, Yin feature of autophagy. Autophagy seems to perform dual, conflicting roles in the angiogenesis context, revealing once again, its Yin–Yang features. Autophagy with its Yin–Yang features remains the shadow player, able to decide quietly whether the cell survives or dies.

Azadirachtin Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced ROS Production, DNA Damage, and Apoptosis by Regulating JNK/Akt and AMPK/mTOR-Dependent Pathways in Rin-5F Pancreatic Beta Cells

Pancreatic inflammation and the resulting cellular responses have been implicated in pancreatitis, diabetes, and pancreatic cancer. Inflammatory responses due to the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), have been demonstrated to alter cellular metabolism, autophagy, apoptosis, and cell proliferation in different cell populations, and hence increases the risks for organ toxicity including cancer. The exact molecular mechanism is however not clear. In the present study, we investigated the role and mechanism of an antioxidant, azadirachtin (AZD), a limonoid extracted from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), against LPS-induced oxidative stress in the pancreatic β-cell line, Rin-5F. We demonstrated that cells treated with LPS (1 µg/mL for 24 h) showed increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Our results also showed that LPS induced alterations in the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathways, suppressing autophagy and augmenting apoptosis. Treatment with Azadirachtin (25 µM for 24 h), on the other hand, rendered some degree of protection to the pancreatic cells from apoptosis by inducing the autophagy signals required for cell survival. These results may have significance in elucidating the mechanisms of pancreatic β-cell survival and death by balancing the molecular communication between autophagy and apoptosis under inflammatory and pathological conditions.

Canagliflozin, a SGLT-2 inhibitor, relieves ER stress, modulates autophagy and induces apoptosis in irradiated HepG2 cells: Signal transduction between PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/mTOR and Wnt/β-catenin pathways; in vitro

Background and Objectives

Metabolic shifting from mitochondrial respiration to glycolysis characterizes malignant cells from its normal counterparts and is attributed to overactivation of oncogenic signaling pathways. Hence, this study intended to investigate the influence of canagliflozin (CAN) and/or γ-irradiation (γ-IR) on HepG2 cell proliferation, crosstalk between phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K)/AKT/glycogen synthase kinase-3-β (GSK3-β)/mTOR and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways, and their regulation of diverse processes, such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, autophagy, and apoptosis.

Materials and Methods

HepG2 cells were treated with different doses of CAN and then exposed to different doses of γ-IR to achieve optimization that was based on cytotoxicity and clonogenic assays, respectively. The effects of CAN and/or γ-IR on glycolytic metabolism, cellular bioenergetics, oxidative stress, ER stress and autophagy biomarkers, expression of PI3K/AKT/GSK3-β/mTOR and Wnt/β-Catenin signaling pathways, and apoptotic markers were monitored.

Results

CAN enhanced the antitumor potential of γ-IR as displayed by a significant inhibition of clonogenic survival in HepG2 cells via inhibition of glucose uptake, lactate release, and modulation of ER stress-mediated autophagy; switched it to apoptosis; as well as disabled signaling pathways which contribute to metabolic reprogramming and tumor progression induced by γ-IR that confer radioresistance and treatment failure.

Conclusion

Our study sheds light on the effective combination of CAN and γ-IR in hepatocellular carcinoma treatment and necessitates CAN treatment prior to γ-IR to overcome metabolic reprogramming-associated radioresistance and improve curative outcomes.

Ligustrazine protects against chronic hypertensive glaucoma in rats by inhibiting autophagy via the PI3K-Akt/mTOR pathway

PURPOSE

Glaucoma is a leading cause of global irreversible blindness, and characterized by the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Ligustrazine (TMP) is a natural product that has shown beneficial effects on various diseases. This study aimed to determine whether ligustrazine produces a therapeutic effect on glaucoma and to investigate its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

A rat chronic hypertensive glaucoma model was induced by episcleral vein cauterization (EVC). Adult Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were intraperitoneally administered TMP at a dose of 80 mg/kg once a day, from two days before EVC to one month after EVC. To elucidate the role of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), TMP-treated experimental rats were co-treated with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin (5 mg/kg) or the PI3K inhibitor Ly294002 (10 mg/kg). The intraocular pressure (IOP) of the experimental and control rats was measured every six days. Retinal cells were examined by hematoxylin-eosin and terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated biotinylated UTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, as well as transmission electron microscopy. Immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis were performed to measure proteins involved in apoptosis and autophagy.

RESULTS

Ligustrazine protected retinal cells from death in experimental glaucoma rats, which was not due to the lowering of IOP, but could be attributable to direct suppression of retinal cell apoptosis. In glaucoma rats, autophagy was markedly activated in retina cells, as evidenced by increased numbers of autophagosomes and the expression of autophagy-related proteins (ATG5 and LC3-II/I). Notably, such alterations in glaucoma rats were almost completely reversed by ligustrazine. The suppressive effects of ligustrazine on apoptosis and autophagy of retina cells were markedly attenuated by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin or the PI3K inhibitor Ly294002. Additionally, ligustrazine significantly increased the protein levels of phosphorylated PI3K (p-PI3K), protein kinase B (p-Akt), and mTOR (p-mTOR) in glaucoma rats, whereas such increases were attenuated by rapamycin or Ly294002.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that ligustrazine is protective in experimental glaucoma by inhibiting autophagy via the activation of the PI3K-Akt/mTOR pathway, providing compelling evidence that ligustrazine is potentially therapeutic for patients with glaucoma.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Inhibits Cardiomyocyte Autophagy via PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway and Reduces Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI) is the major cause of myocardial cell damage in acute myocardial infarction, and its treatment remains a clinical challenge. Ginsenoside Rb1 showed protective effects on the cardiovascular system; however, the underlying mechanism remains largely unclear. Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on rat MIRI-induced myocardial infarct size were evaluated through TTC staining. TUNEL assay and flow cytometry analysis were employed to estimate cell apoptosis. Apoptosis, autophagy and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway-related proteins were estimated via western blot. Expression of Beclin1 in myocardial tissues were examined by immunohistochemical analysis. Expression levels of IL-1[Formula: see text], TNF-[Formula: see text] and IL-6 were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Here, we found that Ginsenoside Rb1 treatment not only alleviated MIRI in rats but also protected H9C2 cells against hypoxia/reoxygenation induced damage. Ginsenoside Rb1 abolished the MIRI-induced activation of autophagy. Meanwhile, we found that treatment of 3-MA (autophagy inhibitor) could enhance the protective effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on H9C2 cells during H/R. Moreover, Ginsenoside Rb1 treatment resulted in the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, and treatment of LY294002 (PI3K/Akt pathway repressor) abolished the protective effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on myocardial in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that Ginsenoside Rb1 functions as a protector against MIRI by repressing cardiomyocyte autophagy through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Assessment of tantalum nanoparticle-induced MC3T3-E1 proliferation and underlying mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

In our previous study, tantalum nanoparticle (Ta-NPs) was demonstrated to promote osteoblast proliferation via autophagy induction, but the specific mechanism remains unclear. In the present study, we will explore the potential mechanism.

METHODS

Ta-NPs was characterized by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and BET specific surface area test. MC3T3-E1 were treated with 0 or 20 μg/mL Ta-NPs with or without pretreatment with 10 μM LY294002, Triciribine, Rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway inhibitors) for 1 h respectively. Western blotting was used to detect the expressions of pathway proteins and LC3B. CCK-8 assay was used to assess cell viability. Flow cytometry was used to detect apoptosis and cell cycle.

RESULTS

After pretreatment with LY294002, Triciribine and Rapamycin, the p-Akt/Akt ratio of pathway protein in Triciribine and Rapamycin groups decreased (P < 0.05), while the autophagy protein LC3-II/LC3-I in the Rapamycin group was upregulated obviously (P < 0.001). In all pretreated groups, apoptosis was increased (LY294002 group was the most obvious), G1 phase cell cycle was arrested (Triciribine and Rapamycin groups were more obvious), and MC3T3-E1 cells were proliferated much more (P < 0.01, P < 0.001, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Pretreatment with Triciribine or Rapamycin has a greater effect on pathway protein Akt, cell cycle arrest, autophagy protein, and cell proliferation but with inconsistent magnitude, which may be inferred that the Akt/mTOR pathway, as well as its feedback loop, were more likely involved in these processes.

Sublethal concentration of emamectin benzoate inhibits the growth of gypsy moth by inducing digestive dysfunction and nutrient metabolism disorder

BACKGROUND

Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is one of the most important pests in the world. Emamectin benzoate (EMB) is widely used in the control of agricultural and forestry pests. Here, we explored the sublethal effects of EMB on gypsy moths in order to better understand the toxicological mechanism of EMB.

RESULTS

The sublethal concentration of EMB exposure significantly decreased the larvae body weight. To further explore the mechanism, indicators related to digestion and nutrient metabolism were detected. The results showed that EMB exposure caused midgut damage, reduced the activities of digestive enzymes and changed the content of sugar and amino acids. Moreover, the expression of insulin/phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/forkhead box protein O (FoxO) pathway and sugar metabolism-related genes was abnormal. The expression of insulin receptor (InR), chico, PI3K, and protein kinase B (Akt) significantly reduced, and that of phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) and FoxO increased. The expression of glycogen phosphorylase (GP) was upregulation and that of glycogen synthase (GS), trehalase (TRE) and trehalose-phosphate synthase (TPS) were downregulation. All results indicated that EMB inhibits the growth of gypsy moth by inducing midgut injury, digestive dysfunction and nutrient metabolism disorder. In addition, EMB caused midgut injury may be related to apoptosis or a collateral effect of the damage in other tissues, and more extensive and deeper research is still needed to investigate the detailed mechanism.

CONCLUSION

Our finding strengthens the understanding of the sublethal effect of EMB, and provides a theoretical basis for the application of EMB in the prevention and control of gypsy moth.

Autophagy Induced by a Novel Triazol Derivative Promotes Angiogenesis Through Decreasing Interferon-Inducible Protein 10 Level in Vascular Endothelial Cells

ABSTRACT

Autophagy plays an important role in angiogenesis, whereas the mechanisms of vascular endothelial cell (VEC) autophagy associated with angiogenesis remain unclear. In this study, we identified a novel triazol derivative (JL025) that significantly promoted angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, JL025 had no effects on cell proliferation but dramatically increased the autophagy level of VEC. The suppression of autophagy inhibited JL025-induced angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that JL025-induced angiogenesis was dependent on the enhanced autophagy. Mechanistic studies indicated that JL025-induced VEC autophagy was related to the Protein Kinase B/mTOR signaling pathway. Meanwhile, JL025 decreased the antiangiogenic chemokine interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP10) protein level in human VECs. Importantly, the suppression of autophagy inhibited JL025-induced decrease of IP10 protein level, indicating that autophagy mediated the degradation of IP10. Taken together, our findings provide new insights into the relationship of VEC autophagy with angiogenesis, and JL025 may have a therapeutic potential in related diseases.

Inhibition of PI3K/mTOR/KATP channel blunts sodium thiosulphate preconditioning mediated cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury

Recent studies have shown that pre and postconditioning the heart with sodium thiosulfate (STS) attenuate ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. However, the underlying mechanism involved in the cardioprotective signaling pathway is not fully explored. This study examined the existing link of STS mediated protection (as pre and post-conditioning agents) with PI3K, mTOR, and mPTP signaling pathways using its respective inhibitors. STS was administered to the isolated perfused rat heart through Kreb's Heinselit buffer before ischemia (precondition: SIPC) and reperfusion (postcondition: SPOC) in the presence and absence of the PI3K, mTOR, and mPTP signaling pathway inhibitors (wortmannin, rapamycin, and glibenclamide respectively). SIPC failed to improve the IR injury-induced altered cardiac hemodynamics, increased infarct size, and the release of cardiac injury markers in the presence of these inhibitors. On the other hand, the SPOC protocol effectively rendered the cardioprotection even in the PI3K/mTOR/K_ATP inhibitors presence. Interestingly, the SIPC's identified mode of action viz reduction in oxidative stress and the preservation of mitochondrial function were lost in the inhibitors' presence. Based on the above results, we conclude that the underlying mechanism of SIPC mediated cardioprotection works via the PI3K/mTOR/K_ATP signaling pathway axis activation.

Inhibitory Effects of STAT3 Transcription Factor by Synthetic Decoy ODNs on Autophagy in Renal Fibrosis

Autophagy in the proximal tubules may promote fibrosis by activating tubular cell death, interstitial inflammation, and the production of pro-fibrotic factors. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is activated as a potential transcription factor, which mediates the stimulation of renal fibrosis. We investigated the role of the STAT3 in autophagy and its effect on the prevention of interstitial renal fibrosis. In this study, we use synthesized STAT3 decoy oligonucleotides (ODN), which were injected into the tail veins of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) mice, to explore the regulation of autophagy in UUO-induced renal fibrosis. The expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and collagen were decreased by STAT3 decoy ODN. The autophagy markers microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) and fibronectin, were identified through immunofluorescent staining, indicating that they were reduced in the group injected with ODN. The expressions of LC3, Beclin1, p62, and autophagy-related 5–12 (Atg5–12) and hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) were inhibited in the ODN injection group. We determined the inhibitory effect of autophagy in chronic kidney disease and confirmed that STAT3 decoy ODN effectively inhibited autophagy by inhibiting the expression of STAT3 transcription factors in the UUO group.

Two Faces of Autophagy in the Struggle against Cancer

Autophagy can play a double role in cancerogenesis: it can either inhibit further development of the disease or protect cells, causing stimulation of tumour growth. This phenomenon is called "autophagy paradox", and is characterised by the features that the autophagy process provides the necessary substrates for biosynthesis to meet the cell's energy needs, and that the over-programmed activity of this process can lead to cell death through apoptosis. The fight against cancer is a difficult process due to high levels of resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. More and more research is indicating that autophagy may play a very important role in the development of resistance by protecting cancer cells, which is why autophagy in cancer therapy can act as a "double-edged sword". This paper attempts to analyse the influence of autophagy and cancer stem cells on tumour development, and to compare new therapeutic strategies based on the modulation of these processes.

Autophagy in Viral Development and Progression of Cancer

Autophagy is a complex degradative process by which eukaryotic cells capture cytoplasmic components for subsequent degradation through lysosomal hydrolases. Although this catabolic process can be triggered by a great variety of stimuli, action in cells varies according to cellular context. Autophagy has been previously linked to disease development modulation, including cancer. Autophagy helps suppress cancer cell advancement in tumor transformation early stages, while promoting proliferation and metastasis in advanced settings. Oncoviruses are a particular type of virus that directly contribute to cell transformation and tumor development. Extensive molecular studies have revealed complex ways in which autophagy can suppress or improve oncovirus fitness while still regulating viral replication and determining host cell fate. This review includes recent advances in autophagic cellular function and emphasizes its antagonistic role in cancer cells.

Autophagy in Viral Development and Progression of Cancer

Autophagy is a complex degradative process by which eukaryotic cells capture cytoplasmic components for subsequent degradation through lysosomal hydrolases. Although this catabolic process can be triggered by a great variety of stimuli, action in cells varies according to cellular context. Autophagy has been previously linked to disease development modulation, including cancer. Autophagy helps suppress cancer cell advancement in tumor transformation early stages, while promoting proliferation and metastasis in advanced settings. Oncoviruses are a particular type of virus that directly contribute to cell transformation and tumor development. Extensive molecular studies have revealed complex ways in which autophagy can suppress or improve oncovirus fitness while still regulating viral replication and determining host cell fate. This review includes recent advances in autophagic cellular function and emphasizes its antagonistic role in cancer cells.

Exosomal LINC00174 derived from vascular endothelial cells attenuates myocardial I/R injury via p53-mediated autophagy and apoptosis

In this study, we aim to investigate the regulation of specific long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) on the progression of ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. We identified and characterized the exosomes derived from mouse primary aortic endothelial cells. Subsequently, we found that these exosomes expressed typical exosomal markers and high levels of LINC00174, which significantly ameliorated I/R-induced myocardial damage and suppressed the apoptosis, vacuolation, and autophagy of myocardial cells. Mechanistic approaches revealed that LINC00174 directly interacted with SRSF1 to suppress the expression of p53, thus restraining the transcription of myocardin and repressing the activation of the Akt/AMPK pathway that was crucial for autophagy initiation in I/R-induced myocardial damage. Moreover, this molecular mechanism was verified by in vivo study. In summary, exosomal LINC00174 generated from vascular endothelial cells repressed p53-mediated autophagy and apoptosis to mitigate I/R-induced myocardial damage, suggesting that targeting LINC00174 may be a novel strategy to treat I/R-induced myocardial infarction.

H2S exposure-induced oxidative stress promotes LPS-mediated hepatocyte autophagy through the PI3K/AKT/TOR pathway

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), a common air pollutant and toxic gas, is detrimental to organisms and the environment. Exposure to highly concentrated H₂S can induce oxidative stress and autophagy. However, the mechanism underlying the liver damage caused by H₂S has not been identified. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the key component of endotoxin, can induce oxidative stress and autophagy. For this experiment, we used one-day-old chickens as model organisms to evaluate the effects of H₂S combined with LPS on oxidative stress and autophagy. The four groups (control group, LPS group, H₂S group and H₂S-LPS group) were observed by electron microscopy, detected by oxidative stress kit, analyzed by quantitative real-time quantitative PCR, and analyzed by Western blot. We found that the activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, antioxidant glutathione, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) decreased in the H₂S group compared to those in the control group; however, malondialdehyde levels in the H₂S group increased. Molecular-level studies showed that the expression of genes associated with the PI3K/ AKT/ TOR pathways in the H₂S group decreased, whereas the expression of other autophagy-related genes (Beclin1, ATG5 and the ratio of LC3-II/ LC3-I) increased compared to that in the control group. These findings suggest that H₂S caused oxidative stress and induced autophagy through the PI3K/ AKT/ TOR pathway in chicken liver cells. Additionally, exposure to H₂S aggravated LPS-induced oxidative stress and autophagy injury. Capsule: Aerial exposure to H₂S can cause oxidative stress in chicken livers and induce autophagy through the PI3K/AKT/TOR pathway, and can aggravate LPS-induced oxidative stress and autophagy.

Quercetin induces autophagy in myelodysplastic bone marrow including hematopoietic stem/progenitor compartment

Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is regarded as a spectrum of bone marrow failure disorders that share hemato-pathological state of cellular dysplasia and cytopenia. The modern treatment of cancers like chemotherapy and radiation therapy sometimes severely pounce on the basic hematopoietic stem/progenitor cellular (HSPC) compartment which gradually disclose the clinical symptoms of MDS. The present study involves flowcytometric protein expression analysis of insulin growth factor receptor (IGFR), PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway, the autophagy related proteins (ATG's), the status of antioxidative molecules SOD2 and SDF1 and apoptosis profiling in ethyl-nitroso-urea induced myelodysplasia. The redox status that is, reactive oxygen species was estimated with dihydroetidium and the status of mitochondria and lysosomes were checked by Janus green B and neutral red staining respectively, pre and post quercetin treatment in MDS bone marrow. The results revealed the activated IGFR/PI3K/Akt axis in MDS bone marrow but unconventionally both p-mTOR and autophagy (p-ATG1, p-AT6, ATG7, ATG12) was downregulated. Interestingly, post quercetin treatment an upregulation of basal autophagocytosis, reversal of oxidative damage and proper functionality of mitochondria and lysosome was recorded. Taken together, the study hinted that the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway does not rule over the process of autophagocytosis in HSPC's of MDS bone marrow and the isoflavanoid quercetin remarkably restored autophagocytosis and hematopoietic oxidative status toward normalcy during the progression of myelodysplasia.

Reversine, a selective MPS1 inhibitor, induced autophagic cell death via diminished glucose uptake and ATP production in cholangiocarcinoma cells

Reversine is a selective inhibitor of mitotic kinase monopolar spindle 1 (MPS1) and has been reported as an anticancer agent in various cancers. The effects of reversine on bile duct cancer, cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), a lethal cancer in Northeastern Thailand, were investigated. This study reports that reversine inhibited cell proliferation of CCA cell lines in dose- and time-dependent manners but had less inhibitory effect on an immortalized cholangiocyte cell line. Reversine also triggered apoptotic cell death by decreasing anti-apoptotic proteins, Bcl-XL and Mcl-1, increasing Bax pro-apoptotic protein and activating caspase-3 activity. Moreover, reversine induced autophagic cell death by increasing LC3-II and Beclin 1 while decreasing p62. Reversine activated autophagy via the AKT signaling pathway. Additionally, this study demonstrated for the first time that reversine could diminish the expression of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1- alpha (HIF-1α) and glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), resulting in a reduction of glucose uptake and energy production in CCA cell lines. These findings suggest that reversine could be a good candidate as an alternative or supplementary drug for CCA treatment.

Inhibitory functions of cardamonin against particulate matter-induced lung injury through TLR2,4-mTOR-autophagy pathways

Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter equal to or less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is a form of air pollutant that causes significant lung damage when inhaled. Cardamonin, a flavone found in Alpinia katsumadai Heyata seeds, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and anticoagulative activity. The aim of this study was to determine the protective effects of cardamonin on PM_2.5-induced lung injury. Mice were treated with cardamonin via tail-vein injection 30 min after the intratracheal instillation of PM_2.5. The results showed that cardamonin markedly reduced the pathological lung injury, lung wet/dry weight ratio, and hyperpermeability caused by PM_2.5. Cardamonin also significantly inhibited PM_2.5-induced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in lung tissue, decreased the levels of PM_2.5-induced inflammatory cytokines and effectively attenuated PM_2.5-induced increases in the number of lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). And, cardamonin increased the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and dramatically suppressed the PM_2.5-stimulated expression of toll-like receptor 2 and 4 (TLR 2,4), MyD88, and the autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1. In conclusion, these findings indicate that cardamonin has a critical anti-inflammatory effect due to its ability to regulate both the TLR2,4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways and may thus be a potential therapeutic agent against PM_2.5-induced lung injury.

P2 × 7 Receptor Inhibits Astroglial Autophagy via Regulating FAK- and PHLPP1/2-Mediated AKT-S473 Phosphorylation Following Kainic Acid-Induced Seizures

Recently, we have reported that blockade/deletion of P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), an ATP-gated ion channel, exacerbates heat shock protein 25 (HSP25)-mediated astroglial autophagy (clasmatodendrosis) following kainic acid (KA) injection. In P2X7R knockout (KO) mice, prolonged astroglial HSP25 induction exerts 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase/unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1-mediated autophagic pathway independent of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity following KA injection. Sustained HSP25 expression also enhances AKT-serine (S) 473 phosphorylation leading to astroglial autophagy via glycogen synthase kinase-3β/bax interacting factor 1 signaling pathway. However, it is unanswered how P2X7R deletion induces AKT-S473 hyperphosphorylation during autophagic process in astrocytes. In the present study, we found that AKT-S473 phosphorylation was increased by enhancing activity of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), independent of mTOR complex (mTORC) 1 and 2 activities in isolated astrocytes of P2X7R knockout (KO) mice following KA injection. In addition, HSP25 overexpression in P2X7R KO mice acted as a chaperone of AKT, which retained AKT-S473 phosphorylation by inhibiting the pleckstrin homology domain and leucine-rich repeat protein phosphatase (PHLPP) 1- and 2-binding to AKT. Therefore, our findings suggest that P2X7R may be a fine-tuner of AKT-S473 activity during astroglial autophagy by regulating FAK phosphorylation and HSP25-mediated inhibition of PHLPP1/2-AKT binding following KA treatment.

A promising therapeutic combination for metastatic prostate cancer: Chloroquine as autophagy inhibitor and palladium(II) barbiturate complex

Autophagy is a catabolic process for cells that can provide energy sources and allows cancer cells to evade cell death. Therefore, studies on the combination of autophagy inhibitors with drugs are increasing as a new treatment modality in cancer. Previously, we reported the anti-tumor activity of a Palladium (Pd)(II) complex against different types of cancer in vitro and in vivo. Chloroquine (CQ), the worldwide used anti-malarial drug, has recently been focused as a chemosensitizer in cancer treatment. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a combined treatment of these agents that work through different mechanisms to provide an effective treatment modality for metastatic prostate cancer that is certainly fatal. Metastatic prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3 and LNCaP) were treated with Pd (II) complex, CQ, and their combination. The combination enhanced apoptosis by increasing phosphatidylserine translocation and pro-apoptotic proteins. Apoptosis was confirmed by the use of apoptosis inhibitor. The formation of acidic vesicular organelles (AVOs) was observed by acridine orange staining in fluorescence microscopy. The Pd (II) complex increased AVOs formation in prostate cancer cells and CQ-pretreatment has potentiated this effect. Importantly, treatment with CQ suppressed the pro-survival function of autophagy, which might have contributed to enhanced cytotoxicity. In addition, PI3K/AKT/mTOR-related protein expressions were altered after the combination of treatments. Our results suggest that combination treatment enhances apoptotic cell death possibly via the inhibition of autophagy, and may therefore be regarded as a novel and better approach for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer.

Smad4 induces cell death in HO-8910 and SKOV3 ovarian carcinoma cell lines via PI3K-mTOR involvement

IMPACT STATEMENT

This study investigated the effect and mechanism of Smad4 in ovarian carcinoma (OC) cell viability and demonstrated that Smad4 acted as a tumor suppressor in OC, which may contribute to the understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying OC occurrence and progression. Smad4 expression was decreased in the OC specimens, but Smad4 recovery in the OC cell lines impaired the survival and viability of OC cells by increasing autophagy and apoptosis. Further investigation showed that Smad4 interacted with the P85 subunit of PI3K and caused deactivation of the PI3K/mTOR pathway. Therefore, Smad4 could be considered as a target in cancer therapy due to its regulatory effect in OC carcinogenesis.

Inhibitory functions of maslinic acid on particulate matter-induced lung injury through TLR4-mTOR-autophagy pathways

Particulate matter (PM), the collection of all liquid and solid particles suspended in air, includes both organic and inorganic particles, many of which are health-hazards. PM particles with a diameter equal to or less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is a form of air pollutant that causes significant lung damage when inhaled. Maslinic acid (MA) prevents oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine generation, but there is little information available regarding its role in PM-induced lung injury. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the protective activity of MA against PM_2.5-induced lung injury. The mice were divided into seven groups (n = 10 each): a mock control group, an MA control (0.8 mg/kg mouse body weight) group, an opted PM_2.5 produced from diesel (10 mg/kg mouse body weight) group, a diesel PM_2.5+MA (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/kg mouse body weight) groups. Mice were treated with MA via tail-vein injection 30 min after the intratracheal instillation of a diesel PM_2.5. Changes in the wet/dry weight ratio of the lung tissue, total protein/total cell and lymphocyte counts, inflammatory cytokines in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), vascular permeability, and histology were monitored in diesel PM_2.5-treated mice. The results showed that MA reduced pathological lung injury, the wet/dry weight ratio of the lung tissue, and hyperpermeability caused by diesel PM_2.5. MA also inhibited diesel PM_2.5-induced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in the lung tissue, decreased the levels of diesel PM_2.5-induced inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β, reduced nitric oxide (NO) and total protein in the BALF, and effectively attenuated diesel PM_2.5-induced increases in the number of lymphocytes in the BALF. In addition, MA increased the protein phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and dramatically suppressed diesel PM_2.5-stimulated expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and the autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1. In conclusion, these findings indicate that MA has a critical anti-inflammatory effect due to its ability to regulate both the TLR4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways and may thus be a potential therapeutic agent against diesel PM_2.5-induced lung injury.

Biapenem as a Novel Insight into Drug Repositioning against Particulate Matter-Induced Lung Injury

The screening of biologically active chemical compound libraries can be an efficient way to reposition Food and Drug Adminstration (FDA)-approved drugs or to discover new therapies for human diseases. Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter equal to or less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is a form of air pollutant that causes significant lung damage when inhaled. This study illustrates drug repositioning with biapenem (BIPM) for the modulation of PM-induced lung injury. Biapenem was used for the treatment of severe infections. Mice were treated with BIPM via tail-vein injection after the intratracheal instillation of PM_2.5. Alterations in the lung wet/dry weight, total protein/total cell count and lymphocyte count, inflammatory cytokines in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), vascular permeability, and histology were monitored in the PM_2.5-treated mice. BIPM effectively reduced the pathological lung injury, lung wet/dry weight ratio, and hyperpermeability caused by PM_2.5. Enhanced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity by PM_2.5 in the pulmonary tissue was inhibited by BIPM. Moreover, increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and total protein by PM_2.5 in the BALF were also decreased by BIPM treatment. In addition, BIPM markedly suppressed PM_2.5-induced increases in the number of lymphocytes in the BALF. Additionally, the activity of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) was increased by BIPM. Administration of PM_2.5 increased the expression levels of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and the autophagy-related proteins LC3 II and Beclin 1, which were suppressed by BIPM. In conclusion, these findings indicate that BIPM has a critical anti-inflammatory effect due to its ability to regulate both the TLR4-MyD88 and mTOR-autophagy pathways, and may thus be a potential therapeutic agent against diesel PM_2.5-induced pulmonary injury.

Histopathological and cytotoxic changes induced by spinosad on midgut cells of the non-target predator Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

Broad-spectrum insecticides used in pest control are a risk for non-target insects. Their compatibility to the insecticide spinosad, used in agriculture and forestry as a biological control tool, needs to be evaluated. Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) is a predatory bug used in the pest management of agricultural and forest systems where spinosad is also frequently applied. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity, histopathology and cytotoxicity in midgut cells of P. nigrispinus exposed to spinosad. The toxicity test was performed to determine the lethal concentrations of spinosad after exposure by ingestion. The histopathology and cytotoxicity caused by spinosad were analyzed in the three midgut regions (anterior, middle and posterior) of P. nigrispinus during different exposure periods. Spinosad, at low concentrations, was toxic to P. nigrispinus [LC₅₀ = 3.15 (3.02-3.26) μg.L^-1]. Cell degeneration features such as cytoplasm vacuolization, chromatin condensation and release of cell fragments to the midgut lumen were observed in this organ. Cell death via apoptosis was found in the three midgut regions of this predator after exposure to the insecticide. Spinosad is toxic to P. nigrispinus, and causes histological and cytological damage followed by cell death in the midgut, suggesting a dangerous effect on a beneficial non-target insect.