Zinc finger domains as therapeutic targets for metal-based compounds - an update

Putative retina metal/metalloid-binding proteins: molecular functions, biological processes and retina disease associations

The mammalian retina contains high amounts of metals/metalloid-selenium. Their dyshomeostases are associated with certain retinal diseases. We carried out this bioinformatics study to identify the relationships between putative retinal metal/selenium binding proteins, their molecular functions, and biological processes. Identification of putative mouse metal/selenium binding proteins was based on known binding motifs, domains, patterns, and profiles. Annotations were obtained from Uniprot keywords 'metal binding', 'metal ion co-factors', 'selenium proteins'. Protein functions were estimated by associative frequency with key words in UniProt annotations. The raw data of five mouse proteomics PRIDE datasets (available to date) were downloaded and processed with Mascot against the mouse taxa of Uniprot (SwissProt/Trembl) and MaxQuant (version 1.6.10.43) for qualitative and quantitative datasets, respectively. Clinically relevant variants were evaluated using archives and aggregated information in ClinVar. The 438 proteins common to all the retina proteomics datasets were used to identify over-represented Gene Ontology categories. The putative mouse retinal metal/metalloid binding proteins identified are mainly involved in: (1) metabolic processes (enzymes), (2) homeostasis, (3) transport (vesicle mediated, transmembrane, along microtubules), (4) cellular localization, (5) regulation of signalling and exocytosis, (6) organelle organization, (7) (de)phosphorylation, and (8) complex assembly. Twenty-one proteins were identified as involved in response to light stimulus and/or visual system development. An association of metal ion binding proteins rhodopsin, photoreceptor specific nuclear receptor, calcium binding protein 4 with disease-related mutations in inherited retinal conditions was identified, where the mutations affected an area within or in close proximity to the metal binding site or domain. These findings suggest a functional role for the putative metal/metalloid binding site in retinal proteins in certain retinal disorders.

The Mechanism of Zinc Oxide in Alleviating Diarrhea in Piglets after Weaning: A Review from the Perspective of Intestinal Barrier Function

Weaning is one of the most challenging phases for piglets, and it is also the time when piglets are the most susceptible to diarrhea, which may result in significant economic losses for pig production. One of the dietary strategies for reducing post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) in piglets is to provide them with a pharmacological dose of zinc oxide (ZnO). However, excessive or long-term usage of high-dose ZnO has significant impacts on pig health and the ecological environment. Therefore, caution should be exercised when considering the use of high-dose ZnO for the prevention or treatment of PWD in piglets. In this paper, the significant role of zinc in animal health, the potential mode of action of ZnO in alleviating diarrhea, and the impact of innovative, highly efficient ZnO alternatives on the regulation of piglet diarrhea were reviewed to offer insights into the application of novel ZnO in pig production.

Melanophilin regulates dendritogenesis in melanocytes for feather pigmentation

Limited studies using animal models with a few natural mutations in melanophilin (Mlph) provided partial functions of Mlph in melanosome trafficking. To investigate cellular functions of Mlph, especially ZnF motif of Mlph, we analyzed all three Mlph knockout (KO) quail lines, one and two base pair (bp) deletions as models for total KO, and three bp deletion causing deletion of one Cysteine (C84del) in the ZnF motif. All quail lines had diluted feather pigmentation with impaired dendritogenesis and melanosome transport in melanocytes. In vitro studies revealed capability of binding of the ZnF motif to PIP3, and impairment of PI3P binding and mislocalization of MLPH proteins with ZnF motif mutations. The shortened melanocyte dendrites by the C84del mutation were rescued by introducing WT Mlph in vitro. These results revealed the diluted feather pigmentation by Mlph mutations resulted from congregation of melanosomes in the cell bodies with impairment of the dendritogenesis and the transport of melanosomes to the cell periphery.

Identification of Novel QTL for Mercury Accumulation in Maize Using an Enlarged SNP Panel

Mercury (Hg) pollution not only poses a threat to the environment but also adversely affects the growth and development of plants, with potential repercussions for animals and humans through bioaccumulation in the food chain. Maize, a crucial source of food, industrial materials, and livestock feed, requires special attention in understanding the genetic factors influencing mercury accumulation. Developing maize varieties with low mercury accumulation is vital for both maize production and human health. In this study, a comprehensive genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted using an enlarged SNP panel comprising 1.25 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 230 maize inbred lines across three environments. The analysis identified 111 significant SNPs within 78 quantitative trait loci (QTL), involving 169 candidate genes under the Q model. Compared to the previous study, the increased marker density and optimized statistical model led to the discovery of 74 additional QTL, demonstrating improved statistical power. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that most genes participate in arsenate reduction and stress responses. Notably, GRMZM2G440968, which has been reported in previous studies, is associated with the significant SNP chr6.S_155668107 in axis tissue. It encodes a cysteine proteinase inhibitor, implying its potential role in mitigating mercury toxicity by inhibiting cysteine. Haplotype analyses provided further insights, indicating that lines carrying hap3 exhibited the lowest mercury content compared to other haplotypes. In summary, our study significantly enhances the statistical power of GWAS, identifying additional genes related to mercury accumulation and metabolism. These findings offer valuable insights into unraveling the genetic basis of mercury content in maize and contribute to the development of maize varieties with low mercury accumulation.

Insights into the pleiotropic roles of ZNF703 in cancer

Zinc finger proteins (ZNFs) belong to the NET/NLZ protein family. In physiological functions, ZNF703 play significant roles in embryonic development, especially in the nervous system. As an transcription factors with zinc finger domains, abnormal regulation of the ZNF703 protein is associated with enhanced proliferation, invasion, and metastasis as well as drug resistance in many tumors, although mechanisms of action vary depending on the specific tumor microenvironment. ZNF703 lacks a nuclear localization sequence despite its function requiring nuclear DNA binding. The purpose of this review is to summarize the architecture of ZNF703, its roles in tumorigenesis, and tumor progression, as well as future oncology therapeutic prospects, which have implications for understanding tumor susceptibility and progression.

Structural transitions upon guide RNA binding and their importance in Cas12g-mediated RNA cleavage

Cas12g is an endonuclease belonging to the type V RNA-guided CRISPR-Cas family. It is known for its ability to cleave RNA substrates using a conserved endonuclease active site located in the RuvC domain. In this study, we determined the crystal structure of apo-Cas12g, the cryo-EM structure of the Cas12g-sgRNA binary complex and investigated conformational changes that occur during the transition from the apo state to the Cas12g-sgRNA binary complex. The conserved zinc finger motifs in Cas12g undergo an ordered-to-disordered transition from the apo to the sgRNA-bound state and their mutations negatively impact on target RNA cleavage. Moreover, we identified a lid motif in the RuvC domain that undergoes transformation from a helix to loop to regulate the access to the RuvC active site and subsequent cleavage of the RNA substrate. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the mechanisms by which Cas12g recognizes sgRNA and the conformational changes it undergoes from sgRNA binding to the activation of the RNase active site, thereby laying a foundation for the potential repurposing of Cas12g as a tool for RNA-editing.

Silver N-heterocyclic carbene complexes are potent uncompetitive inhibitors of the papain-like protease with antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2

The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused a high demand for novel innovative antiviral drug candidates. Despite promising results, metal complexes have been relatively unexplored as antiviral agents in general and in particular against SARS-CoV-2. Here we report on silver NHC complexes with chloride or iodide counter ligands that are potent inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease (PL^pro) but inactive against 3C-like protease (3CL^pro) as another SARS-CoV-2 protease. Mechanistic studies on a selected complex confirmed zinc removal from a zinc binding domain of PL^pro as relevant factor of their activity. In addition, enzyme kinetic experiments revealed that the complex is an uncompetitive inhibitor and with this rare type of inhibition it offers great pharmacological advantages in terms selectivity. The silver NHC complexes with iodide ligands showed very low or absent host cell toxicity and triggered strong effects on viral replication in cells infected with SARS-CoV-2, making them promising future antiviral drug candidates.

The Roles of Zinc Finger Proteins in Colorectal Cancer

Despite colorectal cancer remaining a leading worldwide cause of cancer-related death, there remains a paucity of effective treatments for advanced disease. The molecular mechanisms underlying the development of colorectal cancer include altered cell signaling and cell cycle regulation that may result from epigenetic modifications of gene expression and function. Acting as important transcriptional regulators of normal biological processes, zinc finger proteins also play key roles in regulating the cellular mechanisms underlying colorectal neoplasia. These actions impact cell differentiation and proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, apoptosis, homeostasis, senescence, and maintenance of stemness. With the goal of highlighting promising points of therapeutic intervention, we review the oncogenic and tumor suppressor roles of zinc finger proteins with respect to colorectal cancer tumorigenesis and progression.

Disruption of zinc (II) binding and dimeric protein structure of the XIAP-RING domain by copper (I) ions

Modulation of metalloprotein structure and function via metal ion substitution may constitute a molecular basis for metal ion toxicity and/or metal-mediated functional control. The X-linked Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein (XIAP) is a metalloprotein that requires zinc for proper structure and function. In addition to its role as a modulator of apoptosis, XIAP has been implicated in copper homeostasis. Given the similar coordination preferences of copper and zinc, investigation of XIAP structure and function upon interaction with copper is relevant. The Really Interesting New Gene (RING) domain of XIAP is representative of a class of zinc finger proteins that utilize a bi-nuclear zinc-binding motif to maintain proper structure and ubiquitin ligase function. Herein, we report the characterization of copper (I) binding to the Zn₂-RING domain of XIAP. Electronic absorption studies that monitor copper-thiolate interactions demonstrate that the RING domain of XIAP binds 5-6 Cu(I) ions and that copper is thermodynamically preferred relative to zinc. Repetition of the experiments in the presence of the Zn(II)-specific dye Mag-Fura2 shows that Cu(I) addition results in Zn(II) ejection from the protein, even in the presence of glutathione. Loss of dimeric structure of the RING domain, which is a requirement for its ubiquitin ligase activity, upon copper substitution at the zinc-binding sites, was readily observed via size exclusion chromatography. These results provide a molecular basis for the modulation of RING function by copper and add to the growing body of literature that describe the impact of Cu(I) on zinc metalloprotein structure and function.

Combined transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis reveals lipid metabolic disruption in swamp eel (Monopterus albus) under chronic waterborne copper exposure

Excessive copper can induce many adverse effects although it's an essential trace element in organisms. The effects of copper on the lipid metabolism have aroused increasing attention. This study investigated the liver lipid metabolism in swamp eel (Monopterus albus, M. albus) chronically exposed to 0, 10, 50, and 100 μg/L Cu²⁺ for 56 days. The results showed that copper increased the contents of triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (T-CHO), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), and lipid droplets. Transcriptomic analysis found 1901 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 140 differential alternative splicing (DAS) genes in the 50 μg/L Cu²⁺ group, and 1787 DEGs and 184 DAS genes in the 100 μg/L Cu²⁺ group, respectively, which were enriched in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and other signaling pathways. The expression levels of key genes related to PPAR and AMPK signaling pathways were significantly down-regulated after chronic exposure to Cu²⁺. Meanwhile, metabolomics analysis showed that 52 and 110 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) were identified, which were mainly enriched in glycerophospholipids metabolism and steroid synthesis. Moreover, combined analysis of transcriptome and metabolome showed that glycerophospholipid metabolism co-enriched 19 down-regulated DEGs and 4 down-regulated DEMs. Taken together, our results suggested that chronic waterborne copper exposure promoted lipid synthesis, disrupted the metabolic homeostasis of glycerophospholipid, and led to excessive hepatic lipid deposition in M. albus. The combined omics approach enhanced our understanding of copper pollution to lipid metabolism.

The past, present, and future of artificial zinc finger proteins: design strategies and chemical and biological applications

Zinc finger proteins are abundant in the human proteome and are responsible for a variety of functions. The domains that constitute zinc finger proteins are compact spherical structures, each comprising approximately 30 amino acid residues, but they also have precise molecular factor functions: zinc binding and DNA recognition. Due to the biological importance of zinc finger proteins and their unique structural and functional properties, many artificial zinc finger proteins have been created and are expected to improve their functions and biological applications. In this study, we review previous studies on the redesign and application of artificial zinc finger proteins, focusing on the experimental results obtained by our research group. In addition, we systematically review various design strategies used to construct artificial zinc finger proteins and discuss in detail their potential biological applications, including gene editing. This review will provide relevant information to researchers involved or interested in the field of artificial zinc finger proteins as a potential new treatment for various diseases.

Reactivity of NiII, PdII and PtII complexes bearing phosphine ligands towards ZnII displacement and hydrolysis in Cis2His2 and Cis3His zinc-fingers domains

A systematic study of the effect of phosphine and bis-phosphine ligands in the interaction of Ni^II, Pd^II, and Pt^II complexes with two classes of zinc fingers was performed. The Cys₂His₂, finger 3 of specific protein-1, and the Cys₂HisCys C-terminal zinc finger of nucleocapsid protein 7 of the HIV-1 were used as models of the respective class. In general, phosphine ligands favor the metal binding to the peptide, although the bis-phosphine ligands produce more specific binding than the monodentate. In the case of nickel complexes, the interaction of Ni^II ions with the sequence SKH, present in Cys₂His₂, results in hydrolysis, contrasting to the preferred zinc ejection produced by the Ni^II complexes with chelating phosphines, producing Ni(bis-phosphine) fingers. In the absence of the SKH sequence, zinc ejection is observed with the formation of nickel fingers, with reactivity dependent on the phosphine. On the other hand, Pd(phosphines) produces Pd₂ fingers in the case of triphenylphosphine with the phosphine coordinated as intermediate species. The bis-phosphine ligands produce very clean spectra and a stable signal Pd(bis-phosphine)finger. Interestingly, phosphines produce very reactive platinum complexes, which eject zinc and promote peptide hydrolysis. The results reported here are relevant to the understanding of the mechanism of these interactions and how to modulate metallocompounds for zinc finger interference.

Gold Complexes in Anticancer Therapy: From New Design Principles to Particle-Based Delivery Systems

The discovery of the medicinal properties of gold complexes has fuelled the design and synthesis of new anticancer metallodrugs, which have received special attention due to their unique modes of action. Current research in the development of gold compounds with therapeutic properties is predominantly focused on the molecular design of drug leads with superior pharmacological activities, e.g., by introducing targeting features. Moreover, intensive research aims at improving the physicochemical properties of gold compounds, such as chemical stability and solubility in the physiological environment. In this regard, the encapsulation of gold compounds in nanocarriers or their chemical grafting onto targeted delivery vectors could lead to new nanomedicines that eventually reach clinical applications. Herein, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art progress of gold anticancer compounds, andmore importantly we thoroughly revise the development of nanoparticle-based delivery systems for gold chemotherapeutics.

ZFP36 ring finger protein like 1 significantly suppresses human coronavirus OC43 replication

CCCH-type zinc figure proteins (ZFP) are small cellular proteins that are structurally maintained by zinc ions. Zinc ions coordinate the protein structure in a tetrahedral geometry by binding to cystine-cystine or cysteines-histidine amino acids. ZFP's unique structure enables it to interact with a wide variety of molecules including RNA; thus, ZFP modulates several cellular processes including the host immune response and virus replication. CCCH-type ZFPs have shown their antiviral efficacy against several DNA and RNA viruses. However, their role in the human coronavirus is little explored. We hypothesized that ZFP36L1 also suppresses the human coronavirus. To test our hypothesis, we used OC43 human coronavirus (HCoV) strain in our study. We overexpressed and knockdown ZFP36L1 in HCT-8 cells using lentivirus transduction. Wild type, ZFP36L1 overexpressed, and ZFP36L1 knockdown cells were each infected with HCoV-OC43, and the virus titer in each cell line was measured over 96 hours post-infection (p.i.). Our results show that HCoV-OC43 replication was significantly reduced with ZFP36L1 overexpression while ZFP36L1 knockdown significantly enhanced virus replication. ZFP36L1 knockdown HCT-8 cells started producing infectious virus at 48 hours p.i. which was an earlier timepoint as compared to wild -type and ZFP36L1 overexpressed cells. Wild-type and ZFP36L1 overexpressed HCT-8 cells started producing infectious virus at 72 hours p.i. Overall, the current study showed that overexpression of ZFP36L1 suppressed human coronavirus (OC43) production.

Deciphering the structural and functional impact of missense mutations in Egr1-DNA interacting interface: an integrative computational approach

Early growth response-1 (Egr1) is a zinc-finger transcription factor that plays a critical role in controlling cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, and apoptosis. Egr1 is induced by many growth factors, cytokines, and stress signals and is also known to be involved in several pathological conditions like cancer, neurological and ocular disorders. The DNA binding domain of Egr1 is a highly conserved Cys2His2 (C2H2) zinc finger (ZNF) domain which specifically binds to GC-rich consensus sequence GcG (G/T) GGGCG and activates transcription. As the C2H2 domain specifically recognizes its DNA target, the mutations spanning this region shall perturb DNA recognition and may hinder transcription of target genes. Therefore, in this study, the missense mutations occurring specifically at the DNA binding domain (DBD) of Egr1 were probed by computational approaches involving in silico screening of pathogenic and functional mutants coupled with extensive molecular dynamics simulations, to determine the mutants that affect its structural stability and interactions with DNA. From the pathogenicity analysis of 38 missense mutations spanning Egr1-DBD, 17 were predicted as pathogenic, and 7 amongst these were found to have functional impact on Egr1. On combined analysis of molecular dynamics simulation, Residue interaction analysis and Egr1-DNA interaction analysis results, the mutants R371C and R375C showed least impact, whilst, H382R tend to increase the structural stability, whereas R360H, H390R, E393V, and H414Y conferred greater impact by altering the structural stability and DNA interactions. Hence, this study exposes the prospects of considering these 4 deleterious mutations for clinical significance, but needs further experimental validation.HighlightsEgr1's DNA binding domain is a highly conserved Cys2His2 (C2H2) zinc finger domain that specifically recognizes its DNA target.Mutations spanning in the DNA binding domain shall perturb DNA recognition and may hinder transcription.Among the missense mutations, mutants R360H, H390R, E393V, and H414Y were inferred to have a greater impact on Egr1 by altering the structural stability and DNA interactions.

Gold(III) Complexes with Phenanthroline-derivatives Ligands Induce Apoptosis in Human Colorectal and Breast Cancer Cell Lines

Due to their promising effects, gold(III) complexes recently drew increasing attention in the design of new metal-based anticancer therapeutics. Two gold(III) complexes, square-planar [Au(DPP)Cl2]+ - Complex 1 and distorted square-pyramidal [Au(DMP)Cl3] - Complex 2 (where DPP=4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline and DMP=2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline) were previously synthetized, described and approved as complexes with pronounced cytotoxic effects on colorectal HCT-116 and breast MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. This study investigated the type of cell death by AO/EB double staining, and identification of possible targets responsible for their cytotoxicity, monitored by immunofluorescence and qPCR methods. Both complexes induced apoptosis in all applied concentrations. In the HCT-116 cells apoptosis was activated by external apoptotic pathway, via increase of Fas receptor protein expression and Caspase 8 gene expression. Also, the mitochondrial pathway was triggered by affecting the Bcl-2 members of regulatory proteins and increased caspase 9 protein expression. In MDA-MB-231 cells, apoptosis was initiated from the mitochondria, due to disbalance between expressions of pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members and caspase 9 activation. Complex 1 shows better activity compared to Complex 2, which is in accordance with its structural characteristics. The results deal weighty data about proapoptotic activity of gold(III) complexes and highlighted potential targets for cancer therapy.

Zinc supplementation prevents mitotic accumulation in human keratinocyte cell lines upon environmentally relevant arsenic exposure

Disrupted cell cycle progression underlies the molecular pathogenesis of multiple diseases. Chronic exposure to inorganic arsenic (iAs) is a global health issue leading to multi-organ cancerous and non-cancerous diseases. Exposure to supratherapeutic concentrations of iAs causes cellular accumulation in G2 or M phase of the cell cycle in multiple cell lines by inducing cyclin B1 expression. It is not clear if iAs exposure at doses corresponding to serum levels of chronically exposed populations (∼100 nM) has any effect on cell cycle distribution. In the present study we investigated if environmentally relevant iAs exposure induced cell cycle disruption and mechanisms thereof employing two human keratinocyte cell lines (HaCaT and Ker-CT), flow cytometry, immunoblots and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). iAs exposure (100 nM; 24 h) led to mitotic accumulation of cells in both cell lines, along with the stabilization of ANAPC11 ubiquitination targets cyclin B1 and securin, without affecting their steady state mRNA levels. This result suggested that induction of cyclin B1 and securin is modulated at the level of protein degradation. Moreover, zinc supplementation successfully prevented iAs-induced mitotic accumulation and stabilization of cyclin B1 and securin without affecting their mRNA levels. Together, these data suggest that environmentally relevant iAs exposure leads to mitotic accumulation possibly by displacing zinc from the RING finger subunit of anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (ANAPC11), the cell cycle regulating E3 ubiquitin ligase. This early cell cycle disruptive effect of environmentally relevant iAs concentration could underpin the molecular pathogenesis of multiple diseases associated with chronic iAs exposure.

In silico studies of Mpro and PLpro from SARS-CoV-2 and a new class of cephalosporin drugs containing 1,2,4-thiadiazole

The SARS-CoV-2 proteases Mpro and PLpro are important targets for the development of antivirals against COVID-19. The functional group 1,2,4-thiadiazole has been indicated to inhibit cysteinyl proteases, such as papain and cathepsins. Of note, the 1,2,4-thiadiazole moiety is found in a new class of cephalosporin FDA-approved antibiotics: ceftaroline fosamil, ceftobiprole, and ceftobiprole medocaril. Here we investigated the interaction of these new antibiotics and their main metabolites with the SARS-CoV-2 proteases by molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD), and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Our results indicated the PLpro enzyme as a better in silico target for the new antibacterial cephalosporins. The results with ceftaroline fosamil and the dephosphorylate metabolite compounds should be tested as potential inhibitor of PLpro, Mpro, and SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. In addition, the data here reported can help in the design of new potential drugs against COVID-19 by exploiting the S atom reactivity in the 1,2,4-thiadiazole moiety.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11224-022-02036-5.

Recent insights into the structure and function of coronavirus ribonucleases

Coronaviruses use approximately two-thirds of their 30-kb genomes to encode nonstructural proteins (nsps) with diverse functions that assist in viral replication and transcription, and evasion of the host immune response. The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has led to renewed interest in the molecular mechanisms used by coronaviruses to infect cells and replicate. Among the 16 Nsps involved in replication and transcription, coronaviruses encode two ribonucleases that process the viral RNA-an exonuclease (Nsp14) and an endonuclease (Nsp15). In this review, we discuss recent structural and biochemical studies of these nucleases and the implications for drug discovery.

Triphenylphosphine gold(I) derivatives promote antiviral effects against the Chikungunya virus

Herein a systematic series of four [AuLL']n+ n = 0, +1 complexes, where L = 1,3-bis(mesityl)imidazole-2-ylidene (IMes), or triphenylphosphine (PPh3), and L' = chloride, or 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP), had their in vitro antiviral activity assessed against Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). The PPh3 derivatives inhibited viral replication by 99%, whereas the IMes derivatives about 50%. The lipophilicity of the PPh3 derivatives is higher than the IMes-bearing compounds, which can be related to their more prominent antiviral activities. The dissociation of DMAP is faster than chloride in solution for both IMes and PPh3 derivatives; however, it does not significantly affect their in vitro activities, showing a higher dependence on the nature of L rather than L' towards their antiviral effects. All complexes bind to N-acetyl-L-cysteine, with the Ph3P-bearing complexes coordinating at a faster rate to this amino acid. The binding constants to bovine serum albumin (BSA) are in the order of 104, slightly higher for the DMAP complexes in both PPh3 and IMes derivatives. Mechanistic investigations of the PPh3 complexes showed a ubiquitous protective effect of the compounds in the pre-treatment, early stages, and post-entry assays. The most significant inhibition was observed in post-entry activity, in which the complexes blocked viral replication in 99%, followed by up to 95% inhibition of the early stages of infection. Pre-treatment assays showed a 92% and 80% replication decrease for the chloride and DMAP derivatives, respectively. dsRNA binding assays showed a significant interaction of the compounds with dsRNA, an essential biomolecule to viral replication.

The zinc proteome of SARS-CoV-2

Zinc is an essential element for human health. Among its many functions, zinc(II) modulates the immune response to infections and, at high concentrations or in the presence of ionophores, inhibits the replication of various RNA viruses. Structural biology studies on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) revealed that zinc(II) is the most common metal ion that binds to viral proteins. However, the number of zinc(II)-binding sites identified by experimental methods is far from exhaustive, as metal ions may be lost during protein purification protocols. To better define the zinc(II)-binding proteome of coronavirus, we leveraged the wealth of deposited structural data and state-of-the-art bioinformatics methods. Through this in silico approach, 15 experimental zinc(II) sites were identified and a further 22 were predicted in Spike, open reading frame (ORF)3a/d, ORF8, and several nonstructural proteins, highlighting an essential role of zinc(II) in viral replication. Furthermore, the structural relationships between viral and eukaryotic sites (typically zinc fingers) indicate that SARS-CoV-2 can compete with human proteins for zinc(II) binding. Given the double-edged effect of zinc(II) ions, both essential and toxic to coronavirus, only the complete elucidation of the structural and regulatory zinc(II)-binding sites can guide selective antiviral strategies based on zinc supplementation.

Metal-based strategies for the fight against COVID-19

The emerging COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has claimed over six million lives globally to date. Despite the availability of vaccines, the pandemic still cannot be fully controlled owing to rapid mutation of the virus that renders enhanced transmissibility and antibody evasion. This is thus an unmet need to develop safe and effective therapeutic options for COVID-19, in particular, remedies that can be used at home. Considering the great success of multi-targeted cocktail therapy for the treatment of viral infections, metal-based drugs might represent a unique and new source of antivirals that resemble a cocktail therapy in terms of their mode of actions. In this review, we first summarize the role that metal ions played in SARS-CoV-2 viral replication and pathogenesis, then highlight the chemistry of metal-based strategies in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infection, including both metal displacement and chelation based approaches. Finally, we outline a perspective and direction on how to design and develop metal-based antivirals for the fight against the current or future coronavirus pandemic.

Functional Disruption of Gli1-DNA Recognition via a Cobalt(III) Complex

The aberrant activation of the Gli family of zinc finger transcription factors (ZFTFs) is associated with several types of human cancer, including medulloblastoma and basal cell carcinoma. We have reported the use of cobalt(III) Schiff-base complexes (Co(III)-sb) as potent inhibitors of ZFTFs in vivo. These complexes inhibit transcription by displacing the zinc finger domain's structural Zn(II) ion, destabilizing the alpha helix necessary for DNA recognition. Here, we describe the use of Co(III)-sb complexes for the selective inhibition of Gli1. Spectroscopic and computational studies of the Gli1 DNA binding domain found that Co(III)-sb displaced Zn(II) through direct coordination with the His residues of the Cys2 His2 Zn(II) binding site. As a result, there is a dose-dependent degradation of the alpha-helix content in the DNA binding domain of Gli1 and corresponding inhibition of consensus sequence recognition. We conclude that this strategy is well suited for the development of new and potent inhibitors of Gli1.

The Role of Zinc Finger Proteins in Various Oral Conditions

The zinc finger proteins (ZNFs) are essential transcription factors, and the genes encoding them constitute about 3% of the entire human genome. They are involved in the development of several tissues, and any alterations in their structure may promote chronic conditions like diabetes and tumorigenesis. Lately, their role in the development, progression, and metastasis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC), Epithelial Dysplasia, Oral Lichen Planus, and Periodontitis has been found. The present review aims to describe their role in various oral conditions. Electronic databases like Medline (PubMed) and Scopus were searched for original studies related to the role of ZNFs in various oral conditions. It yielded 48 studies included in the review. It was found that the ZNFs influenced chronic conditions like Oral Cancer and Periodontitis. They act both as tumor suppressors and oncogenes and have an anti-inflammatory effect. The knowledge from the present review may be utilized in designing drugs that prevent unusual expression of specific ZNFs. Besides, they may be applied as prognostic markers due to their high expression specificity in some tumors.

Neuroepigenetic Mechanisms of Action of Ultrashort Peptides in Alzheimer's Disease

Epigenetic regulation of gene expression is necessary for maintaining higher-order cognitive functions (learning and memory). The current understanding of the role of epigenetics in the mechanism of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is focused on DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, histone modifications, and regulation of non-coding RNAs. The pathogenetic links of this disease are the misfolding and aggregation of tau protein and amyloid peptides, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, impaired energy metabolism, destruction of the blood–brain barrier, and neuroinflammation, all of which lead to impaired synaptic plasticity and memory loss. Ultrashort peptides are promising neuroprotective compounds with a broad spectrum of activity and without reported side effects. The main aim of this review is to analyze the possible epigenetic mechanisms of the neuroprotective action of ultrashort peptides in AD. The review highlights the role of short peptides in the AD pathophysiology. We formulate the hypothesis that peptide regulation of gene expression can be mediated by the interaction of short peptides with histone proteins, cis- and transregulatory DNA elements and effector molecules (DNA/RNA-binding proteins and non-coding RNA). The development of therapeutic agents based on ultrashort peptides may offer a promising addition to the multifunctional treatment of AD.

Downregulation of ZC3H13 by miR-362-3p/miR-425-5p is associated with a poor prognosis and adverse outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is notorious for its poor prognosis. Previous studies identified several N6-methyladenosine (m6A)-related genes that play key roles in the initiation and progression of HCC patients. In particular, the N6-methyladenosine RNA methylation regulator ZC3H13 could be a candidate as a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for hepatocellular carcinoma. In HCC, low expression of ZC3H13 was reported, but the molecular reason is unclear. In this study, we performed pan cancer analysis for ZC3H13 expression and prognosis using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) data and found that ZC3H13 might be a potential tumor suppressor gene in HCC. Subsequently, miRNAs contributing to ZC3H13 downregulation were identified by a series of in silico analyses, including expression analysis, correlation analysis, and survival analysis. Finally, the miR-362-3p/miR-425-5p-ZC3H13 axis was identified as the most likely upstream miRNA-related pathway of ZC3H13 in HCC. Additionally, miR-362-3p/miR-425-5p mimic and inhibitor results were detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis and western blotting. We identified an upstream regulatory mechanism of ZC3H13 in HCC, namely, the miR-362-3p/miR-425-5p-ZC3H13 axis. Moreover, the ZC3H13 level was significantly positively associated with tumor immune cell infiltration, biomarkers of immune cells, and immune checkpoint expression. Collectively, our findings elucidated that ncRNA-mediated downregulation of ZC3H13 was correlated with a poor prognosis and tumor immune infiltration in HCC. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that ZC3H13 is a direct target of miR-362-3p/miR-425-5p in liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) that regulates immune modulation in the microenvironment of LIHC.

Selenocarbamates as a novel prodrug-based approach towards Carbonic Anhydrase inhibition

A study on the activity of selenocarbamates as a novel chemotype acting as carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) inhibitors is reported. Undergoing CA‐mediated hydrolysis, selenocarbamates release selenolates behaving as zinc binding groups and effectively inhibiting CAs. A series of selenocarbamates characterised by high molecular diversity and complexity have been studied against different human CA isoforms such as hCA I, II, IX and XII. Selenocarbamates behave as masked selenols with potential biological applications as prodrugs for CAs inhibition‐based strategies. X‐ray studies provided insights into the binding mode of this novel class of CA inhibitors.

The role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of COVID-19: A review

Destructive outcomes of coronavirus pandemic call for medical research which can report all of the influential agents not only for the treatment of the disease but also preventing its severe impacts on the societal health in the most efficient manner. Zinc plays an integral role in the function of cellular enzymes and transcription factors. Owing to its anti-inflammatory and cellular immunity regulation activity, zinc is regarded to be effective on strengthening the immune system. Its crucial antiviral effects have long been established as well. Studies suggest that low serum zinc level predisposes the patient to severe COVID-19 infection, which makes patient’s zinc profile a potential determinant of prognosis and severity of this disease. Furthermore, zinc supplementation has indicated promising outcomes of coronavirus infection management. Zinc modulates cell-mediated immunity and participates in the killing of microorganisms in cytotoxic immune cells. Zn2 + has anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting IL-6 production. Although there is still not enough evidence, it seems that zinc could be a promising supplementary treatment for COVID-19 especially in zinc-deficient patients. The aim of this review is to clarify the role of zinc in pathogenesis and therapy of COVID-19 in detail.

Targeting Zinc Finger Proteins with Exogenous Metals and Molecules: Lessons learned from Tristetraprolin, a CCCH type Zinc Finger

ZF proteins are ubiquitous eukaryotic proteins that play important roles in gene regulation. ZFs contain small domains made up of a combination of four cysteine and histidine residues, and are classified based up on the identity of these residues and their spacing. One emerging class of ZFs are the Cys3His (or CCCH) class of ZFs. These ZFs play key roles in regulating RNA. In this minireview, an overview of the CCCH class of ZFs, with a focus on tristetraprolin (TTP) is provided. TTP regulates inflammation by controlling cytokine mRNAs, and there is an interest in modulating TTP activity to control inflammation. Two methods to control TTP activity are to target with exogenous metals (a 'metals in medicine' approach) or to target with endogenous signaling molecules. Work that has been done to target TTP with Fe, Cu, Cd and Au as well as with H2S is reviewed. This includes attention to new methods that have been developed to monitor metal exchange with the spectroscopically silent ZnII including native electro-spray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), spin-filter inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and cryo-electro-spray mass spectrometry (CSI-MS); along with fluorescence anisotropy (FA) to follow RNA binding.

Structural and mechanistic insights into the Artemis endonuclease and strategies for its inhibition

Artemis (SNM1C/DCLRE1C) is an endonuclease that plays a key role in development of B- and T-lymphocytes and in dsDNA break repair by non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). Artemis is phosphorylated by DNA-PKcs and acts to open DNA hairpin intermediates generated during V(D)J and class-switch recombination. Artemis deficiency leads to congenital radiosensitive severe acquired immune deficiency (RS-SCID). Artemis belongs to a superfamily of nucleases containing metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) and β-CASP (CPSF-Artemis-SNM1-Pso2) domains. We present crystal structures of the catalytic domain of wildtype and variant forms of Artemis, including one causing RS-SCID Omenn syndrome. The catalytic domain of the Artemis has similar endonuclease activity to the phosphorylated full-length protein. Our structures help explain the predominantly endonucleolytic activity of Artemis, which contrasts with the predominantly exonuclease activity of the closely related SNM1A and SNM1B MBL fold nucleases. The structures reveal a second metal binding site in its β-CASP domain unique to Artemis, which is amenable to inhibition by compounds including ebselen. By combining our structural data with that from a recently reported Artemis structure, we were able model the interaction of Artemis with DNA substrates. The structures, including one of Artemis with the cephalosporin ceftriaxone, will help enable the rational development of selective SNM1 nuclease inhibitors.

Zinc finger proteins of Plasmodium falciparum

Zinc finger proteins (ZFPs) are a large diverse family of proteins with one or more zinc finger domains in which zinc is important in stabilising the domain. ZFPs can interact with DNA, RNA, lipids or even other proteins and therefore contribute to diverse cellular processes including transcriptional regulation, ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation, mRNA decay and stability. In this review, we provide the first comprehensive classification of ZFPs of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and provide a state of knowledge on the main ZFPs in the parasite, which include the C2H2, CCCH, RING finger and the PHD finger proteins. TAKE AWAYS: The Plasmodium falciparum genome encodes 170 putative Zinc finger proteins (ZFPs). The C2H2, CCCH, RING finger and PHD finger subfamilies of ZFPs are most represented. Known ZFP functions include the regulation of mRNA metabolism and proteostasis.

Metal Complexes as Antiviral Agents for SARS-CoV-2

The severe acute respiratory syndrome - coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the infectious agent responsible for COVID-19 - has caused more than 2.5 million deaths worldwide and triggered a global pandemic. Even with successful vaccines being delivered, there is an urgent need for novel treatments to combat SARS-CoV-2, and other emerging viral diseases. While several organic small molecule drug candidates are in development, some effort has also been devoted towards the application of metal complexes as potential antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2. Herein, the metal complexes that have been reported to show antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 or one of its target proteins are described and their proposed mechanisms of action are discussed.

In silico Studies on the Interaction between Mpro and PLpro From SARS-CoV-2 and Ebselen, its Metabolites and Derivatives

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 has mobilized scientific attention in search of a treatment. The cysteine-proteases, main protease (Mpro) and papain-like protease (PLpro) are important targets for antiviral drugs. In this work, we simulate the interactions between the Mpro and PLpro with Ebselen, its metabolites and derivatives with the aim of finding molecules that can potentially inhibit these enzymes. The docking data demonstrate that there are two main interactions between the thiol (-SH) group of Cys (from the protease active sites) and the electrophilic centers of the organoselenium molecules, i. e. the interaction with the carbonyl group (O=C… SH) and the interaction with the Se moiety (Se… SH). Both interactions may lead to an adduct formation and enzyme inhibition. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations with Ebselen indicate that the energetics of the thiol nucleophilic attack is more favorable on Se than on the carbonyl group, which is in accordance with experimental data (Jin et al. Nature, 2020, 582, 289-293). Therefore, organoselenium molecules should be further explored as inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 proteases. Furthermore, we suggest that some metabolites of Ebselen (e. g. Ebselen diselenide and methylebselenoxide) and derivatives ethaselen and ebsulfur should be tested in vitro as inhibitors of virus replication and its proteases.

The duality of PRDM proteins: epigenetic and structural perspectives

PRDF1 and RIZ1 homology domain containing (PRDMs) are a subfamily of Krüppel-like zinc finger proteins controlling key processes in metazoan development and in cancer. PRDMs exhibit unique dualities: (a) PR domain/ZNF arrays-their structure combines a SET-like domain known as a PR domain, typically found in methyltransferases, with a variable array of C2H2 zinc fingers (ZNF) characteristic of DNA-binding transcription factors; (b) transcriptional activators/repressors-their physiological function is context- and cell-dependent; mechanistically, some PRDMs have a PKMT activity and directly catalyze histone lysine methylation, while others are rather pseudomethyltransferases and act by recruiting transcriptional cofactors; (c) oncogenes/tumor suppressors-their pathological function depends on the specific PRDM isoform expressed during tumorigenesis. This duality is well known as the 'Yin and Yang' of PRDMs and involves a complex regulation of alternative splicing or alternative promoter usage, to generate full-length or PR-deficient isoforms with opposing functions in cancer. In conclusion, once their dualities are fully appreciated, PRDMs represent a promising class of targets in oncology by virtue of their widespread upregulation across multiple tumor types and their somatic dispensability, conferring a broad therapeutic window and limited toxic side effects. The recent discovery of a first-in-class compound able to inhibit PRDM9 activity has paved the way for the identification of further small molecular inhibitors able to counteract PRDM oncogenic activity.

A "Golden Age" for the discovery of new antileishmanial agents: Current status of leishmanicidal gold complexes and prospective targets beyond the trypanothione system

Leishmaniasis is one of the most neglected diseases worldwide and is considered a serious public health issue. The current therapeutic options have several disadvantages that make the search for new therapeutics urgent. Gold compounds are emerging as promising candidates based on encouraging in vitro and limited in vivo results for several Au^I and Au^III complexes. The antiparasitic mechanisms of these molecules remain only partially understood. However, a few studies have proposed the trypanothione redox system as a target, similar to the mammalian thioredoxin system, pointed out as the main target for several gold compounds with significant antitumor activity. In this review, we present the current status of the investigation and design of gold compounds directed at treating leishmaniasis. In addition, we explore potential targets in Leishmania parasites beyond the trypanothione system, taking into account previous studies and structure modulation performed for gold-based compounds.

Alkali complexes of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit lung and oral cancers in vitro

Alkali metal complexes (Li, K, and Cs) displayed excellent activities against oral and lung cancer cells with the least toxicity toward normal cells.

Targeting transcription factors in cancer drug discovery

Cancer drug discovery is currently dominated by clinical trials or clinical research. Several potential drug candidates have been brought into the pipeline of drug discovery after showing very promising results at the pre-clinical level and are waiting to be tested in human clinical trials. Interestingly, among the potential drug candidates, a few of them have targeted transcription factors highlighting the fundamental undruggable nature of these molecules. However, using advanced technologies, researchers were recently successful in partly unlocking this undruggable nature, which was considered as a ‘grey area’ in the early days of drug discovery, and as a result, several potential candidates have emerged recently. The purpose of the review is to highlight some of the recently reported studies of targeting transcription factors in cancer and their promising outcomes.

Gold Metallodrugs to Target Coronavirus Proteins: Inhibitory Effects on the Spike-ACE2 Interaction and on PLpro Protease Activity by Auranofin and Gold Organometallics*

Gold complexes have a long tradition in medicine and for many examples antirheumatic, anticancer or anti-infective effects have been confirmed. Herein, we evaluated the lead compound Auranofin and five selected gold organometallics as inhibitors of two relevant drug targets of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV). The gold metallodrugs were effective inhibitors of the interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) host receptor and might thus interfere with the viral entry process. The gold metallodrugs were also efficient inhibitors of the papain-like protease (PLpro) of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2, which is a key enzyme in the viral replication. Regarding PLpro from SARS-CoV-2, the here reported inhibitors are among the very first experimentally confirmed examples with activity against this target enzyme. Importantly, the activity of the complexes against both PLpro enzymes correlated with the ability of the inhibitors to remove zinc ions from the labile zinc center of the enzyme. Taken together, the results of this pilot study suggest further evaluation of gold complexes as SARS-CoV antiviral drugs.

Role of CCCH-Type Zinc Finger Proteins in Human Adenovirus Infections

The zinc finger proteins make up a significant part of the proteome and perform a huge variety of functions in the cell. The CCCH-type zinc finger proteins have gained attention due to their unusual ability to interact with RNA and thereby control different steps of RNA metabolism. Since virus infections interfere with RNA metabolism, dynamic changes in the CCCH-type zinc finger proteins and virus replication are expected to happen. In the present review, we will discuss how three CCCH-type zinc finger proteins, ZC3H11A, MKRN1, and U2AF1, interfere with human adenovirus replication. We will summarize the functions of these three cellular proteins and focus on their potential pro- or anti-viral activities during a lytic human adenovirus infection.

The Enzymatic Activity of the nsp14 Exoribonuclease Is Critical for Replication of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2

Coronaviruses (CoVs) stand out for their large RNA genome and complex RNA-synthesizing machinery comprising 16 nonstructural proteins (nsps). The bifunctional nsp14 contains 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease (ExoN) and guanine-N7-methyltransferase (N7-MTase) domains. While the latter presumably supports mRNA capping, ExoN is thought to mediate proofreading during genome replication. In line with such a role, ExoN knockout mutants of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) were previously reported to have crippled but viable hypermutation phenotypes. Remarkably, using reverse genetics, a large set of corresponding ExoN knockout mutations has now been found to be lethal for another betacoronavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). For 13 mutants, viral progeny could not be recovered, unless-as happened occasionally-reversion had first occurred. Only a single mutant was viable, likely because its E191D substitution is highly conservative. Remarkably, a SARS-CoV-2 ExoN knockout mutant was found to be unable to replicate, resembling observations previously made for alpha- and gammacoronaviruses, but starkly contrasting with the documented phenotype of ExoN knockout mutants of the closely related SARS-CoV. Subsequently, we established in vitro assays with purified recombinant MERS-CoV nsp14 to monitor its ExoN and N7-MTase activities. All ExoN knockout mutations that proved lethal in reverse genetics were found to severely decrease ExoN activity while not affecting N7-MTase activity. Our study strongly suggests that CoV nsp14 ExoN has an additional function, which apparently is critical for primary viral RNA synthesis and thus differs from the proofreading function that, based on previous MHV and SARS-CoV studies, was proposed to boost longer-term replication fidelity.IMPORTANCE The bifunctional nsp14 subunit of the coronavirus replicase contains 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease (ExoN) and guanine-N7-methyltransferase domains. For the betacoronaviruses MHV and SARS-CoV, ExoN was reported to promote the fidelity of genome replication, presumably by mediating a form of proofreading. For these viruses, ExoN knockout mutants are viable while displaying an increased mutation frequency. Strikingly, we have now established that the equivalent ExoN knockout mutants of two other betacoronaviruses, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, are nonviable, suggesting an additional and critical ExoN function in their replication. This is remarkable in light of the very limited genetic distance between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, which is highlighted, for example, by 95% amino acid sequence identity in their nsp14 sequences. For (recombinant) MERS-CoV nsp14, both its enzymatic activities were evaluated using newly developed in vitro assays that can be used to characterize these key replicative enzymes in more detail and explore their potential as target for antiviral drug development.

Exploring the Chemoselectivity towards Cysteine Arylation by Cyclometallated AuIII Compounds: New Mechanistic Insights

To gain more insight into the factors controlling efficient cysteine arylation by cyclometallated AuIII complexes, the reaction between selected gold compounds and different peptides was investigated by high-resolution liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-LC-ESI-MS). The deduced mechanisms of C-S cross-coupling, also supported by density functional theory (DFT) and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations, evidenced the key role of secondary peptidic gold binding sites in favouring the process of reductive elimination.

Targeting zinc metalloenzymes in coronavirus disease 2019

Several lines of evidence support a link between the essential element zinc and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). An important fact is that zinc is present in proteins of humans and of viruses. Some zinc sites in viral enzymes may serve as drug targets and may liberate zinc ions, thus leading to changes in intracellular concentration of zinc ions, while increased intracellular zinc may induce biological effects in both the host and the virus. Drugs such as chloroquine may contribute to increased intracellular zinc. Moreover, clinical trials on the use of zinc alone or in addition to other drugs in the prophylaxis/treatment of COVID-19 are ongoing. Thereby, we aim to discuss the rationale for targeting zinc metalloenzymes as a new strategy for the treatment of COVID-19. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on The Pharmacology of COVID-19. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v177.21/issuetoc.

Reactions of Medicinal Gold(III) Compounds With Proteins and Peptides Explored by Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry and Complementary Biophysical Methods

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI MS) is a powerful investigative tool to analyze the reactions of metallodrugs with proteins and peptides and characterize the resulting adducts. Here, we have applied this type of approach to four experimental anticancer gold(III) compounds for which extensive biological and mechanistic data had previously been gathered, namely, Auoxo6, Au₂phen, AuL12, and Aubipyc. These gold(III) compounds were reacted with two representative proteins, i.e., human serum albumin (HSA) and human carbonic anhydrase I (hCA I), and with the C-terminal dodecapeptide of thioredoxin reductase. ESI MS analysis allowed us to elucidate the nature of the resulting metal-protein adducts from which the main features of the occurring metallodrug-protein reactions can be inferred. In selected cases, MS data were integrated and supported by independent ¹HNMR and UV-Vis absorption measurements to gain an overall description of the occurring processes. From data analysis, it emerges that most of the investigated gold(III) complexes, endowed with an appreciable oxidizing character, undergo quite facile reduction to gold(I); the resulting gold(I) species tightly associate with the above proteins/peptides with a remarkable selectivity for free cysteine residues. In contrast, in the case of the less-oxidizing Aubipyc complex, the gold(III) oxidation state is conserved, and a gold(III) fragment still containing the original ligand is found to be associated with the target proteins. It is notable that the C-terminal dodecapeptide of thioredoxin reductase containing the characteristic -Gly-Cys-Sec-Gly metal-binding motif is able in all cases to trigger gold(III)-to-gold(I) reduction. Our investigation allowed us to identify in detail the nature of the gold fragments that ultimately bind the protein targets and determine the exact binding stoichiometry; some insight on the reaction kinetics was also gained. Notably, a few clear correlations could be established between the structure of the metal complexes and the nature of the resulting protein adducts. The mechanistic implications of these findings are analyzed and thoroughly discussed. Overall, the present results set the stage to better understand the real target biomolecules of these gold compounds and elucidate at the atomic level their interaction modes with proteins and peptides.

A rationally designed peptoid for the selective chelation of Zn2+ over Cu2

The selective removal of Zn²⁺ from proteins by using a synthetic chelator is a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of various diseases including cancer. Although the chelation of Zn²⁺ is well known, its removal from a protein in the presence of potential competing biologically relevant ions such as Cu²⁺ is hardly explored. Herein we present a peptoid - N-substituted glycine trimer - incorporating a picolyl group at the N-terminus, a non-coordinating but structurally directing benzyl group at the C-terminus and a 2,2':6',2''-terpyridine group in the second position, that selectively binds Zn²⁺ ions in the presence of excess Cu²⁺ ions in water. We further demonstrate that this chelator can selectively bind Zn²⁺ from a pool of excess biologically relevant and competitive ions (Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺) in a simulated body fluid (SBF), and also its ability to remove Zn²⁺ from a natural zinc protein domain (PYKCPECGKSFSQKSDLVKHQRTHTG) in a SBF.

Arsenite Exposure Displaces Zinc from ZRANB2 Leading to Altered Splicing

Exposure to arsenic, a class I carcinogen, affects 200 million people globally. Skin is the major target organ, but the molecular etiology of arsenic-induced skin carcinogenesis remains unclear. Arsenite (As³⁺)-induced disruption of alternative splicing could be involved, but the mechanism is unknown. Zinc finger proteins play key roles in alternative splicing. As³⁺ can displace zinc (Zn²⁺) from C3H1 and C4 zinc finger motifs (zfm's), affecting protein function. ZRANB2, an alternative splicing regulator with two C4 zfm's integral to its structure and splicing function, was chosen as a candidate for this study. We hypothesized that As³⁺ could displace Zn²⁺ from ZRANB2, altering its structure, expression, and splicing function. As³⁺/Zn²⁺ binding and mutual displacement experiments were performed with synthetic apo-peptides corresponding to each ZRANB2 zfm, employing a combination of intrinsic fluorescence, ultraviolet spectrophotometry, zinc colorimetric assay, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. ZRANB2 expression in HaCaT cells acutely exposed to As³⁺ (0 or 5 μM, 0-72 h; or 0-5 μM, 6 h) was examined by RT-qPCR and immunoblotting. ZRANB2-dependent splicing of TRA2B mRNA, a known ZRANB2 target, was monitored by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. As³⁺ bound to, as well as displaced Zn²⁺ from, each zfm. Also, Zn²⁺ displaced As³⁺ from As³⁺-bound zfm's acutely, albeit transiently. As³⁺ exposure induced ZRANB2 protein expression between 3 and 24 h and at all exposures tested but not ZRANB2 mRNA expression. ZRANB2-directed TRA2B splicing was impaired between 3 and 24 h post-exposure. Furthermore, ZRANB2 splicing function was also compromised at all As³⁺ exposures, starting at 100 nm. We conclude that As³⁺ exposure displaces Zn²⁺ from ZRANB2 zfm's, changing its structure and compromising splicing of its targets, and increases ZRANB2 protein expression as a homeostatic response both at environmental/toxicological exposures and therapeutically relevant doses.

In Silico Drug Target Discovery Through Proteome Mining from M. tuberculosis: An Insight into Antivirulent Therapy

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

One of the challenges to conventional therapies against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the development of multi-drug resistant pathogenic strains. This study was undertaken to explore new therapeutic targets for the revolutionary antivirulence therapy utilizing the pathogen's essential hypothetical proteins, serving as virulence factors, which is the essential first step in novel drug designing.

METHODS

Functional annotations of essential hypothetical proteins from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (H37Rv strain) were performed through domain annotation, Gene Ontology analysis, physicochemical characterization and prediction of subcellular localization. Virulence factors among the essential hypothetical proteins were predicted, among which pathogen-specific drug target candidates, non-homologous to human and gut microbiota, were identified. This was followed by druggability and spectrum analysis of the identified targets.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The study successfully assigned functions of 83 essential hypothetical proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, among which 25 were identified as virulence factors. Out of 25, 12 virulence factors were observed as potential pathogen-specific drug target candidates. Nine potential targets had druggable properties and rest three were considered as novel targets. Exploration of these targets will provide new insights into future drug development. Characterization of subcellular localizations revealed that most of the predicted targets were cytoplasmic which could be ideal for intracellular drugs, while two drug targets were membranebound, ideal for vaccines. Spectrum analysis identified one broad-spectrum and 11 narrowspectrum targets. This study would, therefore, instigate designing novel therapeutics for antivirulence therapy, which have the potential to serve as revolutionary treatment instead of conventional antibiotic therapies to overcome the lethality of antibiotic-resistant strains.

Formation of highly stable multinuclear AgnSn clusters in zinc fingers disrupts their structure and function

Silver (Ag(i)) binding to consensus zinc fingers (ZFs) causes Zn(ii) release inducing a gradual disruption of the hydrophobic core, followed by an overall conformational change and formation of highly stable Ag_nS_n clusters. A compact eight-membered Ag₄S₄ structure formed by a CCCC ZF is the first cluster example reported for a single biological molecule. Ag(i)-induced conformational changes of ZFs can, as a consequence, affect transcriptional regulation and other cellular processes.

Evaluation of cobalt complexes with tripod ligands for zinc finger targeting

We report the ability of Co^II and Co^III complexes of tri(2-pyridylmethyl)amine and N,N-di(2-pyridylmethyl)glycinate to disrupt zinc fingers.

Studies of the mechanism of fatty liver formation in Takifugu fasciatus following copper exposure

Fatty liver is widely observed during Takifugu fasciatus production, but the mechanisms underlying fatty liver formation remain unknown. The present study was conducted to determine the potential effects of copper (Cu) on hepatic lipid deposition and metabolism in T. fasciatus after 21 days of exposure to Cu (levels: 0, 20 and 100 μg/L). Copper exposure decreased the weight gain rate (WG) in T. fasciatus, but increased the values of the viscerosomatic index (VSI) and hepatosomatic index (HSI) compared with the control. The time-dependent Cu accumulation in tissues increased as the Cu concentration increased. The order of Cu accumulation was liver > intestine > muscle. The lipid content, triglyceride (TG) content and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity increased after Cu exposure compared with the control. In addition, more lipid droplets and greater vacuolization were observed in the liver after exposure to 20 μg/L Cu than after 100 μg/L Cu. The expression of genes involved in lipogenesis (g6pd, 6pgd, lpl, fas and acc), lipolysis (hsl and cpt 1) and transcription (ppar α and ppar ^©) was dependent on Cu. An analysis of the intestinal microbiome community showed that the highest values of the Chao 1 index, ACE, Shannon index and Simpson index were obtained in fish exposed to 20 μg/L Cu, whereas the lowest values were obtained after the 100 μg/L Cu treatment. The Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA) plots of the data revealed structural differences in the groups treated with Cu compared with the control group. At the phylum level, the intestinal microbiota in the Cu-treated and control fish were dominated by Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. The higher Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio was observed in fish treated with 20 μg/L Cu compared with other groups, while the lowest ratio was observed in fish exposed to 100 μg/L Cu. Our study revealed the mechanisms by which Cu exposure altered (i) lipid deposition in the body and (ii) the intestinal microbiome, which may contribute to maintain the health status of T. fasciatus for the aquaculture.

Zinc finger proteins in psychiatric disorders and response to psychotropic medications

Zinc finger proteins are a large family of abundantly expressed small motifs that play a crucial role in a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms. Findings published so far support an involvement of zinc fingers in psychiatric disorders. Most of the evidence has been provided for the zinc finger protein 804A (ZNF804A) gene, which has been suggested to be implicated in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. This evidence has been corroborated by a wide range of functional studies showing that ZNF804A regulates the expression of genes involved in cell adhesion and plays a crucial role in neurite formation and maintenance of dendritic spines. On the other hand, far less is known on other zinc finger proteins and their involvement in psychiatric disorders. In this review, we discussed studies exploring the role of zinc finger proteins in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder as well as in pharmacogenetics of psychotropic drugs.