Multifunctional two-dimensional nanocomposites for photothermal-based combined cancer therapy

Impact of irradiation conditions on therapy of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice using glucose-ethylenediamine carbon dots

BACKGROUND

nowadays, the photoacoustic imaging is in the mainstream of cancer theranostics. In this study the nanoparticles with previously proven photoacoustic imaging properties, i.e. glucose-ethylenediamine carbon dots (GE-NPs), were tested for photoacoustic cancer therapy.

METHODS

nanoparticle biocompatibility was analyzed in cell toxicity and neurotoxicity experiments ex vivo. Biochemical parameters were analyzed in animal experiments in vivo after intramuscular implantation of Lewis Lung carcinoma cells into the C57/Black mouse line.

RESULTS

GE-NPs at concentrations of 0.1-1.0 mg/ml did not change the extracellular level, exocytotic and transporter-mediated release, as well as the initial rate of uptake and accumulation of L-[14C]glutamate in isolated rat brain nerve terminals. GE-NP-treated mice had evidence of the probable protection of the liver and attenuating the systemic consequences of tumor growth, as evidenced by normalization of serum aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels, compared to vehicle-dosed tumor-bearing animals. According to hematological analysis, treatment with GE-NPs caused an increase in red blood cells and hematocrit up to the healthy control levels. When a combination of GE-NPs (1 mg/ml) is injected into a mouse tumor and the tumor is irradiated by a laser beam, it leads to an increase in mice survival by more than 30% compared to GE-NPs-treated non-irradiated mice, and a decrease in the growth rate of the cancerous tumor. The observed therapeutic effect can be related to the photoacoustically-induced destruction of cancer cells significantly enhanced by the presence of the incorporated GE-NPs, because the laser-induced localized heating of mice skin has not exceeded 2 °C.

CONCLUSIONS

the efficiency of photoacoustic therapy of Lewis Lung carcinoma in mice using biocompatible carbon dots was demonstrated. Biocompatible GE-NPs own multimodal potential in cancer theranostics, including both photoacoustic imaging and therapy, by applying different irradiation conditions.

AQ4N nanocomposites for hypoxia-associated tumor combination therapy

Hypoxia in solid tumors increases their invasiveness and resistance to therapy, presenting a formidable obstacle in tumor therapy. The hypoxia prodrug banoxantrone (AQ4N) undergoes conversion into its topoisomerase II inhibitor form AQ4 under hypoxic conditions, which inhibits tumor cells while leaving normal cells unharmed. Numerous studies have found that AQ4N significantly enhances the tumor effect while minimizing toxicity to normal tissues when combined with other drugs or therapeutic approaches. Thus, to maximize AQ4N's effectiveness, co-delivery of AQ4N with other therapeutic agents to the tumor site is paramount, leading to the development of multifunctional multicomponent AQ4N nanocomposites thereby emerging as promising candidates for combination therapy in tumor treatment. However, currently there is a lack of systematic analysis and reviews focusing on AQ4N. Herein, this review provides a comprehensive retrospect and analysis of the recent advancements in AQ4N nanocomposites. Specifically, we discuss the synergistic effects observed when AQ4N is combined with chemotherapeutic drugs, radiotherapy, phototherapy, starvation, sonodynamic therapy and immunotherapy in preclinical models. Moreover, the advantages, limitations, and future perspectives of different AQ4N nanocomposites are highlighted, providing researchers from diverse fields with novel insights into tumor treatment.

Gambogic acid and IR780 self-assembled nanoparticles for combined chemo-phototherapy

Combined chemo-phototherapy has shown considerable advantages and potential in cancer treatment. For this purpose, self-assembled nanoparticles by gambogic acid (GA) and IR780 (referred to as GA-IR780 NPs) were prepared. Herein, GA, an active compound derived from Garcinia hanburyi Hook.f, was selected as a chemo-agent. IR780 was used as a photothermal agent as well as a photosensitizer, which could kill tumor cells via photothermal effect and photodynamic effect. The obtained GA-IR780 NPs were uniform spheres with particle size of ca. 50 nm. The drug loading efficiency of GA and IR780 was 38.42 % and 56.64 %, respectively. The GA-IR780 NPs exhibited excellent photothermal properties as well as photodynamic effect when irradiated by near infrared (NIR) light (808 nm, 2.0 W/cm2). Moreover, the GA-IR780 NPs showed enhanced cytotoxicity with NIR light activation. Results of animal experiments showed that GA-IR780 NPs had the most significant tumor inhibition when irradiated by laser, and the results of H&E, Ki-67 and TUNEL staining confirmed that the GA-IR780 NPs+Laser group caused the most severe tumor tissue damage. The above results indicated that GA-mediated chemotherapy combining with IR780-based phototherapy could significantly improve the anti-tumor efficacy.

Rapid lateral flow immunoassay for fluorescence detection of canine distemper virus (CDV)

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious and potentially lethal virus that affects dogs and other members of the Canidae family, including wolves, foxes, and coyotes. Here, we present a fluorescent lateral flow immunoassay (FLFA) platform for the detection of CDV, which utilizes fluorescent microspheres - fusion protein monoclonal antibody (mAb)-labeled monoclonal antibody. The assay detected CDV within 5 min, with a detection limit threshold of 3 × 102 TCID50/mL. Notably, the assay demonstrated no cross-reactivity with canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, canine adenovirus, feline calicivirus, feline herpesvirus, or feline parvovirus. Field and clinical applicability of the assay was evaluated using 63 field samples, including 30 canine fecal samples, 18 swab samples, and 15 blood samples. The coincidence rate between the detection results of clinical samples obtained through FLFA and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was 96.83%. Thus, this assay offers a significant advancement for the rapid diagnosis of CDV at the point of care.

Mechanism and potentialities of photothermal and photodynamic therapy of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) against cancer

The ultimate goal of nanoparticle-based phototherapy is to suppress tumor growth. Photothermal therapy (PTT) and photothermal photodynamic therapy (PDT) are two types of physicochemical therapy that use light radiation with multiple wavelength ranges in the near-infrared to treat cancer. When a laser is pointed at tissue, photons are taken in the intercellular and intracellular regions, converting photon energy to heat. It has attracted much interest and research in recent years. The advent of transition materials dichalcogenides (TMDCs) is a revolutionary step in PDT/PTT-based cancer therapy. The TMDCs is a multilayer 2D nano-composite. TMDCs contain three atomic layers in which two chalcogens squash in the transition metal. The chalcogen atoms are highly reactive, and the surface characteristics of TMDCs help them to target deep cancer cells. They absorb Near Infrared (NIR), which kills deep cancer cells. In this review, we have discussed the history and mechanism of PDT/PTT and the use of TMDCs and nanoparticle-based systems, which have been practiced for theranostics purposes. We have also discussed PDT/PTT combined with immunotherapy, in which the cancer cell apoptosis is done by activating the immune cells, such as CD8+.

Bionic nanotheranostic for multimodal imaging-guided NIR-II-photothermal cancer therapy

In photothermal therapy (PTT), the photothermal conversion of the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window allows deeper penetration and higher laser irradiance and is considered a promising therapeutic strategy for deep tissues. Since cancer remains a leading cause of deaths worldwide, despite the numerous treatment options, we aimed to develop an improved bionic nanotheranostic for combined imaging and photothermal cancer therapy. We combined a gold nanobipyramid (Au NBP) as a photothermal agent and MnO2 as a magnetic resonance enhancer to produce core/shell structures (Au@MnO2; AM) and modified their surfaces with homologous cancer cell plasma membranes (PM) to enable tumour targeting. The performance of the resulting Au@MnO2@PM (AMP) nanotheranostic was evaluated in vitro and in vivo. AMP exhibits photothermal properties under NIR-II laser irradiation and has multimodal in vitro imaging functions. AMP enables the computed tomography (CT), photothermal imaging (PTI), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of tumours. In particular, AMP exhibited a remarkable PTT effect on cancer cells in vitro and inhibited tumour cell growth under 1064 nm laser irradiation in vivo, with no significant systemic toxicity. This study achieved tumour therapy guided by multimodal imaging, thereby demonstrating a novel strategy for the use of bionic gold nanoparticles for tumour PTT under NIR-II laser irradiation.

ThermomiR-377-3p-induced suppression of Cirbp expression is required for effective elimination of cancer cells and cancer stem-like cells by hyperthermia

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the development of adjunctive therapeutic hyperthermia for cancer therapy has received considerable attention. However, the mechanisms underlying hyperthermia resistance are still poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the roles of cold‑inducible RNA binding protein (Cirbp) in regulating hyperthermia resistance and underlying mechanisms in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC).

METHODS

CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, tumor sphere formation assay, qRT-PCR, Western blot were employed to examine the effects of hyperthermia (HT), HT + oridonin(Ori) or HT + radiotherapy (RT) on the proliferation and stemness of NPC cells. RNA sequencing was applied to gain differentially expressed genes upon hyperthermia. Gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments were used to evaluate the effects of RNAi-mediated Cirbp silencing or Cirbp overexpression on the sensitivity or resistance of NPC cells and cancer stem-like cells to hyperthermia by CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, tumorsphere formation assay and apoptosis assay, and in subcutaneous xenograft animal model. miRNA transient transfection and luciferase reporter assay were used to demonstrate that Cirbp is a direct target of miR-377-3p. The phosphorylation levels of key members in ATM-Chk2 and ATR-Chk1 pathways were detected by Western blot.

RESULTS

Our results firstly revealed that hyperthermia significantly attenuated the stemness of NPC cells, while combination treatment of hyperthermia and oridonin dramatically increased the killing effect on NPC cells and cancer stem cell (CSC)‑like population. Moreover, hyperthermia substantially improved the sensitivity of radiation‑resistant NPC cells and CSC‑like cells to radiotherapy. Hyperthermia noticeably suppressed Cirbp expression in NPC cells and xenograft tumor tissues. Furthermore, Cirbp inhibition remarkably boosted anti‑tumor‑killing activity of hyperthermia against NPC cells and CSC‑like cells, whereas ectopic expression of Cirbp compromised tumor‑killing effect of hyperthermia on these cells, indicating that Cirbp overexpression induces hyperthermia resistance. ThermomiR-377-3p improved the sensitivity of NPC cells and CSC‑like cells to hyperthermia in vitro by directly suppressing Cirbp expression. More importantly, our results displayed the significantly boosted sensitization of tumor xenografts to hyperthermia by Cirbp silencing in vivo, but ectopic expression of Cirbp almost completely counteracted hyperthermia-mediated tumor cell-killing effect against tumor xenografts in vivo. Mechanistically, Cirbp silencing-induced inhibition of DNA damage repair by inactivating ATM-Chk2 and ATR-Chk1 pathways, decrease in stemness and increase in cell death contributed to hyperthermic sensitization; conversely, Cirbp overexpression-induced promotion of DNA damage repair, increase in stemness and decrease in cell apoptosis contributed to hyperthermia resistance.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these findings reveal a previously unrecognized role for Cirbp in positively regulating hyperthermia resistance and suggest that thermomiR-377-3p and its target gene Cirbp represent promising targets for therapeutic hyperthermia.

Nanomaterials for Ultrasound Imaging- Guided Sonodynamic Therapy

Ultrasound examination is becoming the most popular medical imaging modality because of its low cost and high safety profile. Ultrasound contrast agents enhance the scattering of sound waves, which can improve the clarity and resolution of images. Nanoparticle Ultrasound contrast agents have the characteristics of a large specific surface area and a modifiable surface, which can increase drug loading capacity, prolong circulation time, and enable drug enrichment in specific organs or tissues. This leads to improved therapeutic effects and reducing toxic and side effects. Compared with traditional ultrasound contrast agents, Nano-ultrasound contrast agents overcome the limitation of imaging solely within blood vessels and facilitate imaging within tumor tissues, thereby extending the duration of enhanced imaging. Sonodynamic therapy is an emerging treatment method that has been developed rapidly in recent years, which has the advantages of noninvasive, high spatial and temporal resolution, and low toxicity and side effects. Sonodynamic therapy utilizes a sonosensitizer that, when excited by ultrasound at the tumor site, produces toxic reactive oxygen species, inducing apoptosis or necrosis in tumor cells. Ultrasound-guided sonodynamic therapy allows for real-time observation of lesions, is convenient and flexible, and is free of radiation exposure. With the use of nanomaterials as carriers, ultrasound-guided sonodynamic therapy has made significant strides. This study categorizes and summarizes the current research on acoustic sensitizer carrier materials, including carbon-based, silicon-based, peptide-based, iron-based, metal-organic frameworks, polymers, and liposomes. It concludes by highlighting the current challenges in the integration of ultrasound imaging with sonodynamic therapy and suggests future directions for clinical application development.

Recent Advances of Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Nanomedicines-Energized Combined Phototherapy of Cancers

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a powerful tumor treatment tool due to its advantages including minimal invasiveness, high selectivity and thus dampened side effects. On the other side, the efficacy of PDT is severely frustrated by the limited oxygen level in tumors, thus promoting its combination with other therapies, particularly photothermal therapy (PTT) for bolstered tumor treatment outcomes. Meanwhile, nanomedicines that could respond to various stimuli in the tumor microenvironment (TME) provide tremendous benefits for combined phototherapy with efficient hypoxia relief, tailorable drug release and activation, improved cellular uptake and intratumoral penetration of nanocarriers, etc. In this review, we will introduce the merits of combining PTT with PDT, summarize the recent important progress of combined phototherapies and their combinations with the dominant tumor treatment regimen, chemotherapy based on smart nanomedicines sensitive to various TME stimuli with a focus on their sophisticated designs, and discuss the challenges and future developments of nanomedicine-mediated combined phototherapies.

Recent advances in 2D material-based phototherapy

Phototherapy, which generally refers to photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), has received significant attention over the past few years since it is non-invasive, has effective selectivity, and has few side effects. As a result, it has become a promising alternative to traditional clinical treatments. At present, two-dimensional materials (2D materials) have proven to be at the forefront of the development of advanced nanomaterials due to their ultrathin structures and fascinating optical properties. As a result, much work has been put into developing phototherapy platforms based on 2D materials. This review summarizes the current developments in 2D materials beyond graphene for phototherapy, focusing on the novel approaches of PTT and PDT. New methods are being developed to go above and beyond conventional treatment to fully use the potential of 2D materials. Additionally, the efficacy of cutting-edge phototherapy is assessed, and the existing difficulties and future prospects of 2D materials for phototherapy are covered.

Specific Forms of Graphene Quantum Dots Induce Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in Breast Cancer Cells

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs), nanomaterials derived from graphene and carbon dots, are highly stable, soluble, and have exceptional optical properties. Further, they have low toxicity and are excellent vehicles for carrying drugs or fluorescein dyes. Specific forms of GQDs can induce apoptosis and could be used to treat cancers. In this study, three forms of GQDs (GQD (nitrogen:carbon = 1:3), ortho-GQD, and meta-GQD) were screened and tested for their potential to inhibit breast cancer cell (MCF-7, BT-474, MDA-MB-231, and T-47D) growth. All three GQDs decreased cell viability after 72 h of treatment and specifically affected breast cancer cell proliferation. An assay for the expression of apoptotic proteins revealed that p21 and p27 were up-regulated (1.41-fold and 4.75-fold) after treatment. In particular, ortho-GQD-treated cells showed G2/M phase arrest. The GQDs specifically induced apoptosis in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cell lines. These results indicate that these GQDs induce apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest in specific breast cancer subtypes and could potentially be used for treating breast cancers.

Two-dimensional nanomaterials: synthesis and applications in photothermal catalysis

Photothermal catalysis, as one of the emerging technologies with synergistic effects of photochemistry and thermochemistry, is highly attractive in the fields of environment and energy. Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have received extensive attention toward photothermal catalysis because of their ultrathin layer structures, superior physical and optical properties, and high surface areas. These merits are beneficial for shortening the transfer distance of charge carriers, improving the efficiency of solar to thermal, and providing a great opportunity for the development of photothermal chemistry. In this review, we have summarized the state-of-art advances in various 2D nanomaterials with emphasis on the driving force and relevant mechanism of photothermal catalysis, including the involved three types, namely, localized surface plasmonic resonance (LSPR), nonradiative relaxation, and thermal vibrations of molecules. Moreover, the synthesis strategies of 2D materials and their photothermal applications in carbon dioxide (CO₂) conversion, hydrogen (H₂) production, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) degradation, and water (H₂O) purification have been discussed in detail. Ultimately, the existing challenges and prospects of future development in the field are proposed. It is believed that this review will afford a great reference for the exploration of the high-efficiency 2D nanomaterials and their structure-activity relationship.

Chirality-Dependent Tumor Phototherapy Using Amino Acid-Engineered Chiral Phosphorene

Phosphorene, also known as black phosphorus nanosheet (BPNS), has been investigated as a nanoagent for tumor therapy. However, promoting its intracellular accumulation while preventing the cytoplasmic decomposition remains challenging. Herein, for the first time, we propose a chiral BPNS designed through surface engineering based on amino acids with high biocompatibility and an abundant source for application in chirality-dependent tumor phototherapy based on its intracellular metabolism. The advantage of using cysteine (Cys) over other amino acids was that its d, l, or dl-form could efficiently work as the chirality inducer to modify the BPNS through electrostatic interaction and prevent alterations in the intrinsic properties of the BPNS. In particular, d-Cys-BPNS displayed an approximately threefold cytotoxic effect on tumor cells compared with l-Cys-BPNS, demonstrating a chirality-dependent therapy behavior. d-Cys-BPNS not only promoted high intracellular content but also showed resistance to cytoplasmic decomposition. Cys-engineered BPNS also demonstrated chirality-dependent phototherapy effects on tumor-bearing mice, in proximity to the results in vitro. Chiral engineering is expected to open new avenues that could promote the use of BPNS in tumor phototherapy and boost chiral nanomedicine.

Multifunctional nanotheranostics for near infrared optical imaging-guided treatment of brain tumors

Malignant brain tumors, a heterogeneous group of primary and metastatic neoplasms in the central nervous system (CNS), are notorious for their highly invasive and devastating characteristics, dismal prognosis and low survival rate. Recently, near-infrared (NIR) optical imaging modalities including fluorescence imaging (FLI) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI) have displayed bright prospect in innovation of brain tumor diagnoses, due to their merits, like noninvasiveness, high spatiotemporal resolution, good sensitivity and large penetration depth. Importantly, these imaging techniques have been widely used to vividly guide diverse brain tumor therapies in a real-time manner with high accuracy and efficiency. Herein, we provide a systematic summary of the state-of-the-art NIR contrast agents (CAs) for brain tumors single-modal imaging (e.g., FLI and PAI), dual-modal imaging (e.g., FLI/PAI, FLI/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and PAI/MRI) and triple-modal imaging (e.g., MRI/FLI/PAI and MRI/PAI/computed tomography (CT) imaging). In addition, we update the most recent progress on the NIR optical imaging-guided therapies, like single-modal (e.g., photothermal therapy (PTT), chemotherapy, surgery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), gene therapy and gas therapy), dual-modal (e.g., PTT/chemotherapy, PTT/surgery, PTT/PDT, PDT/chemotherapy, PTT/chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and PTT/gene therapy) and triple-modal (e.g., PTT/PDT/chemotherapy, PTT/PDT/surgery, PTT/PDT/gene therapy and PTT/gene/chemotherapy). Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of the CAs and nanotheranostics for future clinic translation.

How to Treat Melanoma? The Current Status of Innovative Nanotechnological Strategies and the Role of Minimally Invasive Approaches like PTT and PDT

Melanoma is the most aggressive type of skin cancer, the incidence and mortality of which are increasing worldwide. Its extensive degree of heterogeneity has limited its response to existing therapies. For many years the therapeutic strategies were limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Fortunately, advances in knowledge have allowed the development of new therapeutic strategies. Despite the undoubted progress, alternative therapies are still under research. In this context, nanotechnology is also positioned as a strong and promising tool to develop nanosystems that act as drug carriers and/or light absorbents to potentially improve photothermal and photodynamic therapies outcomes. This review describes the latest advances in nanotechnology field in the treatment of melanoma from 2011 to 2022. The challenges in the translation of nanotechnology-based therapies to clinical applications are also discussed. To sum up, great progress has been made in the field of nanotechnology-based therapies, and our understanding in this field has greatly improved. Although few therapies based on nanoparticulate systems have advanced to clinical trials, it is expected that a large number will come into clinical use in the near future. With its high sensitivity, specificity, and multiplexed measurement capacity, it provides great opportunities to improve melanoma treatment, which will ultimately lead to enhanced patient survival rates.

Application of MXene in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer: A critical overview

Breast cancer is the second most common cancer worldwide. Prognosis and timely treatment can reduce the illness or improve it. The use of nanomaterials leads to timely diagnosis and effective treatment. MXenes are a 2D material with a unique composition of attributes, containing significant electrical conductance, high optical characteristics, mechanical consistency, and excellent optical properties. Current advances and insights show that MXene is far more promising in biotechnology applications than current nanobiotechnology systems. MXenes have various applications in biotechnology and biomedicine, such as drug delivery/loading, biosensor, cancer treatment, and bioimaging programs due to their high surface area, excellent biocompatibility, and physicochemical properties. Surface modifications MXenes are not only biocompatible but also have multifunctional properties, such as aiming ligands for preferential agglomeration at the tumor sites for photothermal treatment. Studies have shown that these nanostructures, detection, and breast cancer therapy are more acceptable than present nanosystems in in vivo and in vitro. This review article aims to investigate the structure of MXene, its various synthesis methods, its application to cancer diagnosis, cytotoxicity, biodegradability, and cancer treatment by the photothermal process (in-vivo and in-vitro).

IGF1 receptor-targeted black TiO2 nanoprobes for MRI-guided synergetic photothermal-chemotherapy in drug resistant pancreatic tumor

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is among the deadliest malignant tumors with features of matrix barrier caused poor drug permeability, and susceptibility to drug resistance. Herein, a PDAC and its stromal cell dual-targeted photothermal-chemotherapy strategy is explored to loosen the matrix and reverse drug resistance. To achieve this goal, black TiO2-Gd nanocomposites were conjugated with insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1), and loaded with gemcitabine (GEM) to construct bTiO2-Gd-IGF1-GEM nanoprobes. In vitro results show that under 808 nm near-infrared irradiation, killing effect of the nanoprobes on drug-resistant MIA PaCa-2 cell is 3.3 times than that of GEM alone. In vivo experiments indicate the synergetic photothermal-chemotherapy not only loosens fibrous matrix of pancreatic tumor model, but also dramatically inhibits tumor growth, and almost completely eradicates the tumor after 12 days of treatment. In addition, relaxation rate of the nanoprobes is 8.2 times than commercial contrast agent Magnevist, therefore boosts the signal of magnetic resonance imaging in pancreatic tumor. In conclusion, our results reinforce that the prepared nanoprobes are promising to break matrix barrier and overcome drug resistance in PDAC.

Design and Development of Gold-Loaded and Boron-Attached Multicore Manganese Ferrite Nanoparticles as a Potential Agent in Biomedical Applications

Early diagnosis and effective treatment of cancer are significant issues that should be focused on since it is one of the most deadly diseases. Multifunctional nanomaterials can offer new cancer diagnoses and treatment possibilities. These nanomaterials with diverse functions, including targeting, imaging, and therapy, are being studied extensively in a way that minimize overcoming the limitations associated with traditional cancer diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, the goal of this study is to prepare multifunctional nanocomposites possessing the potential to be used simultaneously in imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and dual cancer therapy such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). In this context, multi-core MnFe₂O₄ nanoparticles, which can be used as a potential MRI contrast agent and target the desired region in the body via a magnetic field, were successfully synthesized via the solvothermal method. Then, multi-core nanoparticles were coated with polydopamine (PDA) to reduce gold nanoparticles, bind boron on the surface, and ensure the biocompatibility of all materials. Finally, gold nanoparticles were reduced on the surface of PDA-coated MnFe₂O₄, and boric acid was attached to the hybrid materials for also possessing the ability to be used as a potential agent in PTT and BNCT applications in addition to being an MRI agent. According to the cell viability assay, treatment of the glioblastoma cell line (T98G) with MnFe₂O₄@PDA-Au-BA for 24 and 48 h did not cause any significant cell death, indicating good biocompatibility. All analysis results showed that the developed MnFe₂O₄@PDA-Au-BA multifunctional material could be a helpful candidate for biomedical applications such as MRI, PTT, and BNCT.

Photoactivated Organic Nanomachines for Programmable Enhancement of Antitumor Efficacy

Limited permeability in solid tumors significantly restricts the anticancer efficacy of nanomedicines. Light-driven nanomotors powered by photothermal converting engines are appealing carriers for directional drug delivery and simultaneous phototherapy. Nowadays, it is still a great challenge to construct metal-free photothermal nanomotors for a programmable anticancer treatment. Herein, one kind of photoactivated organic nanomachines is reported with asymmetric geometry assembled by light-to-heat converting semiconducting polymer engine and macromolecular anticancer payload through a straightforward nanoprecipitation process. The NIR-fueled polymer engine can be remotely controlled to power the nanomachines for light-driven thermophoresis in the liquid media and simultaneously thermal ablating the cancer cells. The great manipulability of the nanomachines allows for programming of their self-propulsion in the tumor microenvironment for effectively improving cellular uptake and tumor penetration of the anticancer payload. Taking the benefit from this behavior, a programmed treatment process is established at a low drug dose and a low photothermal temperature for significantly enhancing the antitumor efficacy.

Biomimetic synthesis of 2D ultra-small copper sulfide nanoflakes based on reconfiguration of the keratin secondary structure for cancer theranostics in the NIR-II region

Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides have attracted widespread attention in cancer theranostics due to their high specific surface area and excellent photothermal conversion properties. However, their dimensions and biodegradability have limited the exploration of the therapeutic properties of transition metal dichalcogenides. Herein, we explore the mechanism of the keratin α-helix-to-random coil transition, as an actuation mechanism for the controllable design and precise synthesis of two-dimension copper sulfide nanoflakes (CuS NFs) with high absorption in the NIR-II window. Upon mixing keratin and Cu²⁺, the hydrogen bonds that maintain the α-helix are broken by copper ions to form biuret coordination, while the structure of the α-helix is transformed into a random coil, providing a more scalable space for the growth of CuS NFs. The CuS NFs prepared in this way possess the great advantages of outstanding uniformity, size controllability, and biodegradability. Importantly, the CuS NFs in the NIR-II window show an excellent photothermal conversion efficiency (32.9%) and extraordinary photoacoustic signal. This work updates the fabrication of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides and greatly enhances their competitiveness in the area of cancer theranostics in the NIR-II region, and provides significant theoretical and practical opportunities for the development of keratin using biomimetic synthesis.

Magnetic Fluorescent Quantum Dots Nanocomposites in Food Contaminants Analysis: Current Challenges and Opportunities

The presence of food contaminants can cause foodborne illnesses, posing a severe threat to human health. Therefore, a rapid, sensitive, and convenient method for monitoring food contaminants is eagerly needed. The complex matrix interferences of food samples and poor performance of existing sensing probes bring significant challenges to improving detection performances. Nanocomposites with multifunctional features provide a solution to these problems. The combination of the superior characteristics of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and quantum dots (QDs) to fabricate magnetic fluorescent quantum dots (MNPs@QDs) nanocomposites are regarded as an ideal multifunctional probe for food contaminants analysis. The high-efficiency pretreatment and rapid fluorescence detection are concurrently integrated into one sensing platform using MNPs@QDs nanocomposites. In this review, the contemporary synthetic strategies to fabricate MNPs@QDs, including hetero-crystalline growth, template embedding, layer-by-layer assembly, microemulsion technique, and one-pot method, are described in detail, and their advantages and limitations are discussed. The recent advances of MNPs@QDs nanocomposites in detecting metal ions, foodborne pathogens, toxins, pesticides, antibiotics, and illegal additives are comprehensively introduced from the perspectives of modes and detection performances. The review ends with current challenges and opportunities in practical applications and prospects in food contaminants analysis, aiming to promote the enthusiasm for multifunctional sensing platform research.

Temperature-Dependent CAT-Like RGD-BPNS@SMFN Nanoplatform for PTT-PDT Self-Synergetic Tumor Phototherapy

Phototherapies such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) are considered as alternatives for tumor remedies, because of their advantages of precise spatial orientation, minimally invasive, and nonradiative operation. However, most of phototherapeutic agents still suffer from low photothermal conversion efficacy and photodynamic performance, poor biocompatibility, and intratumor accumulation. Herein a biocompatible and target-deliverable PTT-PDT self-synergetic nanoplatform of RGD-BPNS@SMFN based on temperature-dependent catalase (CAT)-like behavior for tumor elimination is presented. The homogeneously dispersible nanoplatform is designed and fabricated through anchoring spherical manganese ferrite nanoparticles (SMFN) to black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNS), followed by arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) peptide modification. The nanoplatform exhibits excellent targeting ability and enhanced photonic response in comparison to plain BPNS and SMFN in vitro and in vivo. It is found that PTT and PDT have a self-synergetic behavior by means of the dual phototherapy mode interaction. The self-synergetic mechanism is mainly ascribed to PTT-promoted inherent CAT-like activity in the nanoplatform, which remodels the tumor hypoxia microenvironment and further ameliorates the PDT efficiency, providing promising high performance nanoplatform for synergetic dual mode phototherapy, enriching the design for the antitumor nanozyme.

MoS2-based nanocomposites for cancer diagnosis and therapy

Molybdenum is a trace dietary element necessary for the survival of humans. Some molybdenum-bearing enzymes are involved in key metabolic activities in the human body (such as xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase and sulfite oxidase). Many molybdenum-based compounds have been widely used in biomedical research. Especially, MoS2-nanomaterials have attracted more attention in cancer diagnosis and treatment recently because of their unique physical and chemical properties. MoS2 can adsorb various biomolecules and drug molecules via covalent or non-covalent interactions because it is easy to modify and possess a high specific surface area, improving its tumor targeting and colloidal stability, as well as accuracy and sensitivity for detecting specific biomarkers. At the same time, in the near-infrared (NIR) window, MoS2 has excellent optical absorption and prominent photothermal conversion efficiency, which can achieve NIR-based phototherapy and NIR-responsive controlled drug-release. Significantly, the modified MoS2-nanocomposite can specifically respond to the tumor microenvironment, leading to drug accumulation in the tumor site increased, reducing its side effects on non-cancerous tissues, and improved therapeutic effect. In this review, we introduced the latest developments of MoS2-nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and therapy, mainly focusing on biosensors, bioimaging, chemotherapy, phototherapy, microwave hyperthermia, and combination therapy. Furthermore, we also discuss the current challenges and prospects of MoS2-nanocomposites in cancer treatment.

Converging 2D Nanomaterials and 3D Bioprinting Technology: State-of-the-Art, Challenges, and Potential Outlook in Biomedical Applications

The development of next-generation of bioinks aims to fabricate anatomical size 3D scaffold with high printability and biocompatibility. Along with the progress in 3D bioprinting, 2D nanomaterials (2D NMs) prove to be emerging frontiers in the development of advanced materials owing to their extraordinary properties. Harnessing the properties of 2D NMs in 3D bioprinting technologies can revolutionize the development of bioinks by endowing new functionalities to the current bioinks. First the main contributions of 2D NMS in 3D bioprinting technologies are categorized here into six main classes: 1) reinforcement effect, 2) delivery of bioactive molecules, 3) improved electrical conductivity, 4) enhanced tissue formation, 5) photothermal effect, 6) and stronger antibacterial properties. Next, the recent advances in the use of each certain 2D NMs (1) graphene, 2) nanosilicate, 3) black phosphorus, 4) MXene, 5) transition metal dichalcogenides, 6) hexagonal boron nitride, and 7) metal-organic frameworks) in 3D bioprinting technology are critically summarized and evaluated thoroughly. Third, the role of physicochemical properties of 2D NMSs on their cytotoxicity is uncovered, with several representative examples of each studied 2D NMs. Finally, current challenges, opportunities, and outlook for the development of nanocomposite bioinks are discussed thoroughly.

The tumor phototherapeutic application of nanoparticles constructed by the relationship between PTT/PDT efficiency and 2,6- and 3,5-substituted BODIPY derivatives

BODIPY dyes have recently been used for photothermal and photodynamic therapy of tumors. However, complex multi-material systems, multiple excitation wavelengths and the unclear relationship between BODIPY structures and their PTT/PDT efficiency are still major issues. In our study, nine novel BODIPY near-infrared dyes were designed and successfully synthesized and then, the relationships between BODIPY structures and their PTT/PDT efficiency were investigated in detail. The results showed that modifications at position 3,5 of the BODIPY core with conjugated structures have better effects on photothermal and photodynamic efficiency than the modifications at position 2,6 with halogen atoms. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations showed that this is mainly due to the extension of the conjugated chain and the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) effect. By encapsulating BDPX-M with amphiphilic DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀-RGD and lecithin, the obtained NPs not only show good water solubility and biological stability, but also could act as superior agents for photothermal and photodynamic synergistic therapy of tumors. Finally, we obtained BODIPY NPs that exhibited excellent photothermal and photodynamic effects at the same time under single irradiation with an 808 nm laser (photothermal conversion efficiency: 42.76%, A/A₀: ∼0.05). In conclusion, this work provides a direction to design and construct phototherapeutic nanoparticles based on BODIPY dyes for tumor treatment.

Recent Progress on NIR-II Photothermal Therapy

Photothermal therapy is a very promising treatment method in the field of cancer therapy. The photothermal nanomaterials in near-infrared region (NIR-I, 750-900 nm) attracts extensive attention in recent years because of the good biological penetration of NIR light. However, the penetration depth is still not enough for solid tumors due to high tissue scattering. The light in the second near-infrared region (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) allows deeper tissue penetration, higher upper limit of radiation and greater tissue tolerance than that in the NIR-I, and it shows greater application potential in photothermal conversion. This review summarizes the photothermal properties of Au nanomaterials, two-dimensional materials, metal oxide sulfides and polymers in the NIR-II and their application prospects in photothermal therapy. It will arouse the interest of scientists in the field of cancer treatment as well as nanomedicine.

Fascinating MXene nanomaterials: emerging opportunities in the biomedical field

In recent years, there has been rapid progress in MXene research due to its distinctive two-dimensional structure and outstanding properties. Especially in biomedical applications, MXenes have attracted widespread favor with numerous studies on biosafety, bioimaging, therapy, and biosensing, although their development is still in the experimental stage. A comprehensive understanding of the current status of MXenes in biomedicine will promote their use in clinical applications. Here, we review advances in MXene research. First, we introduce the methods of synthesis, surface modification and functionalization of MXenes. Then, we summarize the biosafety and biocompatibility, paving the way for specific biomedical applications. On this basis, MXene nanostructures are described with respect to their use in antibacterial, bioimaging, cancer therapy, tissue regeneration and biosensor applications. Finally, we discuss MXene as a promising candidate material for further applications in biomedicine.

Designing highly stable ferrous selenide-black phosphorus nanosheets heteronanostructure via P-Se bond for MRI-guided photothermal therapy

Background

The design of stable and biocompatible black phosphorus-based theranostic agents with high photothermal conversion efficiency and clear mechanism to realize MRI-guided precision photothermal therapy (PTT) is imminent.

Results

Herein, black phosphorus nanosheets (BPs) covalently with mono-dispersed and superparamagnetic ferrous selenide (FeSe₂) to construct heteronanostructure nanoparticles modified with methoxy poly (Ethylene Glycol) (mPEG-NH₂) to obtain good water solubility for MRI-guided photothermal tumor therapy is successfully designed. The mechanism reveals that the enhanced photothermal conversion achieved by BPs-FeSe₂-PEG heteronanostructure is attributed to the effective separation of photoinduced carriers. Besides, through the formation of the P-Se bond, the oxidation degree of FeSe₂ is weakened. The lone pair electrons on the surface of BPs are occupied, which reduces the exposure of lone pair electrons in air, leading to excellent stability of BPs-FeSe₂-PEG. Furthermore, the BPs-FeSe₂-PEG heteronanostructure could realize enhanced T₂-weighted imaging due to the aggregation of FeSe₂ on BPs and the formation of hydrogen bonds, thus providing accurate PTT guidance and generating hyperthermia to inhabit tumor growth under NIR laser with negligible toxicity in vivo.

Conclusions

Collectively, this work offers an opportunity for fabricating BPs-based heteronanostructure nanomaterials that could simultaneously enhance photothermal conversion efficiency and photostability to realize MRI-guided cancer therapy.

Graphic abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00905-5.

Inorganic nanomaterials with rapid clearance for biomedical applications

Inorganic nanomaterials that have inherently exceptional physicochemical properties (e.g., catalytic, optical, thermal, electrical, or magnetic performance) that can provide desirable functionality (e.g., drug delivery, diagnostics, imaging, or therapy) have considerable potential for application in the field of biomedicine. However, toxicity can be caused by the long-term, non-specific accumulation of these inorganic nanomaterials in healthy tissues, preventing their large-scale clinical utilization. Over the past several decades, the emergence of biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials has offered the potential to prevent such long-term toxicity. In addition, a comprehensive understanding of the design of such nanomaterials and their metabolic pathways within the body is essential for enabling the expansion of theranostic applications for various diseases and advancing clinical trials. Thus, it is of critical importance to develop biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials for biomedical applications. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress of biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials, particularly for application in cancer theranostics and other disease therapies. The future prospects and opportunities in this rapidly growing biomedical field are also discussed. We believe that this timely and comprehensive review will stimulate and guide additional in-depth studies in the area of inorganic nanomedicine, as rapid in vivo clearance and degradation is likely to be a prerequisite for the future clinical translation of inorganic nanomaterials with unique properties and functionality.

Recent Advances in Immunosafety and Nanoinformatics of Two-Dimensional Materials Applied to Nano-imaging

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have emerged as an important class of nanomaterials for technological innovation due to their remarkable physicochemical properties, including sheet-like morphology and minimal thickness, high surface area, tuneable chemical composition, and surface functionalization. These materials are being proposed for new applications in energy, health, and the environment; these are all strategic society sectors toward sustainable development. Specifically, 2D materials for nano-imaging have shown exciting opportunities in in vitro and in vivo models, providing novel molecular imaging techniques such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, fluorescence and luminescence optical imaging and others. Therefore, given the growing interest in 2D materials, it is mandatory to evaluate their impact on the immune system in a broader sense, because it is responsible for detecting and eliminating foreign agents in living organisms. This mini-review presents an overview on the frontier of research involving 2D materials applications, nano-imaging and their immunosafety aspects. Finally, we highlight the importance of nanoinformatics approaches and computational modeling for a deeper understanding of the links between nanomaterial physicochemical properties and biological responses (immunotoxicity/biocompatibility) towards enabling immunosafety-by-design 2D materials.

Design and Challenges of Sonodynamic Therapy System for Cancer Theranostics: From Equipment to Sensitizers

As a novel noninvasive therapeutic modality combining low-intensity ultrasound and sonosensitizers, sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is promising for clinical translation due to its high tissue-penetrating capability to treat deeper lesions intractable by photodynamic therapy (PDT), which suffers from the major limitation of low tissue penetration depth of light. The effectiveness and feasibility of SDT are regarded to rely on not only the development of stable and flexible SDT apparatus, but also the screening of sonosensitizers with good specificity and safety. To give an outlook of the development of SDT equipment, the key technologies are discussed according to five aspects including ultrasonic dose settings, sonosensitizer screening, tumor positioning, temperature monitoring, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection. In addition, some state-of-the-art SDT multifunctional equipment integrating diagnosis and treatment for accurate SDT are introduced. Further, an overview of the development of sonosensitizers is provided from small molecular sensitizers to nano/microenhanced sensitizers. Several types of nanomaterial-augmented SDT are in discussion, including porphyrin-based nanomaterials, porphyrin-like nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, and organic-inorganic hybrid nanomaterials with different strategies to improve SDT therapeutic efficacy. There is no doubt that the rapid development and clinical translation of sonodynamic therapy will be promoted by advanced equipment, smart nanomaterial-based sonosensitizer, and multidisciplinary collaboration.

Stimuli-Responsive Iron Oxide Nanotheranostics: A Versatile and Powerful Approach for Cancer Therapy

Recent advancements in unravelling elements of cancer biology involved in disease progression and treatment resistance have highlighted the need for a holistic approach to effectively tackle cancer. Stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics based on iron oxide nanoparticles are an emerging class of versatile nanomedicines with powerful capabilities to "seek, sense, and attack" multiple components of solid tumors. In this work, the rationale for using iron oxide nanoparticles and the basic physical principles that impact their function in biomedical applications are reviewed. Subsequently, recent advances in the integration of iron oxide nanoparticles with various stimulus mechanisms to facilitate the development of stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics for application in cancer therapy are summarized. The integration of an iron oxide core with various surface coating mechanisms results in the generation of hybrid nanoconstructs with capabilities to codeliver a wide variety of highly potent anticancer therapeutics and immune modulators. Finally, emerging future directions and considerations for their clinical translation are touched upon.

Current Advances in Black Phosphorus-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Cancer has been one of the major threats to the lives of human beings for centuries. Traditional therapy is more or less faced with certain defects, such as poor targeting, easy degradation, high side effects, etc. Therefore, in order to improve the treatment efficiency of drugs, an intelligent drug delivery system (DDS) is considered as a promising solution strategy. Due to their special structure and large specific surface area, 2D materials are considered to be a good platform for drug delivery. Black phosphorus (BP), as a new star of the 2D family, is recommended to have the potential to construct DDS by virtue of its outstanding photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and biodegradable properties. This tutorial review is intended to provide an introduction of the current advances in BP-based DDSs for cancer therapy, which covers topics from its construction, classified by the types of platforms, to the stimuli-responsive controlled drug release. Moreover, their cancer therapy applications including mono-, bi-, and multi-modal synergistic cancer therapy as well as the research of biocompatibility are also discussed. Finally, the current status and future prospects of BP-based DDSs for cancer therapy are summarized.

NIR-/pH-Responsive Nanocarriers Based on Mesoporous Hollow Polydopamine for Codelivery of Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Drugs and Photothermal Synergetic Therapy

Combined therapy system has become an efficient strategy to overcome drug resistance and strengthen therapeutic effects. Herein, an efficient NIR-/pH-triggered dual-drug-loaded nanoplatform was designed for combined chemo-photothermal therapy. The hydrophobic anticancer drug bortezomib (BTZ) was first loaded in mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres (MPDAs) through the acid-sensitive borate ester bond. Afterward, pH-responsive carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) conjugated on the surface of MPDA could capture another anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and exhibited controlled release behavior in an acidic tumor microenvironment. Meanwhile, under NIR laser irradiation, hyperthermia produced by the photothermal conversion agent MPDA could efficiently ablate cancer cells and further promote drug release. In vitro and in vivo experiments emphasized that the synthesized MPDA-BTZ@CMCS-DOX nanostructure exhibited efficient accumulation in the tumor site, resulting in sustained release of BTZ and DOX and realizing NIR-/pH-triggered chemotherapy and photothermal synergistic ablation of cancer.

Emerging photothermal-derived multimodal synergistic therapy in combating bacterial infections

Due to the emerging bacterial resistance and the protection of tenacious biofilms, it is hard for the single antibacterial modality to achieve satisfactory therapeutic effects nowadays. In recent years, photothermal therapy (PTT)-derived multimodal synergistic treatments have received wide attention and exhibited cooperatively enhanced bactericidal activity. PTT features spatiotemporally controllable generation of hyperthermia that could eradicate bacteria without inducing resistance. The synergy of it with other treatments, such as chemotherapy, photo-dynamic/catalytic therapy (PDT/PCT), immunotherapy, and sonodynamic therapy (SDT), could lower the introduced laser density in PTT and avoid undesired overheating injury of normal tissues. Simultaneously, by heat-induced improvement of the bacterial membrane permeability, PTT is conducive for accelerated intracellular permeation of chemotherapeutic drugs as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by photosensitizers/sonosensitizers, and could promote infiltration of immune cells. Thereby, it could solve the currently existing sterilization deficiencies of other combined therapeutic modes, for example, bacterial resistance for chemotherapy, low drug permeability for PDT/PCT/SDT, adverse immunoreactions for immunotherapy, etc. Admittedly, PTT-derived synergistic treatments are becoming essential in fighting bacterial infection, especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant strains. This review firstly presents the classical and newly reported photothermal agents (PTAs) in brief. Profoundly, through the introduction of delicately designed nanocomposite platforms, we systematically discuss the versatile photothermal-derived multimodal synergistic therapy with the purpose of sterilization application. At the end, challenges to PTT-derived combinational therapy are presented and promising synergistic bactericidal prospects are anticipated.

An Ultrasonic Tweezer With Multiple Manipulation Functions Based on the Double-Parabolic-Reflector Wave-Guided High-Power Ultrasonic Transducer

The development of ultrasonic tweezers with multiple manipulation functions is challenging. In this work, multiple advanced manipulation functions are implemented for a single-probe-type ultrasonic tweezer with the double-parabolic-reflector wave-guided high-power ultrasonic transducer (DPLUS). Due to strong high-frequency (1.49 MHz) linear vibration at the manipulation probe's tip, which is excited by the DPLUS, the ultrasonic tweezer can capture microobjects in a noncontact mode and transport them freely above the substrate. The captured microobjects that adhere to the probe's tip in the low-frequency (154.4 kHz) working mode can be released by tuning the working frequency. The results of the finite-element method analyses indicate that the manipulations are caused by the acoustic radiation force.

Phosphate removal from wastewater using novel renewable resource-based, cerium/manganese oxide-based nanocomposites

Nanocomposites containing mixed metal oxides show excellent phosphate removal results and are better compared to individual metal oxides. In this research, cerium/manganese oxide nanocomposites, embedded on the surface of modified cellulose pine wood shaving, were synthesized by a simple technique that is both eco-friendly and economically feasible. No toxic or petroleum chemicals were employed during preparation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), surface area analysis, and attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy were performed to study the shape and size of nanocomposites as well as composition of elements present on the surface of the nanocomposites. Adsorption isotherm (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich) and kinetic studies (pseudo first and second-order, Elovich and Weber-Morris) were carried out to determine the adsorption mechanism for phosphate removal from contaminated water. The maximum adsorption capacity of nanocomposites was found to be 204.09 mg/g, 174.42 mg/g, and 249.33 mg/g for 100 mg, 300 mg, and 500 mg, respectively. The results indicate that the nanocomposites were able to decrease the phosphorus concentration from 10 to 0.01 ppm, below the threshold limit required by EPA guidelines in the USA. We also demonstrated that the media could be regenerated and reused five times without loss of performance.

Application and prospect of antimonene: A new two-dimensional nanomaterial in cancer theranostics

With the rise of two-dimensional nanomaterials in medicine, finding suitable materials has become our top priority. Since the first report of antimonene in 2015, due to its excellent physical and chemical properties, it has gradually attracted widespread attention, including its application prospects in cancer treatment. In this paper, the preparation, stability and infrared degradability of antimonene, as well as its experimental examples in tumor treatment in recent years are reviewed, the latest research results are listed and summarized, the advantages and existing problems are analyzed, and the future of antimonene in tumor therapy is prospected.

Dimeric prodrug-based nanomedicines for cancer therapy

With the rapid development of conjugation chemistry and biomedical nanotechnology, prodrug-based nanosystems (PNS) have emerged as promising drug delivery nanoplatforms. Dimeric prodrug, as an emerging branch of prodrug, has been widely investigated by covalently conjugating two same or different drug molecules. In recent years, great progress has been made in dimeric prodrug-based nanosystems (DPNS) for cancer therapy. Many advantages offered by DPNS have significantly facilitated the delivery efficiency of anticancer drugs, such as high drug loading capacity, favorable pharmacokinetics, tumor stimuli-sensitive drug release and facile combination theranostics. Given the rapid developments in this field, we here outline the latest updates of DPNS in cancer treatment, focusing on dimeric prodrug-encapsulated nanosystems, dimeric prodrug-nanoassemblies and tumor stimuli-responsive DPNS. Moreover, the design principle, advantages and challenges of DPNS for clinical cancer therapy are also highlighted.

Green and Kilogram-Scale Synthesis of Fe Hydrogel for Photothermal Therapy of Tumors in Vivo

Photothermal agents with good biocompatibility, high tumor accumulation efficiency, large-scale production ability, and low cost are crucial for potential photothermal treatment in clinic. Herein, we proposed a green and highly efficient strategy to fabricate a kilogram-scale alginate-Ca²⁺-Fe powder hydrogel (ALG-Ca²⁺-Fe) by turning commercial Fe powder into hydrogel for enhanced photothermal therapy. The ALG-Ca²⁺-Fe was formed by simply dispersing commercial Fe powder into the preformed alginate-Ca²⁺ hydrogel in a green and energy-/time-saving way. The hydrogel exhibited the advantages of ultrahigh loading capacity of Fe powder (>100 mg mL^-1), excellent large-scale production capacity (>1 kg in lab synthesis), low cost (<1.7 $/kg), and good injectability. More importantly, large size and hydrophobicity endowed Fe powder with excellent tumor retention effect and minimal diffusion to surrounding tissues, greatly benefiting improving treatment efficiency and reducing side effects. In vivo and in vitro studies both proved that the large-scale produced ALG-Ca²⁺-Fe can be used for highly efficient and biosafe tumor treatment in vivo by simple noninvasive injection. The developed ALG-Ca²⁺-Fe with multiple superiors opens up a novel green way to develop efficient and safe photothermal therapeutic agents with great clinic transformation potential.