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Escalante V, Nayak RR, Noecker C, Babdor J, Spitzer M, Deutschbauer AM, Turnbaugh PJ. Simvastatin induces human gut bacterial cell surface genes. Mol Microbiol 2023:10.1111/mmi.15151. [PMID: 37712143 PMCID: PMC10940213 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Drugs intended to target mammalian cells can have broad off-target effects on the human gut microbiota with potential downstream consequences for drug efficacy and side effect profiles. Yet, despite a rich literature on antibiotic resistance, we still know very little about the mechanisms through which commensal bacteria evade non-antibiotic drugs. Here, we focus on statins, one of the most prescribed drug types in the world and an essential tool in the prevention and treatment of high circulating cholesterol levels. Prior work in humans, mice, and cell culture support an off-target effect of statins on human gut bacteria; however, the genetic determinants of statin sensitivity remain unknown. We confirmed that simvastatin inhibits the growth of diverse human gut bacterial strains grown in communities and in pure cultures. Drug sensitivity varied between phyla and was dose-dependent. We selected two representative simvastatin-sensitive species for more in-depth analysis: Eggerthella lenta (phylum: Actinobacteriota) and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (phylum: Bacteroidota). Transcriptomics revealed that both bacterial species upregulate genes in response to simvastatin that alter the cell membrane, including fatty acid biogenesis (E. lenta) and drug efflux systems (B. thetaiotaomicron). Transposon mutagenesis identified a key efflux system in B. thetaiotaomicron that enables growth in the presence of statins. Taken together, these results emphasize the importance of the bacterial cell membrane in countering the off-target effects of host-targeted drugs. Continued mechanistic dissection of the various mechanisms through which the human gut microbiota evades drugs will be essential to understand and predict the effects of drug administration in human cohorts and the potential downstream consequences for health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Escalante
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Renuka R. Nayak
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco Veterans Affairs, San Francisco, CA 94121
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Cecilia Noecker
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Joel Babdor
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew Spitzer
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Adam M. Deutschbauer
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Peter J. Turnbaugh
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
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2
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Đanić M, Pavlović N, Lazarević S, Stanimirov B, Vukmirović S, Al-Salami H, Mooranian A, Mikov M. Bioaccumulation and biotransformation of simvastatin in probiotic bacteria: A step towards better understanding of drug-bile acids-microbiome interactions. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1111115. [PMID: 36843926 PMCID: PMC9946981 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1111115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Although pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics have been at the forefront of research aimed at finding novel personalized therapies, the focus of research has recently extended to the potential of intestinal microbiota to affect drug efficacy. Complex interplay of gut microbiota with bile acids may have significant repercussions on drug pharmacokinetics. However, far too little attention has been paid to the potential implication of gut microbiota and bile acids in simvastatin response which is characterized by large interindividual variations. The Aim: In order to gain more insight into the underlying mechanism and its contribution in assessing the clinical outcome, the aim of our study was to examine simvastatin bioaccumulation and biotransformation in probiotic bacteria and the effect of bile acids on simvastatin bioaccumulation in in vitro conditions. Materials and methods: Samples with simvastatin, probiotic bacteria and three different bile acids were incubated at anaerobic conditions at 37°C for 24 h. Extracellular and intracellular medium samples were collected and prepared for the LC-MS analysis at predetermined time points (0 min, 15 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 24 h). The concentrations of simvastatin were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Potential biotransformation pathways were analyzed using a bioinformatics approach in correlation with experimental assay. Results: During the incubation, simvastatin was transported into bacteria cells leading to a drug bioaccumulation over the time, which was augmented upon addition of bile acids after 24 h. A decrease of total drug level during the incubation indicates that the drug is partly biotransformed by bacterial enzymes. According to the results of bioinformatics analysis, the lactone ring is the most susceptible to metabolic changes and the most likely reactions include ester hydrolysis followed by hydroxylation. Conclusion: Results of our study reveal that bioaccumulation and biotransformation of simvastatin by intestinal bacteria might be the underlying mechanisms of altered simvastatin bioavailability and therapeutic effect. Since this study is based only on selected bacterial strains in vitro, further more in-depth research is needed in order to elicit completely the contribution of complex drug-microbiota-bile acids interactions to overall clinical response of simvastatin which could ultimately lead to novel approaches for the personalized lipid-lowering therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Đanić
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nebojša Pavlović
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Slavica Lazarević
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia,*Correspondence: Slavica Lazarević,
| | - Bojan Stanimirov
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Saša Vukmirović
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Hani Al-Salami
- The Biotechnology and Drug Development Research Laboratory, Curtin Medical School and Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia,Hearing Therapeutics Department, Ear Science Institute Australia, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Armin Mooranian
- The Biotechnology and Drug Development Research Laboratory, Curtin Medical School and Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia,Hearing Therapeutics Department, Ear Science Institute Australia, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Momir Mikov
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Gulnaz A, Chang JE, Maeng HJ, Shin KH, Lee KR, Chae YJ. A mechanism-based understanding of altered drug pharmacokinetics by gut microbiota. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-022-00600-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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4
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Ai G, Wu X, Dou Y, Huang R, Zhong L, Liu Y, Xian Y, Lin Z, Li Y, Su Z, Chen J, Qu C. Oxyberberine, a novel HO-1 agonist, effectively ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammatory response in LPS/D-GalN induced acute liver injury mice via coactivating erythrocyte metabolism and Nrf2 signaling pathway. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 166:113215. [PMID: 35691465 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Oxyberberine (OBB), a main gut-mediated metabolite of Phellodendron chinense Cortex (PC), exhibits prominent protective property against acute liver injury (ALI). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a vital molecule in attenuating acute and chronic liver injury for its prominent anti-oxidative injury and anti-inflammation properties. The present study was performed to investigate the hepatoprotective role of OBB through HO-1 signaling pathway in lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine (LPS/D-GalN) induced ALI. Our results indicated that PC treatment improved survival rate and its metabolite OBB evidently improved histopathological deteriorations and liver function. Additionally, OBB dramatically ameliorated hepatic oxidative stress and inflammation. Besides, OBB exerted remarkable HO-1 agonistic activity, even be comparable to hemin (a HO-1 inducer), as evidenced by increased HO-1 level, carbon monoxide and bilirubin activities, which are the markers of erythrocyte metabolism. Moreover, OBB modulated the parameters of inflammation and oxidative stress through HO-1 dependent pathway. Beyond this, OBB also notably suppressed the translocation of p65, enhanced antioxidation defense genes expressions, promoted the degradation of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). In conclusion, OBB could be the principle active metabolite substance of PC and exert excellent hepatoprotective effects via inducing HO-1 through coactivation of erythrocyte metabolism and Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaoxiang Ai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Yaoxing Dou
- The Second Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine/Post-Doctoral Research Station, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Ronglei Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Linjiang Zhong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Yuhong Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Yanfang Xian
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR China
| | - Zhixiu Lin
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR China
| | - Yucui Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Ziren Su
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China
| | - Jiannan Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, PR China.
| | - Chang Qu
- College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510630, PR China.
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Inhibition of in Vitro Rumen Methane Production by Three Statins. ANNALS OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.2478/aoas-2021-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of increasing concentrations of three pure statins on in vitro methane production and rumen fermentation. The effects of atorvastatin, rosuvastatin and simvastatin at three concentrations (1, 10, and 100 mg/L of culture fluid) were evaluated using in vitro 24 h batch incubation of buffered rumen fluid with a 70:30 forage:concentrate substrate. All statins tested demonstrated the ability to reduce methanogenesis. Methane inhibition potential was decreasing in the following order: simvastatin>atorvastatin>rosuvastatin. Methane production was reduced (P<0.05) by simvastatin at 10 mg/L (by 9.3%) and by atorvastatin at 100 mg/L (by 13.2%) without compromising fermentation and feed digestibility. Simvastatin at 100 mg/L decreased methane production by 26.2%, however, net production of volatile fatty acids (nVFA) was also reduced (P<0.05). The only effect of rosuvastatin was a slight reduction (P<0.05) of methane proportion at 10 and 100 mg/L. Simvastatin and atorvastatin at 100 mg/L increased (P<0.05) relative proportion of propionate at the expense of acetate and butyrate. Ammonia-N concentrations were not affected (P>0.05) by statins. The current study demonstrated that selected statins could selectively decrease methane production. The effects of statins on methanogenesis and overall rumen fermentation vary depending on statin type and concentration. Hydrophobic statins, such as simvastatin and atorvastatin, seem to be more effective compared to the hydrophilic statins, such as rosuvastatin.
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Dhurjad P, Dhavaliker C, Gupta K, Sonti R. Exploring drug metabolism by the gut microbiota: modes of metabolism and experimental approaches. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 50:224-234. [PMID: 34969660 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence uncovers the involvement of gut microbiota in the metabolism of numerous pharmaceutical drugs. The human gut microbiome harbours 10-100 trillion symbiotic gut microbial bacteria that utilize drugs as substrates for enzymatic processes to alter host metabolism. Thus, microbiota-mediated drug metabolism can change the conventional drug action course and cause inter-individual differences in efficacy and toxicity, making it vital for drug discovery and development. This review focuses on drug biotransformation pathways and discusses different models for evaluating gut microbiota role in drug metabolism. Significance Statement This review emphasizes the importance of gut microbiota and different modes of drug metabolism mediated by them. It provides information on in vivo, in vitro, ex vivo, in silico and multi-omics approaches for identifying the role of gut microbiota in the metabolism. Further, it highlights the significance of gut microbiota mediated metabolism in the process of new drug discovery and development as a rationale for safe and efficacious drug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Dhurjad
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, India
| | - Chinmayi Dhavaliker
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, India
| | - Kajal Gupta
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, India
| | - Rajesh Sonti
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, India
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Zhang S, Yuan L, Li H, Han L, Jing W, Wu X, Ullah S, Liu R, Wu Y, Xu J. The Novel Interplay between Commensal Gut Bacteria and Metabolites in Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemic Rats Treated with Simvastatin. J Proteome Res 2021; 21:808-821. [PMID: 34365791 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Hyperlipidemia is one kind of metabolic syndrome for which the treatment commonly includes simvastatin (SV). Individuals vary widely in statin responses, and growing evidence implicates gut microbiome involvement in this variability. However, the associated molecular mechanisms between metabolic improvement and microbiota composition following SV treatment are still not fully understood. In this study, combinatory approaches using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF MS/MS)-based metabolomic profiling, PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE), quantitative PCR (qPCR), and 16S rRNA gene sequencing-based gut microbiota profiling were performed to investigate the interplay of endogenous metabolites and the gut microbiota related to SV treatment. A total of 6 key differential endogenous metabolites were identified that affect the metabolism of amino acids (phenylalanine and tyrosine), unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid and 9-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (9-HODE)), and the functions of gut microbial metabolism. Moreover, a total of 22 differentially abundant taxa were obtained following SV treatment. Three bacterial taxa were identified to be involved in SV treatment, namely, Bacteroidaceae, Prevotellaceae, and Porphyromonadaceae. These findings suggested that the phenylalanine and tyrosine-associated amino acid metabolism pathways, as well as the linoleic acid and 9-HODE-associated unsaturated fatty acid metabolism pathways, which are involved in gut flora interactions, might be potential therapeutic targets for improvement in SV hypolipidemic efficacy. The mass spectrometric data have been deposited to MassIVE (https://massive.ucsd.edu/ProteoSAFe/static/massive.jsp). Username: MSV000087842_reviewer. Password: hardworkingzsr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siruo Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710068, PR China
| | - Lu Yuan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Huan Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Lei Han
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Wanghui Jing
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Xiaokang Wu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, PR China
| | - Shakir Ullah
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Ruina Liu
- College of Forensic Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
| | - Yonghong Wu
- Department of Medical Technology, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, PR China
| | - Jiru Xu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, PR China
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8
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Wang L, Zhou W, Guo M, Hua Y, Zhou B, Li X, Zhang X, Dong J, Yang X, Wang Y, Wu Y, She J, Mu J. The gut microbiota is associated with clinical response to statin treatment in patients with coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2021; 325:16-23. [PMID: 33878520 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The structure and composition of the gut microbiota influence patients' response to therapeutic interventions. It is also known that the response to statin treatment can vary greatly from one patient to another, suggesting a possible connection between microbiome composition and response to statins. In the present study, we aim to explore the influence of the microbiome composition on the response to statin treatment among patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). METHODS A prospective cohort of 836 CAD patients enrolled from January 2016 to December 2017 was used to perform a nested case-control study. We divided 110 CAD patients into two groups according to their response to statins (good response group and poor response group) and compared their gut microbiota. RESULTS Our analysis reveals no significant difference in microbiome between the two groups. However, significant differences were found in the relative proportion of numerous genera between GR and PR groups. Most remarkably, we could observe that a poor response to statin treatment correlates to a significant decrease in the abundance of beneficial bacteria for the lipid metabolism (Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) and Lactobacillus) and a significant increase in the abundance of bacteria (Holdemanella and Facecallibacterium). CONCLUSIONS Gut microbiota structure is associated with the response to statin. Our results suggest that manipulation of the gut microbiota composition can be an interesting and effective treatment strategy to blood lipid control among CAD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Wang
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China; Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Weiwei Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of South China University, Hengyang, Hunan Province, China
| | - Manyun Guo
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Yiming Hua
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Baihua Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Xinyin Li
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Xinxin Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Jiakun Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Xiumei Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital, Dalian University, Dalian 116001, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Yue Wu
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Jianqing She
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - Jianjun Mu
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China.
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Dias AM, Cordeiro G, Estevinho MM, Veiga R, Figueira L, Reina‐Couto M, Magro F. Gut bacterial microbiome composition and statin intake-A systematic review. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2020; 8:e00601. [PMID: 32476298 PMCID: PMC7261966 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, the gut microbiome has become an important field of interest. Indeed, the microbiome has been associated to numerous drug interactions and it is thought to influence the efficacy of pharmacologic treatments. Although statins are widely prescribed medications, there remains considerable variability in its therapeutic response. In this context, we aimed to investigate how statins modulate the gut microbiome and, reversely, how can the microbiome influence the course of anti-hypercholesterolemic treatment. We conducted a systematic review by searching four online databases, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Studies addressing gut microbiome changes following statin treatment and those assessing statins' response and associating it with patients' microbiome were included. Due to the limited number of results, we decided to include studies enrolling both humans and animals. We summarized information from three human and seven animal studies and aimed to assess the influence of gut microbiome composition on statin response (Outcome 1) and to evaluate the impact of statin treatment on the gut microbiome (Outcome 2). An association between a certain microbiome composition that promoted the lipid-lowering effect of statins was found. However, what kind of microorganisms and how they can exert this effect remains uncertain. Furthermore, statins might have a role in the modulation of the gut microbiome, but then again, it is still unknown whether this change is directly caused by the drug or another metabolic mechanism. Even though gut microbiota may have several potential therapeutic implications, its use as a personalized predictive biomarker requires further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia M. Dias
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
| | - Gonçalo Cordeiro
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
| | - Maria M. Estevinho
- Department of BiomedicineUnit of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PortoPortoPortugal
| | - Rui Veiga
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
- Department of BiomedicineUnit of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PortoPortoPortugal
- Service of Intensive MedicineSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
| | - Luis Figueira
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
- Department of BiomedicineUnit of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PortoPortoPortugal
- Service of OphthalmologySão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
| | - Marta Reina‐Couto
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
- Department of BiomedicineUnit of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PortoPortoPortugal
- Service of Intensive MedicineSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
| | - Fernando Magro
- Clinical Pharmacology UnitSão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
- Department of BiomedicineUnit of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PortoPortoPortugal
- Service of GastroenterologySão João Hospital University CentrePortoPortugal
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Zhao C, Hu Y, Chen H, Li B, Cao L, Xia J, Yin Y. An in vitro evaluation of the effects of different statins on the structure and function of human gut bacterial community. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230200. [PMID: 32214324 PMCID: PMC7098552 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins, a class of drugs that can effectively remove cholesterol from serum, are used to regulate plasma total cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, but it is still unclear whether the drug are modulated by gut microbiota or the structures of gut microbiota are shaped by statins. We investigated the interactions between statins and the human gut microbiota during the in vitro fermentation process by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, gas chromatography (GC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses. The presence of fluvastatin (FLU2) specifically promoted the growth of Escherichia/Shigella, Ruminococcaceae UCG 014, and Sutterella. However, the composition of the gut bacterial microbiota remained relatively static in samples treated with rosuvastatin (ROS), simvastatin (SIM), and atorvastatin (ATO). The PICRUSt program predicted moderate differences in the functional categories related to the biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites, cellular processes and signaling, and signal transduction in the FLU2 fermentation samples. Our study revealed substantial variation in the structure and function of microbiomes from the FLU2-treated samples. In addition, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were also significantly decreased in FLU2-treated samples compared with the samples treated with other stains. Statins can be degraded by the human gut microbiota in vitro, and the degradation rate was approximately 7%–30% and 19%–48% after fermentation was allowed to proceed for 24 h and 48 h, respectively. Generally, FLU2 could largely shape the composition and function of human gut microbiota, which resulted in changes in the production of SCFAs. In turn, all statins could be degraded or modified by the gut microbiota. Our study paves the way for elucidating statin-gut microbiota interactions in vitro towards the improvement of the host health and personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhui Zhao
- Key Lab of Biometallurgy of the Ministry of Education of China, School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Yunfei Hu
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Huahai Chen
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Baiyuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Linyan Cao
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Jinlan Xia
- Key Lab of Biometallurgy of the Ministry of Education of China, School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- * E-mail: (JX); (YY)
| | - Yeshi Yin
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Advantage Plants Resources in Hunan South, College of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Hunan University of Science and Engineering, Yongzhou, Hunan, China
- * E-mail: (JX); (YY)
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Beltrán D, Frutos-Lisón MD, Espín JC, García-Villalba R. Re-examining the role of the gut microbiota in the conversion of the lipid-lowering statin monacolin K (lovastatin) into its active β-hydroxy acid metabolite. Food Funct 2019; 10:1787-1791. [PMID: 30882807 DOI: 10.1039/c8fo02594k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Monacolin K (MK, lovastatin), a naturally occurring statin, only exerts lipid-lowering effects in its active β-hydroxy acid form (MKA). This activation was thought to be mediated by the gut microbiota (GM). We report here for the first time that the GM does not convert MK into MKA (a spontaneous pH-dependent conversion) but catabolises MKA. The GM might hamper the lipid-lowering effects by degrading the active metabolite MKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Beltrán
- Laboratory of Food & Health, Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, P.O. Box 164, 30100 Campus de Espinardo, Murcia, Spain.
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12
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Abstract
Gut microbiota, one of the determinants of pharmacokinetics, has long been underestimated. It is now generally accepted that the gut microbiota plays an important role in drug metabolism during enterohepatic circulation either before drug absorption or through various microbial enzymatic reactions in the gut. In addition, some drugs are metabolized by the intestinal microbiota to specific metabolites that cannot be formed in the liver. More importantly, metabolizing drugs through the gut microbiota prior to absorption can alter the systemic bioavailability of certain drugs. Therefore, understanding intestinal flora-mediated drug metabolism is critical to interpreting changes in drug pharmacokinetics. Here, we summarize the effects of gut microbiota on drug pharmacokinetics, and propose that the influence of intestinal flora on pharmacokinetics should be organically related to the therapeutic effects and side effects of drugs. More importantly, we could rationally perform the strategy of intestinal microflora-mediated metabolism to design drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanhong Zhang
- a School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , China.,b Key Laboratory for Prevention and Remediation of Plateau Environmental Damage , Lanzhou General Hospital , Lanzhou , China
| | - Junmin Zhang
- a School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , China
| | - Rong Wang
- a School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , China.,b Key Laboratory for Prevention and Remediation of Plateau Environmental Damage , Lanzhou General Hospital , Lanzhou , China
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13
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Riaz Rajoka MS, Zhao H, Li N, Lu Y, Lian Z, Shao D, Jin M, Li Q, Zhao L, Shi J. Origination, change, and modulation of geriatric disease-related gut microbiota during life. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:8275-8289. [PMID: 30066188 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9264-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The age-related changes in the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota are well described in recent studies. These changes have been suggested to be influenced by age-associated weakening of the immune system and low-grade chronic inflammation, resulting in numerous age-associated pathological conditions. Gut microbiota homeostasis is important throughout the life of the host by providing vital functions to regulate various immunological functions and homeostasis. Based on published results, we summarize the relationship between the gut microbiota and aging-related diseases, especially Parkinson's disease, immunosenescence, rheumatoid arthritis, bone loss, and metabolic syndrome. The change in composition of the gut microbiota and gut ecosystem during life and its influence on the host immunologic and metabolic phenotype are also analyzed to determine factors that affect aging-related diseases. Approaches to maintain host health and prevent or cure geriatric diseases are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shahid Riaz Rajoka
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.,Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Haobin Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Na Li
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yao Lu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziyang Lian
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyan Shao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingliang Jin
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Li
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Liqing Zhao
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Junling Shi
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
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14
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Weiss GA, Hennet T. Mechanisms and consequences of intestinal dysbiosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:2959-2977. [PMID: 28352996 PMCID: PMC11107543 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2509-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 346] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The composition of the gut microbiota is in constant flow under the influence of factors such as the diet, ingested drugs, the intestinal mucosa, the immune system, and the microbiota itself. Natural variations in the gut microbiota can deteriorate to a state of dysbiosis when stress conditions rapidly decrease microbial diversity and promote the expansion of specific bacterial taxa. The mechanisms underlying intestinal dysbiosis often remain unclear given that combinations of natural variations and stress factors mediate cascades of destabilizing events. Oxidative stress, bacteriophages induction and the secretion of bacterial toxins can trigger rapid shifts among intestinal microbial groups thereby yielding dysbiosis. A multitude of diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases but also metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes type II are associated with intestinal dysbiosis. The characterization of the changes leading to intestinal dysbiosis and the identification of the microbial taxa contributing to pathological effects are essential prerequisites to better understand the impact of the microbiota on health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Adrienne Weiss
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thierry Hennet
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
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15
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He X, Zheng N, He J, Liu C, Feng J, Jia W, Li H. Gut Microbiota Modulation Attenuated the Hypolipidemic Effect of Simvastatin in High-Fat/Cholesterol-Diet Fed Mice. J Proteome Res 2017; 16:1900-1910. [PMID: 28378586 PMCID: PMC5687503 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The hypolipidemic effect of simvastatin varies greatly among patients. In the current study, we investigated the gut microbial-involved mechanisms underlying the different responses to simvastatin. Male C57BL/6J mice were divided into control (Con), high-fat/cholesterol diet (HFD), antibiotic (AB), simvastatin (SV) and antibiotic_simvastatin (AB_SV) groups, respectively. At the end of the experiment, serum samples were collected for lipids and metabolomic analysis, and liver tissues for histology, gene and protein expression analysis. The results showed that antibiotic treatment not only altered the composition of gut microbiota, but attenuated the hypolipidemic effect of SV. A total of 16 differential metabolites between SV and HFD groups were identified with metabolomics, while most of them showed no statistical differences between AB_SV and HFD groups, and similar changes were also observed in bile acids profile. The expressions of several genes and proteins involved in regulating bile acids synthesis were significantly reversed by SV, but not AB_SV in HFD fed mice. In summary, our current study indicated that the hypolipidemic effect of SV was correlated with the composition of the gut microbiota, and the attenuated hypolipidemic effect of SV by gut microbiota modulation was associated with a suppression of bile acids synthesis from cholesterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuyun He
- Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Ningning Zheng
- Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jiaojiao He
- Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Can Liu
- Laboratory medicine of Southern Medical University Affiliated Fengxian Hospital, Shanghai 201499, China
| | - Jing Feng
- Laboratory medicine of Southern Medical University Affiliated Fengxian Hospital, Shanghai 201499, China
| | - Wei Jia
- Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
- Center for Translational Medicine, and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Diabetes Mellitus, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96813, USA
| | - Houkai Li
- Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
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16
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The human microbiome, from Achilles armour to Nessus’ shirt. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:2699-2701. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1951-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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17
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Abstract
Although safety of drug candidates is carefully monitored in preclinical and clinical studies using a variety of approaches, drug toxicity may still occur in clinical practice. Therefore, novel approaches are needed to complement the current drug safety evaluation system. Metabolomics comprehensively analyzes the metabolites altered by drug exposure, which can therefore be used to profile drug metabolism, endobiotic metabolism, and drug-microbiota interactions. The information from metabolomic analysis can be used to determine the off-targets of a drug candidate, and thus provide a mechanistic understanding of drug toxicity. We herein discuss the opportunities of metabolomics in drug safety evaluation.
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18
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Nichols RG, Hume NE, Smith PB, Peters JM, Patterson AD. Omics Approaches To Probe Microbiota and Drug Metabolism Interactions. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:1987-1997. [PMID: 27782392 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The drug metabolism field has long recognized the beneficial and sometimes deleterious influence of microbiota in the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. Early pioneering work with the sulfanilamide precursor prontosil pointed toward the necessity not only to better understand the metabolic capabilities of the microbiota but also, importantly, to identify the specific microbiota involved in the generation and metabolism of drugs. However, technological limitations important for cataloging the microbiota community as well as for understanding and/or predicting their metabolic capabilities hindered progress. Current advances including mass spectrometry-based metabolite profiling as well as culture-independent sequence-based identification and functional analysis of microbiota have begun to shed light on microbial metabolism. In this review, case studies will be presented to highlight key aspects (e.g., microbiota identification, metabolic function and prediction, metabolite identification, and profiling) that have helped to clarify how the microbiota might impact or be impacted by drug metabolism. Lastly, a perspective of the future of this field is presented that takes into account what important knowledge is lacking and how to tackle these problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G Nichols
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Nicole E Hume
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Philip B Smith
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Jeffrey M Peters
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Andrew D Patterson
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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19
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Chaudhury A. Raised Cecal Veillonella (Firmicutes)/S 24-7 (Bacteriodetes) May Not Cause Salt-Sensitive Hypertension. Front Physiol 2016; 7:118. [PMID: 27065886 PMCID: PMC4814461 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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20
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Li H, He J, Jia W. The influence of gut microbiota on drug metabolism and toxicity. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 12:31-40. [PMID: 26569070 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2016.1121234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Gut microbiota plays critical roles in drug metabolism. The variation of gut microbiota contributes to the interindividual differences toward drug therapy including drug-induced toxicity and efficacy. Accordingly, the investigation and elucidation of gut microbial impacts on drug metabolism and toxicity will not only facilitate the way of personalized medicine, but also improve rational drug design. AREAS COVERED This review provides an overview of the microbiota-host co-metabolism on drug metabolism and summarizes 30 clinical drugs that are co-metabolized by host and gut microbiota. Moreover, this review is specifically focused on elucidating the gut microbial modulation of some clinical drugs, in which the gut microbial influences on drug metabolism, drug-induced toxicity and efficacy are discussed. EXPERT OPINION The gut microbial contribution to drug metabolism and toxicity is increasingly recognized, but remains largely unexplored due to the extremely complex relationship between gut microbiota and host. The mechanistic elucidation of gut microbiota in drug metabolism is critical before any practical progress in drug design or personalized medicine could be made by modulating human gut microbiota. Analytical technique innovation is urgently required to strengthen our capability in recognizing microbial functions, including metagenomics, metabolomics and the integration of multidisciplinary knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houkai Li
- a Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology , Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Shanghai 201203 , China
| | - Jiaojiao He
- a Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology , Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Shanghai 201203 , China
| | - Wei Jia
- a Center for Chinese Medical Therapy and Systems Biology , Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Shanghai 201203 , China.,b Cancer Epidemiology Program , University of Hawaii Cancer Center , Honolulu , HI 96813 , USA
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21
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Swanson HI. Drug Metabolism by the Host and Gut Microbiota: A Partnership or Rivalry? Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:1499-504. [PMID: 26261284 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.065714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of the gut microbiome in determining not only overall health, but also in the metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics, is rapidly emerging. It is becoming increasingly clear that the gut microbiota can act in concert with the host cells to maintain intestinal homeostasis, cometabolize drugs and xenobiotics, and alter the expression levels of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters and the expression and activity levels of nuclear receptors. In this myriad of activities, the impact of the microbiota may be beneficial or detrimental to the host. Given that the interplay between the gut microbiota and host cells is likely subject to high interindividual variability, this work has tremendous implications for our ability to predict accurately a particular drug's pharmacokinetics and a given patient population's response to drugs. In this issue of Drug Metabolism and Disposition, a series of articles is presented that illustrate the progress and challenges that lie ahead as we unravel the intricacies associated with drug and xenobiotic metabolism by the gut microbiota. These articles highlight the underlying mechanisms that are involved and the use of in vivo and in vitro approaches that are currently available for elucidating the role of the gut microbiota in drug and xenobiotic metabolism. These articles also shed light on exciting new avenues of research that may be pursued as we consider the role of the gut microbiota as an endocrine organ, a component of the brain-gut axis, and whether the gut microbiota is an appropriate and amenable target for new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollie I Swanson
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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22
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Mandal RS, Saha S, Das S. Metagenomic surveys of gut microbiota. GENOMICS PROTEOMICS & BIOINFORMATICS 2015; 13:148-58. [PMID: 26184859 PMCID: PMC4563348 DOI: 10.1016/j.gpb.2015.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Gut microbiota of higher vertebrates is host-specific. The number and diversity of the organisms residing within the gut ecosystem are defined by physiological and environmental factors, such as host genotype, habitat, and diet. Recently, culture-independent sequencing techniques have added a new dimension to the study of gut microbiota and the challenge to analyze the large volume of sequencing data is increasingly addressed by the development of novel computational tools and methods. Interestingly, gut microbiota maintains a constant relative abundance at operational taxonomic unit (OTU) levels and altered bacterial abundance has been associated with complex diseases such as symptomatic atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and colorectal cancer. Therefore, the study of gut microbial population has emerged as an important field of research in order to ultimately achieve better health. In addition, there is a spontaneous, non-linear, and dynamic interaction among different bacterial species residing in the gut. Thus, predicting the influence of perturbed microbe–microbe interaction network on health can aid in developing novel therapeutics. Here, we summarize the population abundance of gut microbiota and its variation in different clinical states, computational tools available to analyze the pyrosequencing data, and gut microbe–microbe interaction networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Shubhra Mandal
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India
| | - Sudipto Saha
- Bioinformatics Centre, Bose Institute, Kolkata 700054, India.
| | - Santasabuj Das
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India; Division of Clinical Medicine, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India.
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23
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Tralau T, Sowada J, Luch A. Insights on the human microbiome and its xenobiotic metabolism: what is known about its effects on human physiology? Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2014; 11:411-25. [PMID: 25476418 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2015.990437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Our microbiome harbours a metabolic capacity far beyond our own. Moreover, its gene pool is highly adaptable and subject to selective pressure, including host exposure to xenobiotics. Yet, the resulting adaptations do not necessarily follow host well-being and can therefore contribute to disease or unfavourable metabolite production. AREAS COVERED This review provides an overview of our host-microbiome relationship in light of bacterial (xenobiotic) metabolism, community dynamics, entero-endocrine crosstalk, dysbiosis and potential therapeutic targets. In addition, it will highlight the need for a systematic analysis of the microbiome's potential for substance toxification. EXPERT OPINION The influence of our microbiota reaches from primary metabolites to secondary effects such as substrate competition or the activation of eukaryotic Phase I and Phase II enzymes. Further on it plays a hitherto underestimated role in drug metabolism, toxicity and pathogenesis. These effects are partly caused by entero-endocrine crosstalk and interference with eukaryotic regulatory networks. On first sight, the resulting concept of a metabolically competent microbiome adds enormous complexity to human physiology. Yet, the potential specificity of microbial targets harbours therapeutic promise for diseases such as diabetes, cancer and psychiatric disorders. A better physiological and biochemical understanding of the microbiome is thus of high priority for academia and biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tewes Tralau
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department of Chemicals and Product Safety , Max-Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin , Germany
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24
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Furbo S, Hansen AB, Skov T, Christensen JH. Pixel-based analysis of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatograms (color plots) of petroleum: a tutorial. Anal Chem 2014; 86:7160-70. [PMID: 24978618 DOI: 10.1021/ac403650d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate how to process comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatograms (GC × GC chromatograms) to remove nonsample information (artifacts), including background and retention time shifts. We also demonstrate how this, combined with further reduction of the influence of irrelevant information, allows for data analysis without integration or peak deconvolution (pixel-based analysis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Furbo
- University of Copenhagen , Faculty of Science, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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25
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Bourlioux P. Actualité du microbiote intestinal. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANÇAISES 2014; 72:15-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharma.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 08/21/2013] [Accepted: 09/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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26
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Kang MJ, Kim HG, Kim JS, Oh DG, Um YJ, Seo CS, Han JW, Cho HJ, Kim GH, Jeong TC, Jeong HG. The effect of gut microbiota on drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:1295-308. [PMID: 24033282 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.807798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Numerous drugs and toxicants must be metabolized to an active form. Metabolic activation by host tissues, such as the liver, has been well studied. However, drug and toxicant metabolism by the intestinal microbiota is an unexplored, but essential, field of study in pharmacology and toxicology. The taxonomic diversity and sheer numbers of the intestinal microbiota, and their capacity to metabolize xenobiotics, underscore the importance of this mode of metabolism. AREAS COVERED Metabolism by the intestinal microbiota has focused on the natural products of glycosides hydrolyzed by intestinal microbiota enzymes, but not by host tissues. Metabolism of synthetic drugs by the intestinal microbiota has been less-intensively investigated. This review provides an overview of xenobiotic metabolism by the intestinal microbiota of both natural products and synthetic drugs. EXPERT OPINION Metabolism by the intestinal microbiota might result in a different metabolite profile than that produced by host tissues. This could potentially result in either activation or inactivation of the pharmacological and/or toxicological actions of the compound in question. The contribution of the intestinal microbiota to drug metabolism remains relatively unexplored. Therefore, studies of xenobiotic metabolism by the intestinal microbiota need to be included in new drug development as well as classical studies of host tissue metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Jeong Kang
- Yeungnam University, College of Pharmacy , Gyeongsan, 712-749 , South Korea
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Knaapen M, Kootte R, Zoetendal E, de Vos W, Dallinga-Thie G, Levi M, Stroes E, Nieuwdorp M. Obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and atherothrombosis: a role for the intestinal microbiota? Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19:331-7. [DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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28
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Aura AM, Mattila I, Hyötyläinen T, Gopalacharyulu P, Cheynier V, Souquet JM, Bes M, Le Bourvellec C, Guyot S, Orešič M. Characterization of microbial metabolism of Syrah grape products in an in vitro colon model using targeted and non-targeted analytical approaches. Eur J Nutr 2013; 52:833-46. [PMID: 22699306 PMCID: PMC3573183 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-012-0391-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Syrah red grapes are used in the production of tannin-rich red wines. Tannins are high molecular weight molecules, proanthocyanidins (PAs), and poorly absorbed in the upper intestine. In this study, gut microbial metabolism of Syrah grape phenolic compounds was investigated. METHODS Syrah grape pericarp was subjected to an enzymatic in vitro digestion model, and red wine and grape skin PA fraction were prepared. Microbial conversion was screened using an in vitro colon model with faecal microbiota, by measurement of short-chain fatty acids by gas chromatography (GC) and microbial phenolic metabolites using GC with mass detection (GC-MS). Red wine metabolites were further profiled using two-dimensional GC mass spectrometry (GCxGC-TOFMS). In addition, the effect of PA structure and dose on conversion efficiency was investigated by GC-MS. RESULTS Red wine exhibited a higher degree of C1-C3 phenolic acid formation than PA fraction or grape pericarp powders. Hydroxyphenyl valeric acid (flavanols and PAs as precursors) and 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzoic acid (anthocyanin as a precursor) were identified from the red wine metabolite profile. In the absence of native grape pericarp or red wine matrix, the isolated PAs were found to be effective in the dose-dependent inhibition of microbial conversions and short-chain fatty acid formation. CONCLUSIONS Metabolite profiling was complementary to targeted analysis. The identified metabolites had biological relevance, because the structures of the metabolites resembled fragments of their grape phenolic precursors or were in agreement with literature data.
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Biagi E, Candela M, Turroni S, Garagnani P, Franceschi C, Brigidi P. Ageing and gut microbes: perspectives for health maintenance and longevity. Pharmacol Res 2013; 69:11-20. [PMID: 23079287 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Revised: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The ageing process affects the human gut microbiota phylogenetic composition and its interaction with the immune system. Age-related gut microbiota modifications are associated with immunosenescence and inflamm-ageing in a sort of self-sustaining loop, which allows the placement of gut microbiota unbalances among both the causes and the effects of the inflamm-ageing process. Even if, up to now, the link between gut microbiota and the ageing process is only partially understood, the gut ecosystem shows the potential to become a promising target for strategies able to contribute to the health status of older people. In this context, the consumption of pro/prebiotics may be useful in both prevention and treatment of age-related pathophysiological conditions, such as recovery and promotion of immune functions, i.e. adjuvant effect for influenza vaccine, and prevention and/or alleviation of common "winter diseases", as well as constipation and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Moreover, being involved in different mechanisms which concur in counteracting inflammation, such as down-regulation of inflammation-associated genes and improvement of colonic mucosa conditions, probiotics have the potentiality to be involved in the promotion of longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Biagi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, 40126, Bologna, Italy
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Chen R, Snyder M. Systems biology: personalized medicine for the future? Curr Opin Pharmacol 2012; 12:623-8. [PMID: 22858243 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Systems biology is actively transforming the field of modern health care from symptom-based disease diagnosis and treatment to precision medicine in which patients are treated based on their individual characteristics. Development of high-throughput technologies such as high-throughout sequencing and mass spectrometry has enabled scientists and clinicians to examine genomes, transcriptomes, proteomes, metabolomes, and other omics information in unprecedented detail. The combined 'omics' information leads to a global profiling of health and disease, and provides new approaches for personalized health monitoring and preventative medicine. In this article, we review the efforts of systems biology in personalized medicine in the past 2 years, and discuss in detail achievements and concerns, as well as highlights and hurdles for future personalized health care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Chen
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5120, USA
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Metabolomics reveals amino acids contribute to variation in response to simvastatin treatment. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38386. [PMID: 22808006 PMCID: PMC3392268 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Statins are widely prescribed for reducing LDL-cholesterol (C) and risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD), but there is considerable variation in therapeutic response. We used a gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass-spectrometry-based metabolomics platform to evaluate global effects of simvastatin on intermediary metabolism. Analyses were conducted in 148 participants in the Cholesterol and Pharmacogenetics study who were profiled pre and six weeks post treatment with 40 mg/day simvastatin: 100 randomly selected from the full range of the LDL-C response distribution and 24 each from the top and bottom 10% of this distribution ("good" and "poor" responders, respectively). The metabolic signature of drug exposure in the full range of responders included essential amino acids, lauric acid (p<0.0055, q<0.055), and alpha-tocopherol (p<0.0003, q<0.017). Using the HumanCyc database and pathway enrichment analysis, we observed that the metabolites of drug exposure were enriched for the pathway class amino acid degradation (p<0.0032). Metabolites whose change correlated with LDL-C lowering response to simvastatin in the full range responders included cystine, urea cycle intermediates, and the dibasic amino acids ornithine, citrulline and lysine. These dibasic amino acids share plasma membrane transporters with arginine, the rate-limiting substrate for nitric oxide synthase (NOS), a critical mediator of cardiovascular health. Baseline metabolic profiles of the good and poor responders were analyzed by orthogonal partial least square discriminant analysis so as to determine the metabolites that best separated the two response groups and could be predictive of LDL-C response. Among these were xanthine, 2-hydroxyvaleric acid, succinic acid, stearic acid, and fructose. Together, the findings from this study indicate that clusters of metabolites involved in multiple pathways not directly connected with cholesterol metabolism may play a role in modulating the response to simvastatin treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00451828.
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Song Y, Yang X, Jiang Y, Tu P. Characterization of the metabolism of sibiricaxanthone F and its aglycone in vitro by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-trap mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 70:700-7. [PMID: 22819207 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Revised: 06/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
To explain the low bioavailability of sibiricaxanthone F (SF) following oral administration and to predict its possible metabolites in vivo, the in vitro biotransformation of SF and its metabolic stability in intestinal bacteria (BI) were studied. The metabolism of SF and its aglycone (1,3,6-trihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxyxanthone, Xan) was characterized after incubation with human and rat liver microsomes (HLMs and RLMs). The chemical structures of the metabolites were tentatively identified on the basis of their mass profiles using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with an enhanced mass spectrometry-information dependent acquisition-enhanced product ion (EMS-IDA-EPI) scan mode on a hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometer. The metabolic stability of SF in BI was determined using the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. As a result, five hydrolyzed metabolites (M1-M4 and Xan) were generated stepwise for SF when it was incubated with BI, whereas two demethylated products (M1 and M5) were detected for Xan in BI. The metabolic stability study of SF in BI revealed that the parent compound could be rapidly hydrolyzed by BI and that Xan, the main corresponding metabolite, increased rapidly. In RLMs and HLMs, two hydrolyzed metabolites (M2 and M3) mediated by CYP450 isoenzymes appeared for SF in the presence of an NADPH-regenerating system, whereas no metabolite was detected for Xan under the same conditions. One (M6) and three glucuronidated metabolites (M7-M9) were generated from SF and Xan, respectively, by phase II isoenzymes in liver microsomal proteins in the presence of uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronic acid (UDPGA). Overall, the present study revealed that extensive first-pass elimination occurred for SF in intestinal bacteria and hepatic subcellular proteins in vitro, which could be one of the main reasons for the low bioavailability of SF; furthermore, the possible SF-related metabolites in rats and humans were elucidated to be mono-glucuronidated derivatives of Xan following oral administration of SF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuelin Song
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
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Dong H, Zhang A, Sun H, Wang H, Lu X, Wang M, Ni B, Wang X. Ingenuity pathways analysis of urine metabolomics phenotypes toxicity of Chuanwu in Wistar rats by UPLC-Q-TOF-HDMS coupled with pattern recognition methods. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2012; 8:1206-21. [PMID: 22282765 DOI: 10.1039/c1mb05366c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Chuanwu (CW), a valuable traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), is the mother root of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx. The cause of CW-induced toxicity is still under ongoing research, although this is limited by the lack of sensitive and reliable biomarkers. Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) was performed to analyzing global metabolomics in order to characterize the phenotypically biochemical perturbations and potential mechanisms of the CW-induced toxicity. CW was administered to Wistar rats (0.027 g/200 g and 0.108 g/200 g bw, oral) for 6 months and urine samples were collected. The urinary metabolomics was performed by UPLC-Q-TOF-HDMS, and the mass spectra signals of the detected metabolites were systematically deconvoluted and analyzed by pattern recognition methods (PCA, PLS-DA, and OPLS-DA), revealing a time- and dose-dependency of the biochemical perturbations induced by CW toxicity. As a result, several metabolites responsible for pentose and glucuronate interconversions, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism, purine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, fructose and mannose metabolism, fatty acid metabolism were characterized, and it was confirmed that biochemical perturbations can be foreseen from these biomarkers. The urinary metabolomics based IPA with pattern recognition methods also revealed that CW produced serious heart and liver toxicity, consistent with clinical biochemistry and histopathology. Significant changes of 17 metabolites were identified and validated as phenotypic biomarkers of CW toxicity. Overall, our work demonstrated the metabolomics has brought enormous opportunities for improved detection of toxicity and biomarker discovery, highlighting the powerful predictive potential of the IPA to study of drug toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Dong
- National TCM Key Lab of Serum Pharmacochemistry, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, and Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines, Harbin 150040, China
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Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography in metabolomics. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 402:1993-2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5630-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Gerritsen J, Smidt H, Rijkers GT, de Vos WM. Intestinal microbiota in human health and disease: the impact of probiotics. GENES & NUTRITION 2011; 6:209-40. [PMID: 21617937 PMCID: PMC3145058 DOI: 10.1007/s12263-011-0229-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The complex communities of microorganisms that colonise the human gastrointestinal tract play an important role in human health. The development of culture-independent molecular techniques has provided new insights in the composition and diversity of the intestinal microbiota. Here, we summarise the present state of the art on the intestinal microbiota with specific attention for the application of high-throughput functional microbiomic approaches to determine the contribution of the intestinal microbiota to human health. Moreover, we review the association between dysbiosis of the microbiota and both intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases. Finally, we discuss the potential of probiotic microorganism to modulate the intestinal microbiota and thereby contribute to health and well-being. The effects of probiotic consumption on the intestinal microbiota are addressed, as well as the development of tailor-made probiotics designed for specific aberrations that are associated with microbial dysbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacoline Gerritsen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB, Wageningen, The Netherlands,
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Abstract
The gut microbiome is the term given to describe the vast collection of symbiotic microorganisms in the human gastrointestinal system and their collective interacting genomes. Recent studies have suggested that the gut microbiome performs numerous important biochemical functions for the host, and disorders of the microbiome are associated with many and diverse human disease processes. Systems biology approaches based on next generation 'omics' technologies are now able to describe the gut microbiome at a detailed genetic and functional (transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolic) level, providing new insights into the importance of the gut microbiome in human health, and they are able to map microbiome variability between species, individuals and populations. This has established the importance of the gut microbiome in the disease pathogenesis for numerous systemic disease states, such as obesity and cardiovascular disease, and in intestinal conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease. Thus, understanding microbiome activity is essential to the development of future personalized strategies of healthcare, as well as potentially providing new targets for drug development. Here, we review recent metagenomic and metabonomic approaches that have enabled advances in understanding gut microbiome activity in relation to human health, and gut microbial modulation for the treatment of disease. We also describe possible avenues of research in this rapidly growing field with respect to future personalized healthcare strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Kinross
- Section of Bimolecular Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, The Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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