Click Chemistry Derived Hexa-ferrocenylated 1,3,5-Triphenylbenzene for the Detection of Divalent Transition Metal Cations

The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (click chemistry approach) was employed to create a hexa-ferrocenylated 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene derivative. Leveraging the presence of metal-chelating sites associated with 1,2,3-triazole moieties and 1,4-dinitrogen systems (ethylenediamine-like), as well as tridentate chelating sites (1,4,7-trinitrogen, diethylene triamine-like) systems, the application of this molecule as a chemosensor for divalent transition metal cations was investigated. The interactions were probed voltammetrically and spectrofluorimetrically against seven selected cations: iron(II) (Fe2+), cobalt(II) (Co2+), nickel(II) (Ni2+), copper(II) (Cu2+), zinc(II) (Zn2+), cadmium(II) (Cd2+), and manganese(II) (Mn2+). Electrochemical assays revealed good detection properties, with very low limits of detection (LOD), for Co2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ in aqueous solution (0.03-0.09 μM). Emission spectroscopy experiments demonstrated that the title compound exhibited versatile detection properties in solution, specifically turn-off fluorescence behavior upon the addition of each tested transition metal cation. The systems were characterized by satisfactory Stern-Volmer constant values (105-106 M-1) and low LOD, especially for Zn2+ and Co2+ (at the nanomolar concentration level).

Exploration of the polymorphic solid-state landscape of an amide-linked organic cage using computation and automation

Organic cages can possess complex, functionalised cavities that make them promising candidates for synthetic enzyme mimics. Conformationally flexible, chemically robust structures are needed for adaptable guest binding and catalysis, but rapidly exchanging systems are difficult to resolve in solution. Here, we use low-cost calculations and high-throughput crystallisation to identify accessible conformers of a recently reported organic cage by 'locking' them in the solid state. The conformers exhibit varying distances between the internal carboxylic acid groups, suggesting adaptability for binding a wide array of target guest molecules.

Multifold Post-Modification of Macrocycles and Cages by Isocyanate-Induced Azadefluorination Cyclisation

We present the multiple post-modification of organic macrocycles and cages, introducing functional groups into two- and three-dimensional supramolecular scaffolds bearing fluorine substituents, which opens up new possibilities in multi-step supramolecular chemistry employing the vast chemical space of readily available isocyanates. The mechanism and scope of the reaction that proceeds after isocyanate addition to the benzylamine motif via an azadefluorination cyclisation (ADFC) were investigated using DFT calculations, and a series of aromatic isocyanates with different electronic properties were tested. The compounds show excellent chemical stability and were fully characterised. They can be used for subsequent cross-coupling reactions, and ADFC can be used directly to generate cross-linked membranes from macrocycles or cages when using ditopic isocyanates. Single-crystal X-ray (SC-XRD) analysis shows the proof of the formation of the desired supramolecular entity together with the connectivity predicted by calculations and from 19F NMR shifts, allowing the late-stage functionalisation of self-assembled macrocycles and cages by ADFC.

Tröger's Base-Enriched Conjugated Cyclopentannulated Copolymers: Prominent Adsorbents of CO2, H2, and Iodine

Three copolymers with conjugated structures, PTB1-PTB3, were produced utilizing a palladium-catalyzed cyclopentannulation polymerization by reacting a specially designed diethynyl Tröger's base surrogate with different dihalogenated polycondensed aromatic hydrocarbons. Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller nitrogen gas adsorption investigation revealed the surface areas of the copolymers, attaining ∼365 m2 g-1. Gas uptake studies demonstrated a considerable carbon dioxide uptake for PTB2 of 44.41 mg g-1 at 273 K and a promising H2 gas uptake of 3.18 mg g-1 at 77 K. PTB1-PTB3 displayed a sizable iodine adsorption capacity, achieving 4000 mg g-1, and mechanistic investigations demonstrated the prevalence of a pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Recyclability experiments proved the effective regeneration of the copolymers, even after performing several adsorption and desorption tests.

Beyond Natural Channel Proteins: Recent Advances in Fluorinated Nanochannels

Inspired by the structures and functions of natural channel proteins that selectively permeate ions and molecules across biological membranes, synthetic molecules capable of self-assembling into supramolecular nanotubes within the hydrophobic layer of the membranes have been designed and their material permeation properties have been studied. More recently, synthetic chemists have ventured to incorporate fluorine atoms, elements rarely found in natural proteins, into the structure of synthetic channels and discovered anomalous transmembrane material permeation properties. In this Perspective, the author provides a brief overview of recent advances in the development of fluorinated nanochannels and possible directions for the future.

Collective Effects of Multiple Fluorine Atoms Causing π-philic Characteristic within a Caged Polyoxometalate Framework

Perfluorination brings about distinctive properties arising from the unusual nature of the F element, which have been extensively developed in materials science and chemistry. Herein we report that the construction of F-rich inner space within a hollowed Mo132 O372 cage ([Mo132 O372 (OCOR)30 (H2 O)72 ]42- ) leads to the emergence of unique guest binding activities in encapsulation. Prominently, the trifluoroacetate-modified cage (R=CF3 , 2) having as many as 90 F groups inside favors trapping cyclopentadiene (Cp), which is hardly trapped by the non-fluorinated counterpart (R=CH3 , 1). Systematic studies using related hydrocarbons show that the amount of the encapsulated guest is correlated with the unsaturation degree of the guests, implying the involvement of the attractive interaction of the CF3 -modified interior wall with the guest π-electron clouds. Control experiments using the semi-fluorinated analogues (R=CF2 H, CFH2 ) reveal that the perfluorination is a critical factor to facilitate the Cp encapsulation by 2, indicating that collective effects of polar C-F bonds spreading over the interior surface, rather than the polarity of the individual C-F bonds, are responsible. We also provide a successful example of the physical molecular confinement within the cage through the "ship-in-a-bottle" Diels-Alder reaction between trapped diene and dienophile.

Single Crystals of Insoluble Porous Salicylimine Cages

Porous organic cages (POCs) are meanwhile an established class of porous materials. Most of them are soluble to a certain extend and thus processable in or from solution. However, a few of larger salicylimine cages were reported to be insoluble in any organic solvents and thus characterized as amorphous materials. These cages were now synthesized as single-crystalline materials to get insight into packing motifs and preferred intermolecular interactions. Furthermore, the pairs of crystalline and amorphous materials for each cage allowed to compare their gas-sorption properties in both morphological states.

Recent applications of organic cages in sensing and separation processes in solution

Organic cages are three-dimensional polycyclic compounds of great interest in the scientific community due to their unique features, which generally include simple synthesis based on the dynamic covalent chemistry strategies, structural tunability and high selectivity. In this feature article, we present the advances over the last ten years in the application of organic cages as chemosensors or components in chemosensing devices for the determination of analytes (pollutants, analytes of biological interest) in complex aqueous media including wine, fruit juice, urine. Details on the recent applications of organic cages as selective (back-)extractants or masking agents for potential applications in relevant separation processes, such as the plutonium and uranium recovery by extraction, are also provided. Over the last ten years, organic cages with permanent porosity in the liquid and solid states have been highly appreciated as porous materials able to discriminate molecules of different sizes. These features, combined with good solvent processability and film-forming tendency, have proved useful in the fabrication of membranes for gas separation, solvent nanofiltration and water remediation processes. An overview of the recent applications of organic cages in membrane separation technologies is given.

Fluorine-Boosted Kinetic and Selective Molecular Sieving of C6 Derivatives

Porous molecular sorbents have excellent selectivity towards hydrocarbon separation with energy saving techniques. However, to realize commercialization, molecular sieving processes should be faster and more efficient compared to extended frameworks. In this work, we show that utilizing fluorine to improve the hydrophobic profile of leaning pillararenes affords a substantial kinetic selective adsorption of benzene over cyclohexane (20 : 1 for benzene). The crystal structure shows a porous macrocycle that acts as a perfect match for benzene in both the intrinsic and extrinsic cavities with strong interactions in the solid state. The fluorinated leaning pillararene surpasses all reported organic molecular sieves and is comparable to the extended metal-organic frameworks that were previously employed for this separation such as UIO-66. Most importantly, this sieving system outperformed the well-known zeolitic imidazolate frameworks under low pressure, which opens the door to new generations of molecular sieves that can compete with extended frameworks for more sustainable hydrocarbon separation.

CO2 Separation by Imide/Imine Organic Cages

Two novel imide/imine-based organic cages have been prepared and studied as materials for the selective separation of CO2 from N2 and CH4 under vacuum swing adsorption conditions. Gas adsorption on the new compounds showed selectivity for CO2 over N2 and CH4 . The cages were also tested as fillers in mixed-matrix membranes for gas separation. Dense and robust membranes were obtained by loading the cages in either Matrimid® or PEEK-WC polymers. Improved gas-transport properties and selectivity for CO2 were achieved compared to the neat polymer membranes.

Purely Covalent Molecular Cages and Containers for Guest Encapsulation

Cage compounds offer unique binding pockets similar to enzyme-binding sites, which can be customized in terms of size, shape, and functional groups to point toward the cavity and many other parameters. Different synthetic strategies have been developed to create a toolkit of methods that allow preparing tailor-made organic cages for a number of distinct applications, such as gas separation, molecular recognition, molecular encapsulation, hosts for catalysis, etc. These examples show the versatility and high selectivity that can be achieved using cages, which is impossible by employing other molecular systems. This review explores the progress made in the field of fully organic molecular cages and containers by focusing on the properties of the cavity and their application to encapsulate guests.

Highly Selective Adsorption of Perfluorinated Greenhouse Gases by Porous Organic Cages

Anthropogenic greenhouse gases contribute to global warming. Among those gases, perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are thousands to tens of thousands of times more harmful to the environment than comparable amounts of carbon dioxide. To date, materials that selectively adsorb perfluorocarbons in favor of other less harmful gases have not been reported. Here, a series of porous organic cage compounds with alkyl-, fluoroalkyl-, and partially fluorinated alkyl groups is presented. Their isomorphic crystalline states allow the study of the structure-property relationship between the degree of fluorination of the alkyl chains and the gas sorption properties for PFCs and their selective uptakes in comparison to other, nonfluorinated gases. By this approach, one compound having superior selectivities of PFCs versus N₂ or CO₂ under ambient conditions is identified.

Recent trends in organic cage synthesis: push towards water-soluble organic cages

Research on organic cages has blossomed over the past few years into a mature field of study which can contribute to solving some of the challenging problems. In this review we aim to showcase the recent trends in synthesis of organic cages including a brief discussion on their use in catalysis, gas sorption, host-guest chemistry and energy transfer. Among the organic cages, water-soluble analogues are a special class of compounds which have gained renewed attention in recent times. Due to their advantage of being compatible with water, such cages have the potential of showing biomimetic activities and can find use in drug delivery and also as hosts for catalysis in aqueous medium. Hence, the synthetic strategies for the formation of water-soluble organic cages shall be discussed along with their potential applications.

Molecular Cavity for Catalysis and Formation of Metal Nanoparticles for Use in Catalysis

The employment of weak intermolecular interactions in supramolecular chemistry offers an alternative approach to project artificial chemical environments like the active sites of enzymes. Discrete molecular architectures with defined shapes and geometries have become a revolutionary field of research in recent years because of their intrinsic porosity and ease of synthesis using dynamic non-covalent/covalent interactions. Several porous molecular cages have been constructed from simple building blocks by self-assembly, which undergoes many self-correction processes to form the final architecture. These supramolecular systems have been developed to demonstrate numerous applications, such as guest stabilization, drug delivery, catalysis, smart materials, and many other related fields. In this respect, catalysis in confined nanospaces using such supramolecular cages has seen significant growth over the years. These porous discrete cages contain suitable apertures for easy intake of substrates and smooth release of products to exhibit exceptional catalytic efficacy. This review highlights recent advancements in catalytic activity influenced by the nanocavities of hydrogen-bonded cages, metal-ligand coordination cages, and dynamic or reversible covalently bonded organic cages in different solvent media. Synthetic strategies for these three types of supramolecular systems are discussed briefly and follow similar and simplistic approaches manifested by simple starting materials and benign conditions. These examples demonstrate the progress of various functionalized molecular cages for specific chemical transformations in aqueous and nonaqueous media. Finally, we discuss the enduring challenges related to porous cage compounds that need to be overcome for further developments in this field of work.

Fast, solvent-free synthesis of ferrocene-containing organic cages via dynamic covalent chemistry in the solid state

A simple, solvent-free synthetic protocol towards the synthesis of organic self-assembled macromolecules has been established. By employing mechanochemistry using glassware readily available to every organic chemist, we were able to synthesise three novel organic cage compounds exemplarily and to speed up the synthesis of a ferrocene-containing macrocycle by a factor of 288 compared to the solution-based synthesis. The structural investigation of the newly synthesised cages revealed different modes of connectivity from using ferrocene-containing aldehydes caused by the free rotation of the cyclopentadienyl units against each other. By extending the facile solvent-free synthesis to ball-milling, even compounds that show lower reactivity could be employed in the dynamic covalent formation of organometallic cage compounds. The presented protocol gives access to otherwise inaccessible structures, speeds up general synthetic workflows, and simultaneously reduces the environmental impact of supramolecular syntheses.

Cagearenes: synthesis, characterization, and application for programmed vapor release

Here, we announce the establishment of a new family of organic molecular cages, named cagearenes, by taking advantage of a versatile strategy. These cagearenes were prepared via the Friedel–Crafts reaction by condensing two equivalents of a precursor bearing three 1,4-dimethoxybenzene groups and three equivalents of formaldehyde. Two cages, namely cagearene-1 and cagearene-2, are obtained and well characterized. The cagearene-1 solid exhibits the ability to adsorb benzene vapour from an equimolar benzene/cyclohexane mixture with a purity of 91.1%. Then, the adsorbed benzene molecules can be released from the cage at a relatively lower temperature, namely 70 °C, as a consequence of which, cyclohexane with a high purity was left within the cage solid. Heating the cage solid further at 130 °C led to the production of cyclohexane with a purity up to 98.7%. As inferred from the single crystal structures and theoretical calculations, the ability of the cage in programmed release of benzene and cyclohexane results from the different binding modes of these two guests.

Two organic cages, cagearene-1 and cagearene-2, are prepared. The cagearene-1 solid selectively absorbs benzene vapor from a benzene/cyclohexane mixture and is used to achieve temperature-controlled programmed vapor release.

Design of a D3h-symmetry prismatic tris-(ferrocene-1,1ʹ-diyl) molecular cage bearing boronate ester linkages

This paper presents a simple, highly selective, and efficient (isolated yield 68%) synthesis of a novel D3h-symmetry prismatic tris-(ferrocene-1,1ʹ-diyl) organic cage (FcB-cage) by incorporating the boronate ester as a linkage...

Self-assembly of chiral BINOL cages via imine condensation

Condensation of an (S)- or (R)-BINOL-derived dialdehyde and tris(2-aminoethyl)amine produced chiral [2+3] imine cages, which were further reduced to furnish more stable chiral amine cages and applied in the enantioselective recognition of (1R,2R)- and (1S,2S)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane.

Facile Synthesis of a Fully Fused, Three-Dimensional π-Conjugated Archimedean Cage with Magnetically Shielded Cavity

The synthesis of molecular cages consisting of fully fused, π-conjugated rings is rare due to synthetic challenges including preorganization, large strain, and poor solubility. Herein, we report such an example in which a tris-2-aminobenzophenone precursor undergoes acid-mediated self-condensation to form a truncated tetrahedron, one of the 13 Archimedean solids. Formation of eight-membered [1,5]diazocine rings provides preorganization and releases the strain while still maintains weak π-conjugation of the backbone. Thorough characterizations were performed by X-ray, NMR, and UV-vis analysis, assisted by theoretical calculations. The cage exhibits a rigid backbone structure with a well-defined cavity that confines a magnetically shielded environment. The solvent molecule, o-dichlorobenzene, is precisely encapsulated in the cavity at a 1:1 ratio with multiple π···π, C-H···π, and halogen···π interactions with the cage skeleton, implying its template effect for the cage closing reaction. Our synthetic strategy opens the opportunity to access more complex, fully fused, three-dimensional π-conjugated cages.

Using Slippage to Construct a Prototypical Molecular "Lock & Lock" Box

We report a new slippage system based on p-tert-butylbenzyl-terminated imidazolium ions and di(ethylene glycol)-containing macrocycles and their use as linking units for the construction of a prototypical molecular "Lock & Lock" box from a resorcinarene-based cavitand "bowl" and a porphyrin "cover". The multivalent structure with four slippage linkers provided the molecular box with high stability, yet the system dissociated into its two components upon application of suitable external stimuli.

Cucurbitimines - imine cages with concave walls

The variety of shape-persistent organic cages by imine bond formation has tremendously enlarged in recent years by using different building blocks (aldehydes and amines) in the condensation reactions. Here, we describe the use of a kinked tetraldehyde to generate pumpkin-shaped cages with concave walls, similar to cucurbiturils.

Kinked tetraaldehyde building blocks lead in condensation reactions with diamines to pumpkin shaped cages – the cucurbitimines.

Soluble Congeners of Prior Insoluble Shape-Persistent Imine Cages

One of the most applied reaction types to synthesize shape‐persistent organic cage compounds is the imine condensation reaction and it is assumed that the formed cages are thermodynamically controlled products due to the reversibility of the imine condensation. However, most of the synthesized imine cages reported are formed as precipitate from the reaction mixture and therefore rather may be kinetically controlled products. There are even examples in literature, where resulting cages are not soluble at all in common organic solvents to characterize or study their formation by NMR spectroscopy in solution. Here, a triptycene triamine containing three solubilizing n‐hexyloxy chains has been used to synthesize soluble congeners of prior insoluble cages. This allowed us to study the formation as well as the reversibility of cage formation in solution by investigating exchange of building blocks between the cages and deuterated derivatives thereof.

Supramolecular Alloys from Fluorinated Hybrid Tri4 Di6 Imine Cages

To create innovative materials, efficient control and engineering of pore sizes and their characteristics, crystallinity and stability is required. Eight hybrid Tri4 Di6 imine cages with a tunable degree of fluorination and one fully fluorinated Tri4 Di6 imine cage are investigated. Although the fluorinated and the non-fluorinated building blocks used herein differ vastly in reactivity, it was possible to gain control over the outcome of the self-assembly process, by carefully controlling the feed ratio. This represents the first hybrid material based on fluorinated/hydrogenated porous organic cages (POCs). These cages with unlimited miscibility in the solid state were obtained as highly crystalline samples after recrystallization and even showed retention of the crystal lattice, forming alloys. All mixtures and the fully fluorinated Tri4 Di6 imine cage were analyzed by MALDI-MS, single-crystal XRD, powder XRD and in regard to thermal stability (TGA).

Electrochemical Recognition of Aromatic Species with Ferrocenylated 1,3,5-Triazine- or 1,3,5-Triphenylbenzene-Containing Highly Organized Molecules

Two ferrocenylated organized molecules comprising 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene (Fc-1) or 2,4,6-triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine skeletons (Fc-2) were used for the first time as receptor layers for the electrochemical recognition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. While our group recently reported the synthesis of Fc-1, herein the facile synthesis of its 2,4,6-triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine-containing structural analog (Fc-2) is presented. Although the synthesis of Fc-2 was found to be challenging, we achieved a very high yield (89 %) under mild conditions using an acid-catalyzed imine-bond formation reaction in 1,4-dioxane:toluene solvent system. Title compounds were comprehensively characterized with various analytical techniques, including spectroscopic (NMR, FT-IR, FT-Raman spectroscopy) methods, high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), microscopic (SEM) and electrochemical (CV) analyses. Fc-1 and Fc-2 were also used for the construction of the first-of-a-kind recognition layers (electrochemical sensors) dedicated to the recognition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Fully constructed innovative sensors enabled the efficient recognition of analytes since the limit of detection (LOD) values were not higher than 2.9 μM. Comparative studies between the working parameters of electrochemical sensors comprising Fc-1 or Fc-2 were also included in this work.

Endohedral Hydrogen Bonding Templates the Formation of a Highly Strained Covalent Organic Cage Compound*

A highly strained covalent organic cage compound was synthesized from hexahydroxy tribenzotriquinacene (TBTQ) and a meta-terphenyl-based diboronic acid with an additional benzoic acid substituent in 2'-position. Usually, a 120° bite angle in the unsubstituted ditopic linker favors the formation of a [4+6] cage assembly. Here, the introduction of the benzoic acid group is shown to lead to a perfectly preorganized circular hydrogen-bonding array in the cavity of a trigonal-bipyramidal [2+3] cage, which energetically overcompensates the additional strain energy caused by the larger mismatch in bite angles for the smaller assembly. The strained cage compound was analyzed by mass spectrometry and 1 H, 13 C and DOSY NMR spectroscopy. DFT calculations revealed the energetic contribution of the hydrogen-bonding template to the cage stability. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations on early intermediates indicate an additional kinetic effect, as hydrogen bonding also preorganizes and rigidifies small oligomers to facilitate the exclusive formation of smaller and more strained macrocycles and cages.

The Ionic Organic Cage: An Effective and Recyclable Testbed for Catalytic CO2 Transformation

Porous organic cages (POC) are a class of relatively new molecular porous materials, whose concept was raised in 2009 by Cooper’s group and has rarely been directly used in the area of organic catalysis. In this contribution, a novel ionic quasi-porous organic cage (denoted as Iq-POC), a quaternary phosphonium salt, was easily synthesized through dynamic covalent chemistry and a subsequent nucleophilic addition reaction. Iq-POC was applied as an effective nucleophilic catalyst for the cycloaddition reaction of CO2 and epoxides. Owing to the combined effect of the relatively large molecular weight (compared with PPh3+I−) and the strong polarity of Iq-POC, the molecular catalyst Iq-POC displayed favorable heterogeneous nature (i.e., insolubility) in this catalytic system. Therefore, the Iq-POC catalyst could be easily separated and recycled by simple centrifugation method, and the catalyst could be reused five times without obvious loss of activity. The molecular weight augmentation route in this study (from PPh3+I− to Iq-POC) provided us a “cage strategy” of designing separable and recyclable molecular catalysts.

Reticular Chemistry in the Construction of Porous Organic Cages

Reticular chemistry offers the possibility of systematic design of porous materials with different pores by varying the building blocks, while the emerging porous organic cage (POC) system remains generally unexplored. A series of new POCs with dimeric cages with odd-even behaviors, unprecedented trimeric triangular prisms, and the largest recorded hexameric octahedra have been prepared. These POCs are all constructed from the same tetratopic tetraformylresorcin[4]arene cavitand by simply varying the diamine ligands through Schiff-base reactions and are fully characterized by X-ray crystallography, gas sorption measurements, NMR spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. The odd-even effects in the POC conformation changes of the [2 + 4] dimeric cages have been confirmed by density functional theory calculations, which are the first examples of odd-even effects reported in the cavitand-based cage system. Moreover, the "V" shape phenylenediamine linkers are responsible for the novel [3 + 6] triangular prisms. The window size and environment can be easily functionalized by different groups, providing a promising platform for the construction of multivariate POCs. Use of linear phenylenediamines led to record-breakingly large [6 + 12] truncated octahedral cages, the maximum inner cavity diameters and volumes of which could be readily modulated by increasing the spacer length of the phenylenediamine linkers. This work can lead to an understanding of the self-assembly behaviors of POCs and also sheds light on the rational design of POC materials for practical applications.

Photochromic organic cage-encapsulated Au nanoparticles: light-regulated cavities for catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol

Encapsulated Au nanoparticles in a diarylethene-based photochromic cage with adjustable particle sizes under UV and visible light exhibited different catalytic rates for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol.