1
|
Booth E, Garre M, Wu D, Daly HC, O’Shea DF. A NIR-Fluorochrome for Live Cell Dual Emission and Lifetime Tracking from the First Plasma Membrane Interaction to Subcellular and Extracellular Locales. Molecules 2024; 29:2474. [PMID: 38893352 PMCID: PMC11174088 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29112474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Molecular probes with the ability to differentiate between subcellular variations in acidity levels remain important for the investigation of dynamic cellular processes and functions. In this context, a series of cyclic peptide and PEG bio-conjugated dual near-infrared emissive BF2-azadipyrromethene fluorophores with maxima emissions at 720 nm (at pH > 6) and 790 nm (at pH < 5) have been developed and their aqueous solution photophysical properties determined. Their inter-converting emissions and fluorescence lifetime characteristics were exploited to track their spatial and temporal progression from first contact with the plasma membrane to subcellular locales to their release within extracellular vesicles. A pH-dependent reversible phenolate/phenol interconversion on the fluorophore controlled the dynamic changes in dual emission responses and corresponding lifetime changes. Live-cell confocal microscopy experiments in the metastatic breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 confirmed the usability of the dual emissive properties for imaging over prolonged periods. All three derivatives performed as probes capable of real-time continuous imaging of fundamental cellular processes such as plasma membrane interaction, tracking endocytosis, lysosomal/large acidic vesicle accumulation, and efflux within extracellular vesicles without perturbing cellular function. Furthermore, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy provided valuable insights regarding fluorophore progression through intracellular microenvironments over time. Overall, the unique photophysical properties of these fluorophores show excellent potential for their use as information-rich probes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Donal F. O’Shea
- Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhou C, Cox-Vázquez SJ, Chia GW, Vázquez RJ, Lai HY, Chan SJ, Limwongyut J, Bazan GC. Water-soluble extracellular vesicle probes based on conjugated oligoelectrolytes. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eade2996. [PMID: 36630497 PMCID: PMC9833659 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade2996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We developed a series of transmembrane conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs) with tunable optical emissions from the UV to the near IR to address the false-positive problem when detecting nanometer-sized extracellular vesicles (EVs) by flow cytometry. The amphiphilic molecular framework of COEs is defined by a linear conjugated structure and cationic charged groups at each terminal site. Consequently, COEs have excellent water solubility and the absence of nanoaggregates at concentrations up to 50 μM, and unbound COE dyes can be readily removed through ultrafiltration. These properties enable unambiguous and simple detection of COE-labeled small EVs using flow cytometry with negligible background signals. We also demonstrated the time-lapsed tracking of small EV uptake into mammalian cells and the endogenous small EV labeling using COEs. Briefly, COEs provide a class of membrane-targeting dyes that behave as biomimetics of the lipid bilayer and a general and practical labeling strategy for nanosized EVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Sarah J. Cox-Vázquez
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117544, Singapore
| | - Geraldine W. N. Chia
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Ricardo Javier Vázquez
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117544, Singapore
| | - Hui Ying Lai
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Samuel J. W. Chan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Guillermo C. Bazan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117544, Singapore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hosseinikhah SM, Gheybi F, Moosavian SA, Shahbazi MA, Jaafari MR, Sillanpää M, Kesharwani P, Alavizadeh SH, Sahebkar A. Role of exosomes in tumour growth, chemoresistance and immunity: state-of-the-art. J Drug Target 2023; 31:32-50. [PMID: 35971773 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2022.2114000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is one of the most lethal diseases, and limited available treatment options contribute to its high mortality rate. Exosomes are considered membrane-bound nanovesicles that include different molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Virtually most cells could release exosomes via exocytosis in physiological and pathological conditions. Tumour-derived exosomes (TDEs) play essential roles in tumorigenesis, proliferation, progression, metastasis, immune escape, and chemoresistance by transferring functional biological cargos, triggering different autocrine, and paracrine signalling cascades. Due to their antigen-presenting properties, exosomes are widely used as biomarkers and drug carriers and have a prominent role in cancer immunotherapy. They offer various advantages in carrier systems (e.g. in chemotherapy, siRNA, and miRNA), delivery of diagnostic agents owing to their stability, loading of hydrophobic and hydrophilic agents, and drug targeting. Novel exosomes-based carriers can be generated as intelligent systems using various sources and crosslinking chemistry extracellular vesicles (EVs). Exosomes studded with targeting ligands, including peptides, can impart in targeted delivery of cargos to tumour cells. In this review, we comprehensively summarised the important role of tumour-derived exosomes in dictating cancer pathogenesis and resistance to therapy. We have therefore, investigated in further detail the pivotal role of tumour-derived exosomes in targeting various cancer cells and their applications, and prospects in cancer therapy and diagnosis. Additionally, we have implicated the potential utility and significance of tumour exosomes-based nanoparticles as an efficient and novel therapeutic carrier and their applications in treating advanced cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seyedeh Maryam Hosseinikhah
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Gheybi
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyedeh Alia Moosavian
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Zanjan Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Research Center (ZPNRC), Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Reza Jaafari
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mika Sillanpää
- Environmental Engineering and Management Research Group, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.,Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Prashant Kesharwani
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Seyedeh Hoda Alavizadeh
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.,Department of Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ju Y, Hu Y, Yang P, Xie X, Fang B. Extracellular vesicle-loaded hydrogels for tissue repair and regeneration. Mater Today Bio 2022; 18:100522. [PMID: 36593913 PMCID: PMC9803958 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a collective term for nanoscale or microscale vesicles secreted by cells that play important biological roles. Mesenchymal stem cells are a class of cells with the potential for self-healing and multidirectional differentiation. In recent years, numerous studies have shown that EVs, especially those secreted by mesenchymal stem cells, can promote the repair and regeneration of various tissues and, thus, have significant potential in regenerative medicine. However, due to the rapid clearance capacity of the circulatory system, EVs are barely able to act persistently at specific sites for repair of target tissues. Hydrogels have good biocompatibility and loose and porous structural properties that allow them to serve as EV carriers, thereby prolonging the retention in certain specific areas and slowing the release of EVs. When EVs are needed to function at specific sites, the EV-loaded hydrogels can stand as an excellent approach. In this review, we first introduce the sources, roles, and extraction and characterization methods of EVs and describe their current application status. We then review the different types of hydrogels and discuss factors influencing their abilities to carry and release EVs. We summarize several strategies for loading EVs into hydrogels and characterizing EV-loaded hydrogels. Furthermore, we discuss application strategies for EV-loaded hydrogels and review their specific applications in tissue regeneration and repair. This article concludes with a summary of the current state of research on EV-loaded hydrogels and an outlook on future research directions, which we hope will provide promising ideas for researchers.
Collapse
Key Words
- 4-arm-PEG-MAL, four-armed polyethylene glycol (PEG) functionalized with maleimide group
- AD/CS/RSF, alginate-dopamine chondroitin sulfate and regenerated silk fibroin
- ADSC, Adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells
- ADSC-EVs, adipose mesenchymal stem cells derived EVs
- ADSC-Exos, adipose mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes
- ATRP, Atom transfer radical polymerization
- BCA, bicinchoninic acid
- BMSC, Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells
- BMSC-EVs, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells derived EVs
- BMSC-Exos, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes
- CGC, chitosan-gelatin-chondroitin sulfate
- CL, chitosan lactate
- CNS, central nervous system
- CPCs, cardiac progenitor cells
- CS-g-PEG, chitosan-g-PEG
- DPSC-Exos, dental pulp stem cells derived exosomes
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- EGF, epidermal growth factor
- EVMs, extracellular vesicles mimetics
- EVs, Extracellular vesicles
- Exos, Exosomes
- Exosome
- Extracellular vesicle
- FEEs, functionally engineered EVs
- FGF, fibroblast growth factor
- GelMA, Gelatin methacryloyl
- HA, Hyaluronic acid
- HAMA, Hyaluronic acid methacryloyl
- HG, nano-hydroxyapatite-gelatin
- HIF-1 α, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 α
- HS-HA, hypoxia-sensitive hyaluronic acid
- HUVEC, human umbilical vein endothelial cell
- Hydrogel
- LAP, Lithium Phenyl (2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphinate
- LSCM, laser scanning confocal microscopy
- MC-CHO, Aldehyde methylcellulose
- MMP, matrix metalloproteinase
- MNs, microneedles
- MSC-EVs, mesenchymal stem cells derived EVs
- MSC-Exos, mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes
- MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells
- NPCs, neural progenitor cells
- NTA, nanoparticle tracking analysis
- OHA, oxidized hyaluronic acid
- OSA, oxidized sodium alginate
- PDA, Polydopamine
- PDLLA, poly(D l-lactic acid)
- PDNPs-PELA, Polydopamine nanoparticles incorporated poly (ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-cap-rolactone-co-lactide)
- PEG, Polyethylene glycol
- PF-127, Pluronic F-127
- PHEMA, phenoxyethyl methacrylate
- PIC, photo-induced imine crosslinking
- PKA, protein kinase A system
- PLA, Poly lactic acid
- PLGA, polylactic acid-hydroxy acetic acid copolymer
- PLLA, poly(l-lactic acid)
- PPy, polypyrrole
- PVA, polyvinyl alcohol
- RDRP, Reversible deactivation radical polymerization
- Regeneration
- SCI, spinal cord injury
- SEM, Scanning electron microscopy
- SF, Silk fibroin
- SPT, single-particle tracking
- TEM, transmission electron microscopy
- Tissue repair
- UMSC, umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells
- UMSC-EVs, umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells derived EVs
- UMSC-Exos, umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes
- UV, ultraviolet
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- VEGF-R, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor
- WB, western blotting
- dECM, decellularized ECM
- hiPS-MSC-Exos, human induced pluripotent stem cell-MSC-derived exosomes
- iPS-CPCs, pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac progenitors
- nHP, nanohydroxyapatite/poly-ε-caprolactone
- sEVs, small extracellular vesicles
- β-TCP, β-Tricalcium Phosphate
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yikun Ju
- Department of Plastic and Aesthetic (Burn) Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Hu
- School of Clinical Medicine, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, 637000, People's Republic of China
| | - Pu Yang
- Department of Plastic and Aesthetic (Burn) Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyan Xie
- Department of Stomatology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, People's Republic of China
| | - Bairong Fang
- Department of Plastic and Aesthetic (Burn) Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, People's Republic of China,Corresponding author.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Liu Q, Huang J, Xia J, Liang Y, Li G. Tracking tools of extracellular vesicles for biomedical research. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:943712. [PMID: 36466335 PMCID: PMC9716315 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.943712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 08/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging of extracellular vesicles (EVs) will facilitate a better understanding of their biological functions and their potential as therapeutics and drug delivery vehicles. In order to clarify EV-mediated cellular communication in vitro and to track the bio-distribution of EV in vivo, various strategies have been developed to label and image EVs. In this review, we summarized recent advances in the tracking of EVs, demonstrating the methods for labeling and imaging of EVs, in which the labeling methods include direct and indirect labeling and the imaging modalities include fluorescent imaging, bioluminescent imaging, nuclear imaging, and nanoparticle-assisted imaging. These techniques help us better understand the mechanism of uptake, the bio-distribution, and the function of EVs. More importantly, we can evaluate the pharmacokinetic properties of EVs, which will help promote their further clinical application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qisong Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Tissue Reconstruction and Function Restoration, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shenzhen People’s Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
| | - Jianghong Huang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shenzhen Second People’s Hospital (First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Health Science Center), Shenzhen, China
- Tsinghua University Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiang Xia
- Department of Chemistry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yujie Liang
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, China
- Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Guangheng Li
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Tissue Reconstruction and Function Restoration, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shenzhen People’s Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fortunato D, Giannoukakos S, Giménez-Capitán A, Hackenberg M, Molina-Vila MA, Zarovni N. Selective isolation of extracellular vesicles from minimally processed human plasma as a translational strategy for liquid biopsies. Biomark Res 2022; 10:57. [PMID: 35933395 PMCID: PMC9357340 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-022-00404-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Intercellular communication is mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs), as they enclose selectively packaged biomolecules that can be horizontally transferred from donor to recipient cells. Because all cells constantly generate and recycle EVs, they provide accurate timed snapshots of individual pathophysiological status. Since blood plasma circulates through the whole body, it is often the biofluid of choice for biomarker detection in EVs. Blood collection is easy and minimally invasive, yet reproducible procedures to obtain pure EV samples from circulating biofluids are still lacking. Here, we addressed central aspects of EV immunoaffinity isolation from simple and complex matrices, such as plasma. Methods Cell-generated EV spike-in models were isolated and purified by size-exclusion chromatography, stained with cellular dyes and characterized by nano flow cytometry. Fluorescently-labelled spike-in EVs emerged as reliable, high-throughput and easily measurable readouts, which were employed to optimize our EV immunoprecipitation strategy and evaluate its performance. Plasma-derived EVs were captured and detected using this straightforward protocol, sequentially combining isolation and staining of specific surface markers, such as CD9 or CD41. Multiplexed digital transcript detection data was generated using the Nanostring nCounter platform and evaluated through a dedicated bioinformatics pipeline. Results Beads with covalently-conjugated antibodies on their surface outperformed streptavidin-conjugated beads, coated with biotinylated antibodies, in EV immunoprecipitation. Fluorescent EV spike recovery evidenced that target EV subpopulations can be efficiently retrieved from plasma, and that their enrichment is dependent not only on complex matrix composition, but also on the EV surface phenotype. Finally, mRNA profiling experiments proved that distinct EV subpopulations can be captured by directly targeting different surface markers. Furthermore, EVs isolated with anti-CD61 beads enclosed mRNA expression patterns that might be associated to early-stage lung cancer, in contrast with EVs captured through CD9, CD63 or CD81. The differential clinical value carried within each distinct EV subset highlights the advantages of selective isolation. Conclusions This EV isolation protocol facilitated the extraction of clinically useful information from plasma. Compatible with common downstream analytics, it is a readily implementable research tool, tailored to provide a truly translational solution in routine clinical workflows, fostering the inclusion of EVs in novel liquid biopsy settings. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40364-022-00404-1.
Collapse
|
7
|
Thanh Nguyen TD, Marasini R, Aryal S. Re-engineered imaging agent using biomimetic approaches. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 14:e1762. [PMID: 34698438 PMCID: PMC8758533 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in biomedical technology, the clinical bioimaging, has a greater impact on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, especially by early intervention and precise therapy. Varieties of organic and inorganic materials either in the form of small molecules or nano-sized materials have been engineered as a contrast agent (CA) to enhance image resolution among different tissues for the detection of abnormalities such as cancer and vascular occlusion. Among different innovative imaging agents, contrast agents coupled with biologically derived endogenous platform shows the promising application in the biomedical field, including drug delivery and bioimaging. Strategy using biocomponents such as cells or products of cells as a delivery system predominantly reduces the toxic behavior of its cargo, as these systems reduce non-specific distribution by navigating its cargo toward the targeted location. The hypothesis is that depending on the original biological role of the naïve cell, the contrast agents carried by such a system can provide corresponding natural designated behavior. Therefore, by combining properties of conventional synthetic molecules and nanomaterials with endogenous cell body, new solutions in the field of bioimaging to overcome biological barriers have been offered as innovative bioengineering. In this review, we will discuss the engineering of cell and cell-derived components as a delivery system for various contrast agents to achieve clinically relevant contrast for diagnosis and study underlining mechanism of disease progression. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Cells at the Nanoscale Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tuyen Duong Thanh Nguyen
- Department of Experimental Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Ramesh Marasini
- Department of Chemistry, Nanotechnology Innovation Center of Kansas State, Kansas State Univeristy, Manhattan, KS
| | - Santosh Aryal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Health Outcomes, The Ben and Maytee Fisch College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gazze SA, Thomas SJ, Garcia-Parra J, James DW, Rees P, Marsh-Durban V, Corteling R, Gonzalez D, Conlan RS, Francis LW. High content, quantitative AFM analysis of the scalable biomechanical properties of extracellular vesicles. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:6129-6141. [PMID: 33729236 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr09235e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are studied extensively as natural biomolecular shuttles and for their diagnostic and therapeutic potential. This exponential rise in interest has highlighted the need for highly robust and reproducible approaches for EV characterisation. Here we optimise quantitative nanomechanical tools and demonstrate the advantages of EV population screening by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Our high-content informatics analytical tools are made available for use by the EV community for widespread, standardised determination of structural stability. Ultracentrifugation (UC) and sonication, the common mechanical techniques used for EV isolation and loading respectively, are used to demonstrate the utility of optimised PeakForce-Quantitative Nano Mechanics (PF-QNM) analysis. EVs produced at an industrial scale exhibited biochemical and biomechanical alterations after exposure to these common techniques. UC resulted in slight increases in physical dimensions, and decreased EV adhesion concurrent with a decrease in CD63 content. Sonicated EVs exhibited significantly reduced levels of CD81, a decrease in size, increased Young's modulus and decreased adhesive force. These biomechanical and biochemical changes highlight the effect of EV sample preparation techniques on critical properties linked to EV cellular uptake and biological function. PF-QNM offers significant additional information about the structural information of EVs following their purification and downstream processing, and the analytical tools will ensure consistency of analysis of AFM data by the EV community, as this technique continues to become more widely implemented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Andrea Gazze
- Reproductive Biology and Gynaecological Oncology Group, Institute for Life Science 2, Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kang C, Han P, Lee JS, Lee D, Kim D. Anchor, Spacer, and Ligand-Modified Engineered Exosomes for Trackable Targeted Therapy. Bioconjug Chem 2020; 31:2541-2552. [PMID: 33115231 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.0c00483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes have been widely demonstrated as an effective anticancer therapeutic moiety. However, their clinical translation has been limited by the requirement of prohibitively high therapeutic doses due to their lack of specificity in delivery and, consequently, short systemic half-life. To overcome these challenges, we engineered a platform for modifying exosomes with an active targeting modality composed of membrane Anchor (BODIPY)-Spacer (PEG)-targeting Ligands (cyclic RGD peptide) (ASL). Herein, we show that the intramembrane incorporation of a trackable, targeting system renders ASL exosomes (AExs) a modular platform. AExs significantly overcome challenges associated with exosome modification, including potential damage for functionalization, or destabilizing interactions between dyes and drugs. ASL-modification not only enhanced stability in imparting active targeting but also introduced a built-in bioimaging modality. Our studies show that AExs target B16F10 melanoma tumor sites by the specific interaction of cyclic RGD and integrin. Doxorubicin encapsulated AExs (dAExs) significantly inhibited the growth of melanoma in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we conclude that ASL-modification allows exosomes to be transformed into a novel therapeutic vehicle uniquely integrating in vivo tracking and robust targeting with drug delivery. We anticipate that the therapeutic, targeting, and diagnostic modularity provided by ASL will potentiate translational applications of exosome-based vehicles beyond anticancer therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changsun Kang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73117, United States
| | - Patrick Han
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Jung S Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Dongwon Lee
- Department of Polymer·Nano Science and Technology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea, 54896
| | - Dongin Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73117, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Panagopoulou MS, Wark AW, Birch DJS, Gregory CD. Phenotypic analysis of extracellular vesicles: a review on the applications of fluorescence. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 9:1710020. [PMID: 32002172 PMCID: PMC6968689 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2019.1710020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have numerous potential applications in the field of healthcare and diagnostics, and research into their biological functions is rapidly increasing. Mainly because of their small size and heterogeneity, there are significant challenges associated with their analysis and despite overt evidence of the potential of EVs in clinical diagnostic practice, guidelines for analytical procedures have not yet been properly established. Here, we present an overview of the main methods for studying the properties of EVs based on the principles of fluorescence. Setting aside the isolation, purification and physicochemical characterization strategies which answer questions about the size, surface charge and stability of EVs (reviewed elsewhere), we focus on available optical tools that enable the direct analysis of phenotype and mechanisms of interaction with tissues. In brief, the topics on which we elaborate range from the most popular approaches such as nanoparticle tracking analysis and flow cytometry, to less commonly used techniques such as fluorescence depolarization and microarrays as well as emerging areas such as fast fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). We highlight that understanding the strengths and limitations of each method is essential for choosing the most appropriate combination of analytical tools. Finally, future directions of this rapidly developing area of medical diagnostics are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria S. Panagopoulou
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Alastair W. Wark
- Centre for Molecular Nanometrology, Technology and Innovation Centre, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - David J S Birch
- Photophysics Group, Department of Physics, SUPA, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Christopher D. Gregory
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Arrighetti N, Corbo C, Evangelopoulos M, Pastò A, Zuco V, Tasciotti E. Exosome-like Nanovectors for Drug Delivery in Cancer. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:6132-6148. [PMID: 30182846 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180831150259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer treatment still represents a formidable challenge, despite substantial advancements in available therapies being made over the past decade. One major issue is poor therapeutic efficacy due to lack of specificity and low bioavailability. The progress of nanotechnology and the development of a variety of nanoplatforms have had a significant impact in improving the therapeutic outcome of chemotherapeutics. Nanoparticles can overcome various biological barriers and localize at tumor site, while simultaneously protecting a therapeutic cargo and increasing its circulation time. Despite this, due to their synthetic origin, nanoparticles are often detected by the immune system and preferentially sequestered by filtering organs. Exosomes have recently been investigated as suitable substitutes for the shortcomings of nanoparticles due to their biological compatibility and particularly small size (i.e., 30-150 nm). In addition, exosomes have been found to play important roles in cell communication, acting as natural carriers of biological cargoes throughout the body. This review aims to highlight the use of exosomes as drug delivery vehicles for cancer and showcases the various attempts used to exploit exosomes with a focus on the delivery of chemotherapeutics and nucleic acids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noemi Arrighetti
- Department of Applied Research and Technological Development, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Via Amadeo 42, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Corbo
- Center for Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 60 Fenwood Road, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Michael Evangelopoulos
- Center for Biomimetic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Ave., Houston, TX, United States
| | - Anna Pastò
- Istituto Oncologico Veneto-IRCCS, Padova, Italy
| | - Valentina Zuco
- Department of Applied Research and Technological Development, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Via Amadeo 42, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Ennio Tasciotti
- Center for Biomimetic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Ave., Houston, TX, United States.,Houston Methodist Orthopedics & Sports Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, 6565 Fannin Street, Houston, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Russell AE, Sneider A, Witwer KW, Bergese P, Bhattacharyya SN, Cocks A, Cocucci E, Erdbrügger U, Falcon-Perez JM, Freeman DW, Gallagher TM, Hu S, Huang Y, Jay SM, Kano SI, Lavieu G, Leszczynska A, Llorente AM, Lu Q, Mahairaki V, Muth DC, Noren Hooten N, Ostrowski M, Prada I, Sahoo S, Schøyen TH, Sheng L, Tesch D, Van Niel G, Vandenbroucke RE, Verweij FJ, Villar AV, Wauben M, Wehman AM, Yin H, Carter DRF, Vader P. Biological membranes in EV biogenesis, stability, uptake, and cargo transfer: an ISEV position paper arising from the ISEV membranes and EVs workshop. J Extracell Vesicles 2019; 8:1684862. [PMID: 31762963 PMCID: PMC6853251 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2019.1684862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Paracrine and endocrine roles have increasingly been ascribed to extracellular vesicles (EVs) generated by multicellular organisms. Central to the biogenesis, content, and function of EVs are their delimiting lipid bilayer membranes. To evaluate research progress on membranes and EVs, the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) conducted a workshop in March 2018 in Baltimore, Maryland, USA, bringing together key opinion leaders and hands-on researchers who were selected on the basis of submitted applications. The workshop was accompanied by two scientific surveys and covered four broad topics: EV biogenesis and release; EV uptake and fusion; technologies and strategies used to study EV membranes; and EV transfer and functional assays. In this ISEV position paper, we synthesize the results of the workshop and the related surveys to outline important outstanding questions about EV membranes and describe areas of consensus. The workshop discussions and survey responses reveal that while much progress has been made in the field, there are still several concepts that divide opinion. Good consensus exists in some areas, including particular aspects of EV biogenesis, uptake and downstream signalling. Areas with little to no consensus include EV storage and stability, as well as whether and how EVs fuse with target cells. Further research is needed in these key areas, as a better understanding of membrane biology will contribute substantially towards advancing the field of extracellular vesicles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E. Russell
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alexandra Sneider
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Paolo Bergese
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Brescia, CSGI and INSTM, Brescia, Italy
| | | | | | - Emanuele Cocucci
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Columbus, OH, USA
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Juan M. Falcon-Perez
- Exosomes laboratory and Metabolomics Platform, CIC bioGUNE, CIBERehd, Bizkaia, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - David W. Freeman
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Science, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Thomas M. Gallagher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shuaishuai Hu
- School of Biological and Healthy Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Yiyao Huang
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Steven M. Jay
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Shin-ichi Kano
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Gregory Lavieu
- INSERM U932, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, France
| | | | - Alicia M. Llorente
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Quan Lu
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Departments of Environmental Health, Genetics & Complex Diseases Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vasiliki Mahairaki
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Dillon C. Muth
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nicole Noren Hooten
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Science, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matias Ostrowski
- INBIRS Institute, UBA-CONICET School of Medicine University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Susmita Sahoo
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tine Hiorth Schøyen
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- K. G. Jebsen - Thrombosis Research and Expertise Center (TREC), Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Lifu Sheng
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Deanna Tesch
- Department of Chemistry, Shaw University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Guillaume Van Niel
- Institute for Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris, INSERM U1266, Hopital Saint-Anne, Université Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Roosmarijn E. Vandenbroucke
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Frederik J. Verweij
- Institute for Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris, INSERM U1266, Hopital Saint-Anne, Université Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Ana V. Villar
- Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria (IBBTEC) CSIC-Universidad de Cantabria and Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - Marca Wauben
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ann M. Wehman
- Rudolf Virchow Center, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Hang Yin
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Pieter Vader
- Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology & Department of Experimental Cardiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Fan Z, Xiao K, Lin J, Liao Y, Huang X. Functionalized DNA Enables Programming Exosomes/Vesicles for Tumor Imaging and Therapy. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2019; 15:e1903761. [PMID: 31614072 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201903761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes serve as significant information carriers that regulate important physiological and pathological processes. Herein, functionalized DNA is engineered to be a hinge that anchors quantum dots (QDs) onto the surface of exosomes, realizing a moderate and biocompatible labeling strategy. The QDs-labeled exosomes (exosome-DNA-QDs complex) can be swiftly engulfed by tumor cells, indicating that exosome-DNA-QDs can be applied as a specific agent for tumor labeling. Furthermore, the engineered artificial vesicles of M1 macrophages (M1mv) are constructed via a pneumatic liposome extruder. The results reveal that the individual M1mv can kill tumor cells and realize desirable biological treatment. To reinforce the antitumor efficacy of M1mv and the specificity of drug release, a target-triggered drug delivery system is constructed to realize a specific microRNA-responded delivery system for visual therapy of tumors. These strategies facilitate moderate labeling and functionalization of exosomes/vesicles and construct artificial drug-delivery vesicles that simultaneously possess biological treatment and chemotherapy functions, and thus have the potential to serve as a new paradigm for tumor labeling and therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhijin Fan
- Center for Infection and Immunity, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Keng Xiao
- Center for Infection and Immunity, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Jingyan Lin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Yuhui Liao
- Center for Infection and Immunity, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Xi Huang
- Center for Infection and Immunity, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wu D, Durán-Sampedro G, O’Shea DF. Synthesis and properties of water-soluble 1,9-dialkyl-substituted BF2 azadipyrromethene fluorophores. Front Chem Sci Eng 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11705-019-1828-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
|
15
|
Gudbergsson JM, Jønsson K, Simonsen JB, Johnsen KB. Systematic review of targeted extracellular vesicles for drug delivery – Considerations on methodological and biological heterogeneity. J Control Release 2019; 306:108-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
16
|
Hou X, Gong X, Zhang L, Li T, Yuan H, Xie Y, Peng Y, Qiu R, Xia K, Tang B, Jiang H. Identification of a potential exosomal biomarker in spinocerebellar ataxia Type 3/Machado-Joseph disease. Epigenomics 2019; 11:1037-1056. [PMID: 31144508 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2019-0081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: To identify spinocerebellar ataxia Type 3 (SCA3)-related exosomal biomarkers and the underlying mechanisms. Materials & methods: Exosomal RNAs from plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were extracted from 24 SCA3 patients and 22 controls, respectively. Small RNA sequencing and quantitative PCR verification were performed. Gene ontology annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses of the results were carried out. Results: One novel miRNA is notably downregulated in plasma-derived exosomes, while upregulated in CSF-derived exosomes of SCA3 patients. Besides, it is successively upregulated in CSF-derived exosomes from Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 groups. The downstream target genes were enriched in protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum and axon guidance. Conclusion: One exosomal biomarker was identified in SCA3, and this is the first time to report an exosomal miRNA as a biomarker in SCA3 internationally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaocan Hou
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Xuan Gong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Longbo Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Tianjiao Li
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Hongyu Yuan
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Yue Xie
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Yun Peng
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Rong Qiu
- School of Information Science & Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Kun Xia
- Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Beisha Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, PR China
| |
Collapse
|