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Cui Z, Ul Islam T, Wang Y, den Toonder JMJ. Curved Surfaces Induce Metachronal Motion of Microscopic Magnetic Cilia. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:38733-38743. [PMID: 38985460 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c06884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Cilia are hair-like organelles present on cell surfaces. They often exhibit a collective wave-like motion that can enhance fluid or particle transportation function, known as metachronal motion. Inspired by nature, researchers have developed artificial cilia capable of inducing metachronal motion, especially magnetic actuation. However, current methods remain intricate, requiring either control of the magnetic or geometrical properties of individual cilia or the generation of a complex magnetic field. In this paper, we present a novel elegant method that eliminates these complexities and induces metachronal motion of arrays of identical microscopic magnetic artificial cilia by applying a simple rotating uniform magnetic field. The key idea of our method is to place arrays of cilia on surfaces with a specially designed curvature. This results in consecutive cilia experiencing different magnetic field directions at each point in time, inducing a phase lag in their motion, thereby causing collective wave-like motion. Moreover, by tuning the surface curvature profile, we can achieve diverse metachronal patterns analogous to symplectic and antiplectic metachronal motion observed in nature, and we can even devise novel combinations thereof. Furthermore, we characterize the local flow patterns generated by the motion of the cilia, revealing the formation of vortical patterns. Our novel approach simplifies the realization of miniaturized metachronal motion in microfluidic systems and opens the possibility of controlling flow pattern generation and transportation, opening avenues for applications such as lab-on-a-chip technologies, organ-on-a-chip platforms, and microscopic object propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tanveer Ul Islam
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M J den Toonder
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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2
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Cui Z, Wang Y, den Toonder JMJ. Metachronal Motion of Biological and Artificial Cilia. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:198. [PMID: 38667209 PMCID: PMC11048255 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9040198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cilia are slender, hair-like cell protrusions that are present ubiquitously in the natural world. They perform essential functions, such as generating fluid flow, propulsion, and feeding, in organisms ranging from protozoa to the human body. The coordinated beating of cilia, which results in wavelike motions known as metachrony, has fascinated researchers for decades for its role in functions such as flow generation and mucus transport. Inspired by nature, researchers have explored diverse materials for the fabrication of artificial cilia and developed several methods to mimic the metachronal motion observed in their biological counterparts. In this review, we will introduce the different types of metachronal motion generated by both biological and artificial cilia, the latter including pneumatically, photonically, electrically, and magnetically driven artificial cilia. Furthermore, we review the possible applications of metachronal motion by artificial cilia, focusing on flow generation, transport of mucus, particles, and droplets, and microrobotic locomotion. The overall aim of this review is to offer a comprehensive overview of the metachronal motions exhibited by diverse artificial cilia and the corresponding practical implementations. Additionally, we identify the potential future directions within this field. These insights present an exciting opportunity for further advancements in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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3
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Wang T, Ul Islam T, Steur E, Homan T, Aggarwal I, Onck PR, den Toonder JMJ, Wang Y. Programmable metachronal motion of closely packed magnetic artificial cilia. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1573-1585. [PMID: 38305798 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00956d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Despite recent advances in artificial cilia technologies, the application of metachrony, which is the collective wavelike motion by cilia moving out-of-phase, has been severely hampered by difficulties in controlling closely packed artificial cilia at micrometer length scales. Moreover, there has been no direct experimental proof yet that a metachronal wave in combination with fully reciprocal ciliary motion can generate significant microfluidic flow on a micrometer scale as theoretically predicted. In this study, using an in-house developed precise micro-molding technique, we have fabricated closely packed magnetic artificial cilia that can generate well-controlled metachronal waves. We studied the effect of pure metachrony on fluid flow by excluding all symmetry-breaking ciliary features. Experimental and simulation results prove that net fluid transport can be generated by metachronal motion alone, and the effectiveness is strongly dependent on cilia spacing. This technique not only offers a biomimetic experimental platform to better understand the mechanisms underlying metachrony, it also opens new pathways towards advanced industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongsheng Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tanveer Ul Islam
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Erik Steur
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tess Homan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Ishu Aggarwal
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick R Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M J den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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4
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den Hoed FM, Carlotti M, Palagi S, Raffa P, Mattoli V. Evolution of the Microrobots: Stimuli-Responsive Materials and Additive Manufacturing Technologies Turn Small Structures into Microscale Robots. MICROMACHINES 2024; 15:275. [PMID: 38399003 PMCID: PMC10893381 DOI: 10.3390/mi15020275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
The development of functional microsystems and microrobots that have characterized the last decade is the result of a synergistic and effective interaction between the progress of fabrication techniques and the increased availability of smart and responsive materials to be employed in the latter. Functional structures on the microscale have been relevant for a vast plethora of technologies that find application in different sectors including automotive, sensing devices, and consumer electronics, but are now also entering medical clinics. Working on or inside the human body requires increasing complexity and functionality on an ever-smaller scale, which is becoming possible as a result of emerging technology and smart materials over the past decades. In recent years, additive manufacturing has risen to the forefront of this evolution as the most prominent method to fabricate complex 3D structures. In this review, we discuss the rapid 3D manufacturing techniques that have emerged and how they have enabled a great leap in microrobotic applications. The arrival of smart materials with inherent functionalities has propelled microrobots to great complexity and complex applications. We focus on which materials are important for actuation and what the possibilities are for supplying the required energy. Furthermore, we provide an updated view of a new generation of microrobots in terms of both materials and fabrication technology. While two-photon lithography may be the state-of-the-art technology at the moment, in terms of resolution and design freedom, new methods such as two-step are on the horizon. In the more distant future, innovations like molecular motors could make microscale robots redundant and bring about nanofabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Marco den Hoed
- Center for Materials Interfaces, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via R. Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Italy;
- Smart and Sustainable Polymeric Products, Engineering and Technology Institute Groningen (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Marco Carlotti
- Center for Materials Interfaces, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via R. Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Italy;
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, University of Pisa, Via Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Palagi
- BioRobotics Institute, Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies, P.zza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Patrizio Raffa
- Smart and Sustainable Polymeric Products, Engineering and Technology Institute Groningen (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Virgilio Mattoli
- Center for Materials Interfaces, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via R. Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Italy;
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Cui Z, Wang Y, Zhang S, Wang T, den Toonder JMJ. Miniaturized metachronal magnetic artificial cilia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2304519120. [PMID: 37611057 PMCID: PMC10629582 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2304519120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological cilia, hairlike organelles on cell surfaces, often exhibit collective wavelike motion known as metachrony, which helps generating fluid flow. Inspired by nature, researchers have developed artificial cilia as microfluidic actuators, exploring several methods to mimic the metachrony. However, reported methods are difficult to miniaturize because they require either control of individual cilia properties or the generation of a complex external magnetic field. We introduce a concept that generates metachronal motion of magnetic artificial cilia (MAC), even though the MAC are all identical, and the applied external magnetic field is uniform. This is achieved by integrating a paramagnetic substructure in the substrate underneath the MAC. Uniquely, we can create both symplectic and antiplectic metachrony by changing the relative positions of MAC and substructure. We demonstrate the flow generation of the two metachronal motions in both high and low Reynolds number conditions. Our research marks a significant milestone by breaking the size limitation barrier in metachronal artificial cilia. This achievement not only showcases the potential of nature-inspired engineering but also opens up a host of exciting opportunities for designing and optimizing microsystems with enhanced fluid manipulation capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Shuaizhong Zhang
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart70569, Germany
| | - Tongsheng Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
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6
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Lim S, Du Y, Lee Y, Panda SK, Tong D, Khalid Jawed M. Fabrication, control, and modeling of robots inspired by flagella and cilia. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 18:011003. [PMID: 36533860 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aca63d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Flagella and cilia are slender structures that serve important functionalities in the microscopic world through their locomotion induced by fluid and structure interaction. With recent developments in microscopy, fabrication, biology, and modeling capability, robots inspired by the locomotion of these organelles in low Reynolds number flow have been manufactured and tested on the micro-and macro-scale, ranging from medicalin vivomicrobots, microfluidics to macro prototypes. We present a collection of modeling theories, control principles, and fabrication methods for flagellated and ciliary robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangmin Lim
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
| | - Yayun Du
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
| | - Yongkyu Lee
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
| | - Shivam Kumar Panda
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
| | - Dezhong Tong
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
| | - M Khalid Jawed
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Westwood Plaza, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States of America
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7
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Zhang R, Toonder JD, Onck PR. Metachronal patterns by magnetically-programmable artificial cilia surfaces for low Reynolds number fluid transport and mixing. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:3902-3909. [PMID: 35535750 DOI: 10.1039/d1sm01680f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Motile cilia can produce net fluid flows at low Reynolds number because of their asymmetric motion and metachrony of collective beating. Mimicking this with artificial cilia can find application in microfluidic devices for fluid transport and mixing. Here, we study the metachronal beating of nonidentical, magnetically-programmed artificial cilia whose individual non-reciprocal motion and collective metachronal beating pattern can be independently controlled. We use a finite element method that accounts for magnetic forces, cilia deformation and fluid flow in a fully coupled manner. Mimicking biological cilia, we study magnetic cilia subject to a full range of metachronal driving patterns, including antiplectic, symplectic, laeoplectic and diaplectic waves. We analyse the induced primary flow, secondary flow and mixing rate as a function of the phase lag between cilia and explore the underlying physical mechanism. Our results show that shielding effects between neighboring cilia lead to a primary flow that is larger for antiplectic than for symplectic metachronal waves. The secondary flow can be fully explained by the propagation direction of the metachronal wave. Finally, we show that the mixing rate can be strongly enhanced by laeoplectic and diaplectic metachrony resulting in large velocity gradients and vortex-like flow patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongjing Zhang
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jaap den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick R Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands.
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8
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Sahadevan V, Panigrahi B, Chen CY. Microfluidic Applications of Artificial Cilia: Recent Progress, Demonstration, and Future Perspectives. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:735. [PMID: 35630202 PMCID: PMC9147031 DOI: 10.3390/mi13050735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Artificial cilia-based microfluidics is a promising alternative in lab-on-a-chip applications which provides an efficient way to manipulate fluid flow in a microfluidic environment with high precision. Additionally, it can induce favorable local flows toward practical biomedical applications. The endowment of artificial cilia with their anatomy and capabilities such as mixing, pumping, transporting, and sensing lead to advance next-generation applications including precision medicine, digital nanofluidics, and lab-on-chip systems. This review summarizes the importance and significance of the artificial cilia, delineates the recent progress in artificial cilia-based microfluidics toward microfluidic application, and provides future perspectives. The presented knowledge and insights are envisaged to pave the way for innovative advances for the research communities in miniaturization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vignesh Sahadevan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
| | - Bivas Panigrahi
- Department of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Energy Engineering, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung 411, Taiwan;
| | - Chia-Yuan Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
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9
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Ul Islam T, Wang Y, Aggarwal I, Cui Z, Eslami Amirabadi H, Garg H, Kooi R, Venkataramanachar BB, Wang T, Zhang S, Onck PR, den Toonder JMJ. Microscopic artificial cilia - a review. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:1650-1679. [PMID: 35403636 PMCID: PMC9063641 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc01168e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Cilia are microscopic hair-like external cell organelles that are ubiquitously present in nature, also within the human body. They fulfill crucial biological functions: motile cilia provide transportation of fluids and cells, and immotile cilia sense shear stress and concentrations of chemical species. Inspired by nature, scientists have developed artificial cilia mimicking the functions of biological cilia, aiming at application in microfluidic devices like lab-on-chip or organ-on-chip. By actuating the artificial cilia, for example by a magnetic field, an electric field, or pneumatics, microfluidic flow can be generated and particles can be transported. Other functions that have been explored are anti-biofouling and flow sensing. We provide a critical review of the progress in artificial cilia research and development as well as an evaluation of its future potential. We cover all aspects from fabrication approaches, actuation principles, artificial cilia functions - flow generation, particle transport and flow sensing - to applications. In addition to in-depth analyses of the current state of knowledge, we provide classifications of the different approaches and quantitative comparisons of the results obtained. We conclude that artificial cilia research is very much alive, with some concepts close to industrial implementation, and other developments just starting to open novel scientific opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanveer Ul Islam
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ishu Aggarwal
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Zhiwei Cui
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Hossein Eslami Amirabadi
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Hemanshul Garg
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Roel Kooi
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Bhavana B Venkataramanachar
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tongsheng Wang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Shuaizhong Zhang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Patrick R Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M J den Toonder
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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10
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Liu Z, Li M, Dong X, Ren Z, Hu W, Sitti M. Creating three-dimensional magnetic functional microdevices via molding-integrated direct laser writing. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2016. [PMID: 35440590 PMCID: PMC9019016 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-29645-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetically driven wireless miniature devices have become promising recently in healthcare, information technology, and many other fields. However, they lack advanced fabrication methods to go down to micrometer length scales with heterogeneous functional materials, complex three-dimensional (3D) geometries, and 3D programmable magnetization profiles. To fill this gap, we propose a molding-integrated direct laser writing-based microfabrication approach in this study and showcase its advanced enabling capabilities with various proof-of-concept functional microdevice prototypes. Unique motions and functionalities, such as metachronal coordinated motion, fluid mixing, function reprogramming, geometrical reconfiguring, multiple degrees-of-freedom rotation, and wireless stiffness tuning are exemplary demonstrations of the versatility of this fabrication method. Such facile fabrication strategy can be applied toward building next-generation smart microsystems in healthcare, robotics, metamaterials, microfluidics, and programmable matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zemin Liu
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.,Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Meng Li
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Xiaoguang Dong
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Ziyu Ren
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.,Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wenqi Hu
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany. .,Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland. .,School of Medicine & College of Engineering, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey.
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11
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Milana E, Van Raemdonck B, Casla AS, De Volder M, Reynaerts D, Gorissen B. Morphological Control of Cilia-Inspired Asymmetric Movements Using Nonlinear Soft Inflatable Actuators. Front Robot AI 2022; 8:788067. [PMID: 35047567 PMCID: PMC8762291 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2021.788067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Soft robotic systems typically follow conventional control schemes, where actuators are supplied with dedicated inputs that are regulated through software. However, in recent years an alternative trend is being explored, where the control architecture can be simplified by harnessing the passive mechanical characteristics of the soft robotic system. This approach is named “morphological control”, and it can be used to decrease the number of components (tubing, valves and regulators) required by the controller. In this paper, we demonstrate morphological control of bio-inspired asymmetric motions for systems of soft bending actuators that are interconnected with passive flow restrictors. We introduce bending actuators consisting out of a cylindrical latex balloon in a flexible PVC shell. By tuning the radii of the tube and the shell, we obtain a nonlinear relation between internal pressure and volume in the actuator with a peak and valley in pressure. Because of the nonlinear characteristics of the actuators, they can be assembled in a system with a single pressure input where they bend in a discrete, preprogrammed sequence. We design and analyze two such systems inspired by the asymmetric movements of biological cilia. The first replicates the swept area of individual cilia, having a different forward and backward stroke, and the second generates a travelling wave across an array of cilia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Milana
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bert Van Raemdonck
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andrea Serrano Casla
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael De Volder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dominiek Reynaerts
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Benjamin Gorissen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
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12
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Textiles in soft robots: Current progress and future trends. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 196:113690. [PMID: 34653713 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Soft robotics have substantial benefits of safety, adaptability, and cost efficiency compared to conventional rigid robotics. Textiles have applications in soft robotics either as an auxiliary material to reinforce the conventional soft material or as an active soft material. Textiles of various types and configurations have been fabricated into key components of soft robotics in adaptable formats. Despite significant advancements, the efficiency and characteristics of textile actuators in practical applications remain unsatisfactory. To address these issues, novel structural and material designs as well as new textile technologies have been introduced. Herein, we aim at giving an insight into the current state of the art in textile technology for soft robotic manufacturing. We firstly discuss the fundamental actuation mechanisms for soft robotics. We then provide a critical review on the recently developed functional textiles as reinforcements, sensors, and actuators in soft robotics. Finally, the future trends and current strategies that can be employed in textile-based actuator manufacturing process have been explored to address the critical challenges in soft robotics.
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13
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Abstract
Cilia are hair-like microscopic structures present abundantly in our body and producing motions at the smallest scales. They perform a wide range of critical functions and are crucial for the normal functioning of our body. Abnormal functioning of cilia results in a number of diseases jointly known as ciliopathies. Artificially mimicking cilia is aimed at understanding their normal/abnormal functionality and at developing cilia-inspired micro-/nanoengineering devices. In this study, we present a magnetic polymer preparation process yielding a material with optimum properties and a cilia fabrication method producing the smallest highly motile artificial cilia with sizes equal to their biological counterparts. This opens avenues for biological studies and for creating submicrometer manipulation and control. Among the many complex bioactuators functioning at different scales, the organelle cilium represents a fundamental actuating unit in cellular biology. Producing motions at submicrometer scales, dominated by viscous forces, cilia drive a number of crucial bioprocesses in all vertebrate and many invertebrate organisms before and after their birth. Artificially mimicking motile cilia has been a long-standing challenge while inspiring the development of new materials and methods. The use of magnetic materials has been an effective approach for realizing microscopic artificial cilia; however, the physical and magnetic properties of the magnetic material constituents and fabrication processes utilized have almost exclusively only enabled the realization of highly motile artificial cilia with dimensions orders of magnitude larger than their biological counterparts. This has hindered the development and study of model systems and devices with inherent size-dependent aspects, as well as their application at submicrometer scales. In this work, we report a magnetic elastomer preparation process coupled with a tailored molding process for the successful fabrication of artificial cilia with submicrometer dimensions showing unprecedented deflection capabilities, enabling the design of artificial cilia with high motility and at sizes equal to those of their smallest biological counterparts. The reported work crosses the barrier of nanoscale motile cilia fabrication, paving the way for maximum control and manipulation of structures and processes at micro- and nanoscales.
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14
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Faucher S, Lundberg DJ, Liang XA, Jin X, Phillips R, Parviz D, Buongiorno J, Strano MS. A virucidal face mask based on the reverse-flow reactor concept for thermal inactivation of SARS-CoV-2. AIChE J 2021; 67:e17250. [PMID: 33785962 PMCID: PMC7995042 DOI: 10.1002/aic.17250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
While facial coverings reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2 by viral filtration, masks capable of viral inactivation by heating can provide a complementary method to limit transmission. Inspired by reverse-flow chemical reactors, we introduce a new virucidal face mask concept driven by the oscillatory flow of human breath. The governing heat and mass transport equations are solved to evaluate virus and CO2 transport. Given limits imposed by the kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 thermal inactivation, human breath, safety, and comfort, heated masks may inactivate SARS-CoV-2 to medical-grade sterility. We detail one design, with a volume of 300 ml at 90°C that achieves a 3-log reduction in viral load with minimal impedance within the mask mesh, with partition coefficient around 2. This is the first quantitative analysis of virucidal thermal inactivation within a protective face mask, and addresses a pressing need for new approaches for personal protective equipment during a global pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Faucher
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Daniel James Lundberg
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Xinyao Anna Liang
- Department of Nuclear Science and EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Xiaojia Jin
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Rosalie Phillips
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Dorsa Parviz
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Jacopo Buongiorno
- Department of Nuclear Science and EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Michael S. Strano
- Department of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
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15
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Zhang S, Cui Z, Wang Y, den Toonder J. Metachronal μ-Cilia for On-Chip Integrated Pumps and Climbing Robots. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:20845-20857. [PMID: 33884875 PMCID: PMC8153535 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c03009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Biological cilia often perform metachronal motion, that is, neighboring cilia move out of phase creating a travelling wave, which enables highly efficient fluid pumping and body locomotion. Current methods for creating metachronal artificial cilia suffer from the complex design and sophisticated actuation schemes. This paper demonstrates a simple method to realize metachronal microscopic magnetic artificial cilia (μMAC) through control over the paramagnetic particle distribution within the μMAC based on their tendency to align with an applied magnetic field. Actuated by a 2D rotating uniform magnetic field, the metachronal μMAC enable strong microfluidic pumping and soft robot locomotion. The metachronal μMAC induce twice the pumping efficiency and 3 times the locomotion speed of synchronously moving μMAC. The ciliated soft robots show an unprecedented slope climbing ability (0 to 180°), and they display strong cargo-carrying capacity (>10 times their own weight) in both dry and wet conditions. These findings advance the design of on-chip integrated pumps and versatile soft robots, among others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaizhong Zhang
- Microsystems
Section, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology,
P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Zhiwei Cui
- Microsystems
Section, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology,
P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Microsystems
Section, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology,
P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap den Toonder
- Microsystems
Section, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology,
P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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16
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Wang J, Gao D, Lee PS. Recent Progress in Artificial Muscles for Interactive Soft Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2003088. [PMID: 33108022 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202003088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Artificial muscles are the core components of the smart and interactive soft robotic systems, providing the capabilities in shape morphing, manipulation, and mobility. Intense research efforts in the development of artificial muscles are based on the dielectric elastomer actuators, pneumatic actuators, electrochemical actuators, soft magnetic actuators, and stimulus responsive polymers. Recent progress has presented artificial muscles with impressive specific power output exceeding that of the natural muscles, dexterous shape morphing behavior that can be programmed and reconfigured, and exceptional high maneuverability to traverse surfaces with obstacles and different textures. Here, a succinct and critical summary is provided on the materials and strategies that have contributed to the important advancement of the artificial muscles in recent research. On that basis, the exciting opportunities are discussed in the integration of soft electronic devices with artificial muscles to enable smart and interactive soft robotic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangxin Wang
- School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518172, China
| | - Dace Gao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Pooi See Lee
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
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17
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Sato T, Sakuma S, Hijikuro M, Maeda S, Anyoji M, Yamanishi Y. Design of Electrohydrodynamic Devices with Consideration of Electrostatic Energy. CYBORG AND BIONIC SYSTEMS 2021; 2021:5158282. [PMID: 36285132 PMCID: PMC9494731 DOI: 10.34133/2021/5158282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of actuators that can be integrated with flexible robot structures and mechanisms has increased in recent years with the advance of soft robotics. In particular, electrohydrodynamic (EHD) actuators, which have expandable integrability to adapt to the flexible motion of soft robots, have received much attention in the field of soft robotics. Studies have deepened the understanding of steady states of EHD phenomena but nonsteady states are not well understood. We herein observe the development process of fluid in a microchannel adopting a Schlieren technique with the aid of a high-speed camera. In addition, we analyze the behavior of fluid flow in a microchannel that is designed to have pairs of parallel plate electrodes adopting a computational fluid dynamics technique. Results indicate the importance of considering flow generated by electrostatic energy, which tends to be ignored in constructing and evaluating EHD devices, and by the body force generated by the ion-drag force. By considering these effects, we estimate the development process of EHD flow and confirm the importance of considering the generation of vortices and their interactions inside the microchannel during the development of EHD devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasuku Sato
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Shinya Sakuma
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Masato Hijikuro
- Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga Koen, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Shingo Maeda
- Shibaura Institute of Technology, 3-7-5 Toyosu, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8548, Japan
| | - Masayuki Anyoji
- Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga Koen, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Yoko Yamanishi
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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18
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Milana E, Zhang R, Vetrano MR, Peerlinck S, De Volder M, Onck PR, Reynaerts D, Gorissen B. Metachronal patterns in artificial cilia for low Reynolds number fluid propulsion. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:6/49/eabd2508. [PMID: 33268359 PMCID: PMC7821886 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abd2508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cilia are hair-like organelles, present in arrays that collectively beat to generate flow. Given their small size and consequent low Reynolds numbers, asymmetric motions are necessary to create a net flow. Here, we developed an array of six soft robotic cilia, which are individually addressable, to both mimic nature's symmetry-breaking mechanisms and control asymmetries to study their influence on fluid propulsion. Our experimental tests are corroborated with fluid dynamics simulations, where we find a good agreement between both and show how the kymographs of the flow are related to the phase shift of the metachronal waves. Compared to synchronous beating, we report a 50% increase of net flow speed when cilia move in an antiplectic wave with phase shift of -π/3 and a decrease for symplectic waves. Furthermore, we observe the formation of traveling vortices in the direction of the wave when metachrony is applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Milana
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rongjing Zhang
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Sam Peerlinck
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael De Volder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
- Institute for Manufacturing, Department of engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Patrick R Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Dominiek Reynaerts
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Benjamin Gorissen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven and Flanders Make, Leuven, Belgium.
- J.A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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19
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Zhang S, Cui Z, Wang Y, den Toonder JMJ. Metachronal actuation of microscopic magnetic artificial cilia generates strong microfluidic pumping. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:3569-3581. [PMID: 32845950 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00610f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Biological cilia that generate fluid flow or propulsion are often found to exhibit a collective wavelike metachronal motion, i.e. neighboring cilia beat slightly out-of-phase rather than synchronously. Inspired by this observation, this article experimentally demonstrates that microscopic magnetic artificial cilia (μMAC) performing a metachronal motion can generate strong microfluidic flows, though, interestingly, the mechanism is different from that in biological cilia, as is found through a systematic experimental study. The μMAC are actuated by a facile magnetic setup, consisting of an array of rod-shaped magnets. This arrangement imposes a time-dependent non-uniform magnetic field on the μMAC array, resulting in a phase difference between the beatings of adjacent μMAC, while each cilium exhibits a two-dimensional whip-like motion. By performing the metachronal 2D motion, the μMAC are able to generate a strong flow in a microfluidic chip, with velocities of up to 3000 μm s-1 in water, which, different from biological cilia, is found to be a result of combined metachronal and inertial effects, in addition to the effect of asymmetric beating. The pumping performance of the metachronal μMAC outperforms all previously reported microscopic artificial cilia, and is competitive with that of most of the existing microfluidic pumping methods, while the proposed platform requires no physical connection to peripheral equipment, reduces the usage of reagents by minimizing "dead volumes", avoids undesirable electrical effects, and accommodates a wide range of different fluids. The 2D metachronal motion can also generate a flow with velocities up to 60 μm s-1 in pure glycerol, where Reynolds number is less than 0.05 and the flow is primarily caused by the metachronal motion of the μMAC. These findings offer a novel solution to not only create on-chip integrated micropumps, but also design swimming and walking microrobots, as well as self-cleaning and antifouling surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaizhong Zhang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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20
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Zhang S, Zuo P, Wang Y, Onck P, Toonder JMJD. Anti-Biofouling and Self-Cleaning Surfaces Featured with Magnetic Artificial Cilia. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:27726-27736. [PMID: 32476404 PMCID: PMC7303956 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c05403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The fouling of surfaces submerged in a liquid is a serious problem for many applications including lab-on-a-chip devices and marine sensors. Inspired by the versatility of cilia in manipulating fluids and particles, it is experimentally demonstrated that surfaces partially covered with magnetic artificial cilia (MAC) have the capacity to efficiently prevent attachment and adhesion of real biofouling agents-microalgae Scenedesmus sp. Actuation of the MAC resulted in over 99% removal of the algae for two different scenarios: (1) actuating the MAC immediately after injecting the algae into a microfluidic chip, demonstrating antifouling and (2) starting to actuate the MAC 1 week after injecting the algae into the chip and leaving them to grow in static conditions, showing self-cleaning. It is shown that the local and global flows generated by the actuated MAC are substantial, resulting in hydrodynamic shear forces acting on the algae, which are likely to be key to efficient antifouling and self-cleaning. These findings and insights will potentially lead to novel types of self-cleaning and antifouling strategies, which may have a relevant practical impact on different fields and applications including lab-on-a-chip devices and water quality analyzers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaizhong Zhang
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University
of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven
University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Pan Zuo
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University
of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University
of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven
University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick Onck
- Zernike
Institute for Advanced Materials, University
of Groningen, 9712 CP Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University
of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven
University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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21
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Andorfer R, Alper JD. From isolated structures to continuous networks: A categorization of cytoskeleton-based motile engineered biological microstructures. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 11:e1553. [PMID: 30740918 PMCID: PMC6881777 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
As technology at the small scale is advancing, motile engineered microstructures are becoming useful in drug delivery, biomedicine, and lab-on-a-chip devices. However, traditional engineering methods and materials can be inefficient or functionally inadequate for small-scale applications. Increasingly, researchers are turning to the biology of the cytoskeleton, including microtubules, actin filaments, kinesins, dyneins, myosins, and associated proteins, for both inspiration and solutions. They are engineering structures with components that range from being entirely biological to being entirely synthetic mimics of biology and on scales that range from isotropic continuous networks to single isolated structures. Motile biological microstructures trace their origins from the development of assays used to study the cytoskeleton to the array of structures currently available today. We define 12 types of motile biological microstructures, based on four categories: entirely biological, modular, hybrid, and synthetic, and three scales: networks, clusters, and isolated structures. We highlight some key examples, the unique functionalities, and the potential applications of each microstructure type, and we summarize the quantitative models that enable engineering them. By categorizing the diversity of motile biological microstructures in this way, we aim to establish a framework to classify these structures, define the gaps in current research, and spur ideas to fill those gaps. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Cells at the Nanoscale Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Andorfer
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
| | - Joshua D. Alper
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
- Eukaryotic Pathogen Innovations Center, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
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22
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Gorissen B, Reynaerts D, Konishi S, Yoshida K, Kim JW, De Volder M. Elastic Inflatable Actuators for Soft Robotic Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1604977. [PMID: 28949425 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201604977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The 20th century's robotic systems have been made from stiff materials, and much of the developments have pursued ever more accurate and dynamic robots, which thrive in industrial automation, and will probably continue to do so for decades to come. However, the 21st century's robotic legacy may very well become that of soft robots. This emerging domain is characterized by continuous soft structures that simultaneously fulfill the role of robotic link and actuator, where prime focus is on design and fabrication of robotic hardware instead of software control. These robots are anticipated to take a prominent role in delicate tasks where classic robots fail, such as in minimally invasive surgery, active prosthetics, and automation tasks involving delicate irregular objects. Central to the development of these robots is the fabrication of soft actuators. This article reviews a particularly attractive type of soft actuators that are driven by pressurized fluids. These actuators have recently gained traction on the one hand due to the technology push from better simulation tools and new manufacturing technologies, and on the other hand by a market pull from applications. This paper provides an overview of the different advanced soft actuator configurations, their design, fabrication, and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Gorissen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Flanders Make, Celestijnenlaan 300B, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominiek Reynaerts
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Flanders Make, Celestijnenlaan 300B, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Satoshi Konishi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Yoshida
- FIRST, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Joon-Wan Kim
- FIRST, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Michael De Volder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Flanders Make, Celestijnenlaan 300B, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Institute for Manufacturing, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 17 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS, UK
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23
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Banka N, Ng YL, Devasia S. Individually Controllable Magnetic Cilia: Mixing Application. J Med Device 2017. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4035984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper introduces a new design for individually controlled magnetic artificial cilia for use in fluid devices and specifically intended to improve the mixing in DNA microarray experiments. The design has been implemented using a low-cost prototype that can be fabricated using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and off-the-shelf parts and achieves large cilium deflections (59% of the cilium length). The device's performance is measured via a series of mixing experiments using different actuation patterns inspired by the blinking vortex theory. The experimental results, quantified using the relative standard deviation of the color when mixing two colored inks, show that exploiting the individual control leads to faster mixing (38% reduction in mixing time) than when operating the device in a simultaneous-actuation mode with the same average cilium beat frequency. Furthermore, the experimental results show an optimal beating pattern that minimizes the mixing time. The existence and character of this optimum is predicted by simulations using a blinking-vortex approach for 2D ideal flow, suggesting that the blinking-vortex model can be used to predict the effect of parameter variation on the experimental system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Banka
- Ultra Precision Control Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Yau Luen Ng
- Ultra Precision Control Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Santosh Devasia
- Professor Fellow ASME Ultra Precision Control Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 e-mail:
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24
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Hines L, Petersen K, Lum GZ, Sitti M. Soft Actuators for Small-Scale Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1603483. [PMID: 28032926 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201603483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
This review comprises a detailed survey of ongoing methodologies for soft actuators, highlighting approaches suitable for nanometer- to centimeter-scale robotic applications. Soft robots present a special design challenge in that their actuation and sensing mechanisms are often highly integrated with the robot body and overall functionality. When less than a centimeter, they belong to an even more special subcategory of robots or devices, in that they often lack on-board power, sensing, computation, and control. Soft, active materials are particularly well suited for this task, with a wide range of stimulants and a number of impressive examples, demonstrating large deformations, high motion complexities, and varied multifunctionality. Recent research includes both the development of new materials and composites, as well as novel implementations leveraging the unique properties of soft materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey Hines
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Guo Zhan Lum
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Max Planck ETH Center for Learning Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
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