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Morikawa M, Yamaguchi H, Kikkawa M. Calaxin is a key factor for calcium-dependent waveform control in zebrafish sperm. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202402632. [PMID: 38876797 PMCID: PMC11178939 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202402632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Calcium is critical for regulating the waveform of motile cilia and flagella. Calaxin is currently the only known molecule involved in the calcium-dependent regulation in ascidians. We have recently shown that Calaxin stabilizes outer arm dynein (OAD), and the knockout of Calaxin results in primary ciliary dyskinesia phenotypes in vertebrates. However, from the knockout experiments, it was not clear which functions depend on calcium and how Calaxin regulates the waveform. To address this question, here, we generated transgenic zebrafish expressing a mutant E130A-Calaxin deficient in calcium binding. E130A-Calaxin restored the OAD reduction of calaxin -/- sperm and the abnormal movement of calaxin -/- left-right organizer cilia, showing that Calaxin's stabilization of OADs is calcium-independent. In contrast, our quantitative analysis of E130A-Calaxin sperms showed that the calcium-induced asymmetric beating was not restored, linking Calaxin's calcium-binding ability with an asymmetric flagellar beating for the first time. Our data show that Calaxin is a calcium-dependent regulator of the ciliary beating and a calcium-independent OAD stabilizer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motohiro Morikawa
- https://ror.org/057zh3y96 Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamaguchi
- https://ror.org/057zh3y96 Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahide Kikkawa
- https://ror.org/057zh3y96 Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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2
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Yadav RS, Kushawaha B, Dhariya R, Swain DK, Yadav B, Anand M, Kumari P, Rai PK, Singh D, Yadav S, Garg SK. Lead and calcium crosstalk tempted acrosome damage and hyperpolarization of spermatozoa: signaling and ultra-structural evidences. Biol Res 2024; 57:44. [PMID: 38965573 PMCID: PMC11225213 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-024-00517-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure of humans and animals to heavy metals is increasing day-by-day; thus, lead even today remains of significant public health concern. According to CDC, blood lead reference value (BLRV) ranges from 3.5 µg/dl to 5 μg/dl in adults. Recently, almost 2.6% decline in male fertility per year has been reported but the cause is not well established. Lead (Pb2+) affects the size of testis, semen quality, and secretory functions of prostate. But the molecular mechanism(s) of lead toxicity in sperm cells is not clear. Thus, present study was undertaken to evaluate the adverse effects of lead acetate at environmentally relevant exposure levels (0.5, 5, 10 and 20 ppm) on functional and molecular dynamics of spermatozoa of bucks following in vitro exposure for 15 min and 3 h. RESULTS Lead significantly decreased motility, viable count, and motion kinematic patterns of spermatozoa like curvilinear velocity, straight-line velocity, average path velocity, beat cross frequency and maximum amplitude of head lateral displacement even at 5 ppm concentration. Pb2+ modulated intracellular cAMP and Ca2+ levels in sperm cells through L-type calcium channels and induced spontaneous or premature acrosome reaction (AR) by increasing tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins and downregulated mitochondrial transmembrane potential. Lead significantly increased DNA damage and apoptosis as well. Electron microscopy studies revealed Pb2+ -induced deleterious effects on plasma membrane of head and acrosome including collapsed cristae in mitochondria. CONCLUSIONS Pb2+ not only mimics Ca2+ but also affects cellular targets involved in generation of cAMP, mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and ionic exchange. Lead seems to interact with Ca2+ channels because of charge similarity and probably enters the sperm cell through these channels and results in hyperpolarization. Our findings also indicate lead-induced TP and intracellular Ca2+ release in spermatozoa which in turn may be responsible for premature acrosome exocytosis which is essential feature of capacitation for fertilization. Thus, lead seems to reduce the fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa even at 0.5 ppm concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajkumar Singh Yadav
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Bhawna Kushawaha
- College of Biotechnology, Mathura, India.
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India.
- University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC), Omaha, USA.
| | - Rahul Dhariya
- College of Biotechnology, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Dilip Kumar Swain
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Brijesh Yadav
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Mukul Anand
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Priyambada Kumari
- College of Biotechnology, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | | | - Dipty Singh
- ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health (NIRRH), Mumbai, India
| | - Sarvajeet Yadav
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India
| | - Satish Kumar Garg
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura, India.
- U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281001, India.
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3
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Yazdan Parast F, Veeraragavan S, Gaikwad AS, Powar S, Prabhakar R, O'Bryan MK, Nosrati R. Viscous Loading Regulates the Flagellar Energetics of Human and Bull Sperm. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2300928. [PMID: 38135876 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The viscoelastic properties of the female reproductive tract influence sperm swimming behavior, but the exact role of these rheological changes in regulating sperm energetics remains unknown. Using high-speed dark-field microscopy, the flagellar dynamics of free-swimming sperm across a physiologically relevant range of viscosities is resolved. A transition from 3D to 2D slither swimming under an increased viscous loading is revealed, in the absence of any geometrical or chemical stimuli. This transition is species-specific, aligning with viscosity variations within each species' reproductive tract. Despite substantial drag increase, 2D slithering sperm maintain a steady swimming speed across a wide viscosity range (20-250 and 75-1000 mPa s for bull and human sperm) by dissipating over sixfold more energy into the fluid without elevating metabolic activity, potentially by altering the mechanisms of dynein motor activity. This energy-efficient motility mode is ideally suited for the viscous environment of the female reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farin Yazdan Parast
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Shibani Veeraragavan
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Avinash S Gaikwad
- Institute of Reproductive Genetics, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- School of BioSciences and Bio21 Institute, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Sushant Powar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Ranganathan Prabhakar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Moira K O'Bryan
- School of BioSciences and Bio21 Institute, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Reza Nosrati
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
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4
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Hjeij R, Aprea I, Poeta M, Nöthe-Menchen T, Bracht D, Raidt J, Honecker BI, Dougherty GW, Olbrich H, Schwartz O, Keller U, Nüsse H, Diderich KEM, Vogelberg C, Santamaria F, Omran H. Pathogenic variants in CLXN encoding the outer dynein arm docking-associated calcium-binding protein calaxin cause primary ciliary dyskinesia. Genet Med 2023; 25:100798. [PMID: 36727596 DOI: 10.1016/j.gim.2023.100798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a heterogeneous disorder that includes respiratory symptoms, laterality defects, and infertility caused by dysfunction of motile cilia. Most PCD-causing variants result in abnormal outer dynein arms (ODAs), which provide the generative force for respiratory ciliary beating and proper mucociliary clearance. METHODS In addition to studies in mouse and planaria, clinical exome sequencing and functional analyses in human were performed. RESULTS In this study, we identified homozygous pathogenic variants in CLXN (EFCAB1/ODAD5) in 3 individuals with laterality defects and respiratory symptoms. Consistently, we found that Clxn is expressed in mice left-right organizer. Transmission electron microscopy depicted ODA defects in distal ciliary axonemes. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed absence of CLXN from the ciliary axonemes, absence of the ODA components DNAH5, DNAI1, and DNAI2 from the distal axonemes, and mislocalization or absence of DNAH9. In addition, CLXN was undetectable in ciliary axonemes of individuals with defects in the ODA-docking machinery: ODAD1, ODAD2, ODAD3, and ODAD4. Furthermore, SMED-EFCAB1-deficient planaria displayed ciliary dysmotility. CONCLUSION Our results revealed that pathogenic variants in CLXN cause PCD with defects in the assembly of distal ODAs in the respiratory cilia. CLXN should be referred to as ODA-docking complex-associated protein ODAD5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rim Hjeij
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Isabella Aprea
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Marco Poeta
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Tabea Nöthe-Menchen
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Diana Bracht
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Johanna Raidt
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Barbara I Honecker
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Gerard W Dougherty
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Heike Olbrich
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Oliver Schwartz
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Ulrike Keller
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Harald Nüsse
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | | | - Christian Vogelberg
- Pediatric Department, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Francesca Santamaria
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Heymut Omran
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany.
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5
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Yamaguchi H, Morikawa M, Kikkawa M. Calaxin stabilizes the docking of outer arm dyneins onto ciliary doublet microtubule in vertebrates. eLife 2023; 12:e84860. [PMID: 37057896 PMCID: PMC10139691 DOI: 10.7554/elife.84860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Outer arm dynein (OAD) is the main force generator of ciliary beating. Although OAD loss is the most frequent cause of human primary ciliary dyskinesia, the docking mechanism of OAD onto the ciliary doublet microtubule (DMT) remains elusive in vertebrates. Here, we analyzed the functions of Calaxin/Efcab1 and Armc4, the two of five components of vertebrate OAD-DC (docking complex), using zebrafish spermatozoa and cryo-electron tomography. Mutation of armc4 caused complete loss of OAD, whereas mutation of calaxin caused only partial loss of OAD. Detailed structural analysis revealed that calaxin-/- OADs are tethered to DMT through DC components other than Calaxin, and that recombinant Calaxin can autonomously rescue the deficient DC structure and the OAD instability. Our data demonstrate the discrete roles of Calaxin and Armc4 in the OAD-DMT interaction, suggesting the stabilizing process of OAD docking onto DMT in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Motohiro Morikawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Masahide Kikkawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of TokyoTokyoJapan
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6
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Shiba K, Baba SA, Fujiwara E, Inaba K. Calaxin is required for asymmetric bend initiation and propagation in sperm flagella. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1136404. [PMID: 37009483 PMCID: PMC10061002 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1136404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulation of waveform asymmetry in flagella is critical for changes in direction when sperm are swimming, as seen during the chemotaxis of sperm towards eggs. Ca2+ is an important regulator of asymmetry in flagellar waveforms. A calcium sensor protein, calaxin, is associated with the outer arm dynein and plays a key role in the regulation of flagellar motility in a Ca2+-dependent manner. However, the underlying mechanism of regulating asymmetric waves by means of Ca2+ and calaxin remains unclear. To clarify the calaxin-dependent mechanism for generating Ca2+-dependent asymmetric flagellar waveforms, we analyzed the initial step of flagellar bend formation and propagation in the sperm of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. Our experiment used demembranated sperm cells, which were then reactivated by UV flash photolysis of caged ATP under both high and low Ca2+ concentrations. Here, we show that initial bends in the flagella are formed at the base of the sperm and propagate towards the tip during waveform generation. However, the direction of the initial bend differed between asymmetric and symmetric waves. When a calaxin inhibitor (repaglinide) was applied, it resulted in the failure of asymmetric wave formation and propagation. This was because repaglinide had no effect on initial bend formation, but it significantly inhibited the generation of the subsequent bend in the reverse direction. Switching of dynein sliding activity by mechanical feedback is crucial for flagellar oscillation. Our results suggest that the Ca2+/calaxin mechanism plays an important role in the switching of dynein activity from microtubule sliding in the principal bend into the suppressed sliding in the reverse bend, thereby allowing the sperm to successfully change direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, Japan
- *Correspondence: Kogiku Shiba,
| | | | | | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, Japan
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7
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Braschi B, Omran H, Witman GB, Pazour GJ, Pfister KK, Bruford EA, King SM. Consensus nomenclature for dyneins and associated assembly factors. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:e202109014. [PMID: 35006274 PMCID: PMC8754002 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202109014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dyneins are highly complex, multicomponent, microtubule-based molecular motors. These enzymes are responsible for numerous motile behaviors in cytoplasm, mediate retrograde intraflagellar transport (IFT), and power ciliary and flagellar motility. Variants in multiple genes encoding dyneins, outer dynein arm (ODA) docking complex subunits, and cytoplasmic factors involved in axonemal dynein preassembly (DNAAFs) are associated with human ciliopathies and are of clinical interest. Therefore, clear communication within this field is particularly important. Standardizing gene nomenclature, and basing it on orthology where possible, facilitates discussion and genetic comparison across species. Here, we discuss how the human gene nomenclature for dyneins, ODA docking complex subunits, and DNAAFs has been updated to be more functionally informative and consistent with that of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a key model organism for studying dyneins and ciliary function. We also detail additional nomenclature updates for vertebrate-specific genes that encode dynein chains and other proteins involved in dynein complex assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryony Braschi
- HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, UK
| | - Heymut Omran
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - George B. Witman
- Division of Cell Biology and Imaging, Department of Radiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA
| | - Gregory J. Pazour
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Biotech II, Worcester, MA
| | - K. Kevin Pfister
- Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Elspeth A. Bruford
- HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, UK
- Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, UK
| | - Stephen M. King
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT
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8
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Gui M, Farley H, Anujan P, Anderson JR, Maxwell DW, Whitchurch JB, Botsch JJ, Qiu T, Meleppattu S, Singh SK, Zhang Q, Thompson J, Lucas JS, Bingle CD, Norris DP, Roy S, Brown A. De novo identification of mammalian ciliary motility proteins using cryo-EM. Cell 2021; 184:5791-5806.e19. [PMID: 34715025 PMCID: PMC8595878 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dynein-decorated doublet microtubules (DMTs) are critical components of the oscillatory molecular machine of cilia, the axoneme, and have luminal surfaces patterned periodically by microtubule inner proteins (MIPs). Here we present an atomic model of the 48-nm repeat of a mammalian DMT, derived from a cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) map of the complex isolated from bovine respiratory cilia. The structure uncovers principles of doublet microtubule organization and features specific to vertebrate cilia, including previously unknown MIPs, a luminal bundle of tektin filaments, and a pentameric dynein-docking complex. We identify a mechanism for bridging 48- to 24-nm periodicity across the microtubule wall and show that loss of the proteins involved causes defective ciliary motility and laterality abnormalities in zebrafish and mice. Our structure identifies candidate genes for diagnosis of ciliopathies and provides a framework to understand their functions in driving ciliary motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Gui
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hannah Farley
- MRC Harwell Institute, Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RD, UK
| | - Priyanka Anujan
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 138673 Singapore, Singapore; Department of Infection, Immunity & Cardiovascular Disease, The Medical School and The Florey Institute for Host Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Jacob R Anderson
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Dale W Maxwell
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 138673 Singapore, Singapore; School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | | | - J Josephine Botsch
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Tao Qiu
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 138673 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shimi Meleppattu
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sandeep K Singh
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - James Thompson
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK; Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Centre, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
| | - Jane S Lucas
- Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Centre, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK; University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Southampton, UK
| | - Colin D Bingle
- Department of Infection, Immunity & Cardiovascular Disease, The Medical School and The Florey Institute for Host Pathogen Interactions, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Dominic P Norris
- MRC Harwell Institute, Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RD, UK.
| | - Sudipto Roy
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 138673 Singapore, Singapore; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543 Singapore, Singapore; Department of Pediatrics, Yong Loo Ling School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 1E Kent Ridge Road, 119288 Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Alan Brown
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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9
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Mata-Martínez E, Sánchez-Cárdenas C, Chávez JC, Guerrero A, Treviño CL, Corkidi G, Montoya F, Hernandez-Herrera P, Buffone MG, Balestrini PA, Darszon A. Role of calcium oscillations in sperm physiology. Biosystems 2021; 209:104524. [PMID: 34453988 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2021.104524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular Ca2+ is a key regulator of cell signaling and sperm are not the exception. Cells often use cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) oscillations as a means to decodify external and internal information. [Ca2+]i oscillations faster than those usually found in other cells and correlated with flagellar beat were the first to be described in sperm in 1993 by Susan Suarez, in the boar. More than 20 years passed before similar [Ca2+]i oscillations were documented in human sperm, simultaneously examining their flagellar beat in three dimensions by Corkidi et al. 2017. On the other hand, 10 years after the discovery of the fast boar [Ca2+]i oscillations, slower ones triggered by compounds from the egg external envelope were found to regulate cell motility and chemotaxis in sperm from marine organisms. Today it is known that sperm display fast and slow spontaneous and agonist triggered [Ca2+]i oscillations. In mammalian sperm these Ca2+ transients may act like a multifaceted tool that regulates fundamental functions such as motility and acrosome reaction. This review covers the main sperm species and experimental conditions where [Ca2+]i oscillations have been described and discusses what is known about the transporters involved, their regulation and the physiological purpose of these oscillations. There is a lot to be learned regarding the origin, regulation and physiological relevance of these Ca2+ oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Mata-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Fusión de Membranas y Exocitosis Acrosomal, Instituto de Histología y Embriología Dr. Mario H. Burgos (IHEM) Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina.
| | - Claudia Sánchez-Cárdenas
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología (IBT), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| | - Julio C Chávez
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología (IBT), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| | - Adán Guerrero
- Laboratorio Nacional de Microscopía Avanzada, IBT, UNAM, Mexico.
| | - Claudia L Treviño
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología (IBT), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| | - Gabriel Corkidi
- Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Laboratorio de Imágenes y Visión por Computadora, IBT, UNAM, Mexico.
| | - Fernando Montoya
- Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Laboratorio de Imágenes y Visión por Computadora, IBT, UNAM, Mexico.
| | - Paul Hernandez-Herrera
- Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Laboratorio de Imágenes y Visión por Computadora, IBT, UNAM, Mexico.
| | - Mariano G Buffone
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Paula A Balestrini
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Alberto Darszon
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología (IBT), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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10
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Daigneault BW, Miller DJ. Transient receptor potential polycystin-2 (TRPP2) regulates motility and intracellular calcium of porcine sperm. Andrologia 2021; 53:e14124. [PMID: 34042198 DOI: 10.1111/and.14124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Polycystin-2, also known as transient receptor potential polycystin-2 (TRPP2), is a membrane protein that regulates calcium homeostasis in renal epithelial cells. Mutations in PKD2, the gene encoding human TRPP2, cause enlarged cystic kidneys and contribute to polycystic kidney disease (PKD). Male Drosophila melanogaster with mutations in amo, the homolog of PKD2, display a mild decrease in sperm motility but have a drastic reduction in fertility due to failed sperm migration and storage within the female tract. Although TRPP2 has critical roles for Drosophila sperm function, the protein has not been described in mammalian sperm. Herein, we report the localization of TRPP2 in porcine sperm and identify functions of TRPP2 in regulating intracellular Ca2+ and motility. Porcine sperm treated with an antibody to TRPP2 in capacitating medium had reduced average path velocity and curvilinear velocity (p < .05). Blocking TRPP2 also increased sperm tail beat-cross frequency (p < .05). After 90 min of capacitation, sperm incubated with TRPP2 antibody had decreased intracellular Ca2+ concentration compared to controls (p < .05), consistent with TRPP2 function as a plasma membrane cation channel. This is the first report that mammalian sperm contain TRPP2, which appears to regulate intracellular Ca2+ and motility patterns in porcine sperm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradford W Daigneault
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - David J Miller
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
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11
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Huan P, Cui M, Wang Q, Liu B. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis reveals the roles of calaxin in gastropod larval cilia. Gene 2021; 787:145640. [PMID: 33845135 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2021.145640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Obtaining detectable knockout phenotypes in the G0 generation is essential for gene function studies. Although CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing has been employed to knock out molluscan genes, detectable phenotypes in the G0 generation have not been reported in these animals. In this study, we determined the knockout phenotype of a cilium-related gene, calaxin, using CRISPR/Cas9 technology in the gastropod mollusk Lottia goshimai. Injections with the Cas9-sgRNA complex caused approximately 30-80% of the injected larvae to exhibit a short-cilia phenotype characteristic of shortened cilia and decreased motility in the larvae. This phenotype was detectable in the G0 generation and was consistent for two independent sgRNAs. Genotyping of the injected larvae revealed various types of deletions and insertions in the target gene, which occurred in all sequences from the short-cilia larvae. This result indicated that the short-cilia phenotype was indeed caused by calaxin knockout. This possibility was supported by an RNAi assay targeting calaxin, which produced a highly similar short-cilia phenotype. We observed that a single SNP in the target sequences of the sgRNAs could show varied effects on the efficiency of mutagenesis. These results help to establish a foundation for future studies on molluscan gene editing using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique and contribute to the body of knowledge on molluscan ciliary functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin Huan
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 266071 Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, 266000 Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100039 Beijing, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, 266071 Qingdao, China
| | - Menglu Cui
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 266071 Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100039 Beijing, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, 266071 Qingdao, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 266071 Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100039 Beijing, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, 266071 Qingdao, China
| | - Baozhong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 266071 Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, 266000 Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100039 Beijing, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, 266071 Qingdao, China.
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12
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Alavi SMH, Hatef A, Butts IAE, Bondarenko O, Cosson J, Babiak I. Some recent data on sperm morphology and motility kinetics in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2021; 47:327-338. [PMID: 33405059 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-020-00915-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Studying biology of sperm provides valuable information to optimize artificial reproduction and is crucial for sustainable aquaculture. Here, we investigated morphology of spermatozoon in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) using transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Furthermore, spermatozoa motility kinetics at different osmolalities were studied using computer-assisted sperm analysis software. The spermatozoon lacked an acrosome and consisted of a head, midpiece, and flagellum. The head of spermatozoa was round, oval, and rather elongated in shape, showing high variations in dimensions. There were up to 6 mitochondria that encircled the proximal part of the flagellum. The proximal and distal centrioles were located within the nuclear notch and arranged orthogonal to each other. The axoneme had a typical 9 + 2 microtubule structure. The flagellar length of spermatozoon was 66.94 ± 0.46 μm. Spermatozoa were immotile in the seminal plasma. Dilution of sperm with natural seawater (1100 mOsmol/kg) resulted in initiation of motility for 91.0 ± 3.4% of spermatozoa with average velocity of 86.2 ± 2.3 μm/s and beating frequency of 52 Hz. The duration of spermatozoa motility was > 6 min; however, the percentage of motile spermatozoa decreased at 60 s post-activation. When osmolality of natural seawater was modified using distilled water or NaCl, spermatozoa motility was not initiated at ≤ 400 and ≥ 2500 mOsmol/kg, and the highest percentage of motility was observed at 730-1580 mOsmol/kg. In a sucrose solution, spermatozoa motility was initiated and suppressed at 600 and 1500 mOsmol/kg, respectively, and highest percentage of motility was observed at 800-1100 mOsmol/kg. Spermatozoon morphology comparisons within Gadiformes showed differences in dimensions of head and mitochondria, flagellar length, and number of mitochondria. The present study provides valuable data that can be used for phylogenetic implications based on spermatozoon morphology and for development of artificial fertilization and sperm cryopreservation protocols based on sperm motility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Azadeh Hatef
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B3, Canada
| | - Ian A E Butts
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Olga Bondarenko
- Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Zátiší 728/II, 389 25, Vodňany, Czech Republic
| | - Jacky Cosson
- Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Zátiší 728/II, 389 25, Vodňany, Czech Republic
| | - Igor Babiak
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, N-8049, Bodø, Norway
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13
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Nichols ZG, Rikard S, Alavi SMH, Walton WC, Butts IAE. Regulation of sperm motility in Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) spawning naturally in seawater with low salinity. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0243569. [PMID: 33735238 PMCID: PMC7971463 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Oyster aquaculture is expanding worldwide, where many farms rely on seed produced by artificial spawning. As sperm motility and velocity are key determinants for fertilization success, understanding the regulation of sperm motility and identifying optimal environmental conditions can increase fertility and seed production. In the present study, we investigated the physiological mechanisms regulating sperm motility in Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Sperm motility was activated in ambient seawater with salinity 4-32 PSU with highest motility and velocity observed at 12-24 PSU. In artificial seawater (ASW) with salinity of 20 PSU, sperm motility was activated at pH 6.5-10.5 with the highest motility and velocity recorded at pH 7.5-10.0. Sperm motility was inhibited or totally suppressed in Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+-free ASW at 20 PSU. Applications of K+ (500 μM glybenclamide and 10-50 mM 4-aminopyridine), Ca2+ (1-50 μM mibefradil and 10-200 μM verapamil), or Na+ (0.2-2.0 mM amiloride) channel blockers into ASW at 20 PSU inhibited or suppressed sperm motility and velocity. Chelating extracellular Ca2+ ions by 3.0 and 3.5 mM EGTA resulted in a significant reduction and full suppression of sperm motility by 4 to 6 min post-activation. These results suggest that extracellular K+, Ca2+, and Na+ ions are involved in regulation of ionic-dependent sperm motility in Eastern oyster. A comparison with other bivalve species typically spawning at higher salinities or in full-strength seawater shows that ionic regulation of sperm motility is physiologically conserved in bivalves. Elucidating sperm regulation in C. virginica has implications to develop artificial reproduction, sperm short-term storage, or cryopreservation protocols, and to better predict how changes in the ocean will impact oyster spawning dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe G. Nichols
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Scott Rikard
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
- Auburn University Shellfish Lab, Dauphin Island, Alabama, United States of America
| | | | - William C. Walton
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
- Auburn University Shellfish Lab, Dauphin Island, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Ian A. E. Butts
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
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14
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Kutomi O, Yamamoto R, Hirose K, Mizuno K, Nakagiri Y, Imai H, Noga A, Obbineni JM, Zimmermann N, Nakajima M, Shibata D, Shibata M, Shiba K, Kita M, Kigoshi H, Tanaka Y, Yamasaki Y, Asahina Y, Song C, Nomura M, Nomura M, Nakajima A, Nakachi M, Yamada L, Nakazawa S, Sawada H, Murata K, Mitsuoka K, Ishikawa T, Wakabayashi KI, Kon T, Inaba K. A dynein-associated photoreceptor protein prevents ciliary acclimation to blue light. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/9/eabf3621. [PMID: 33637535 PMCID: PMC7909887 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abf3621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Light-responsive regulation of ciliary motility is known to be conducted through modulation of dyneins, but the mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we report a novel subunit of the two-headed f/I1 inner arm dynein, named DYBLUP, in animal spermatozoa and a unicellular green alga. This subunit contains a BLUF (sensors of blue light using FAD) domain that appears to directly modulate dynein activity in response to light. DYBLUP (dynein-associated BLUF protein) mediates the connection between the f/I1 motor domain and the tether complex that links the motor to the doublet microtubule. Chlamydomonas lacking the DYBLUP ortholog shows both positive and negative phototaxis but becomes acclimated and attracted to high-intensity blue light. These results suggest a mechanism to avoid toxic strong light via direct photoregulation of dyneins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Kutomi
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Yamanashi 409-3898, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Yamamoto
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Keiko Hirose
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Mizuno
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Yoshida-gun, Fukui 910-1193, Japan
| | - Yuuhei Nakagiri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Imai
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Akira Noga
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jagan Mohan Obbineni
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- School of Agricultural Innovations and Advanced Learning, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Noemi Zimmermann
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Masako Nakajima
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Daisuke Shibata
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Misa Shibata
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Masaki Kita
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8571, Japan
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Hideo Kigoshi
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8571, Japan
| | - Yui Tanaka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yuya Yamasaki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yuma Asahina
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Chihong Song
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Mami Nomura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Mamoru Nomura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Ayako Nakajima
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Mia Nakachi
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
| | - Lixy Yamada
- Sugashima Marine Biological Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Toba, Mie 517-0004, Japan
| | - Shiori Nakazawa
- Sugashima Marine Biological Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Toba, Mie 517-0004, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Sawada
- Sugashima Marine Biological Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Toba, Mie 517-0004, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Murata
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Kaoru Mitsuoka
- Research Center for Ultra-High Voltage Electron Microscopy, Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Takashi Ishikawa
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ken-Ichi Wakabayashi
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Takahide Kon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan.
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15
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Sperm ion channels and transporters in male fertility and infertility. Nat Rev Urol 2020; 18:46-66. [PMID: 33214707 DOI: 10.1038/s41585-020-00390-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian sperm cells must respond to cues originating from along the female reproductive tract and from the layers of the egg in order to complete their fertilization journey. Dynamic regulation of ion signalling is, therefore, essential for sperm cells to adapt to their constantly changing environment. Over the past 15 years, direct electrophysiological recordings together with genetically modified mouse models and human genetics have confirmed the importance of ion channels, including the principal Ca2+-selective plasma membrane ion channel CatSper, for sperm activity. Sperm ion channels and membrane receptors are attractive targets for both the development of contraceptives and infertility treatment drugs. Furthermore, in this era of assisted reproductive technologies, understanding the signalling processes implicated in defective sperm function, particularly those arising from genetic abnormalities, is of the utmost importance not only for the development of infertility treatments but also to assess the overall health of a patient and his children. Future studies to improve reproductive health care and overall health care as a function of the ability to reproduce should include identification and analyses of gene variants that underlie human infertility and research into fertility-related molecules.
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16
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Konno A, Inaba K. Region-Specific Loss of Two-Headed Ciliary Dyneins in Ascidian Endostyle. Zoolog Sci 2020; 37:512-518. [DOI: 10.2108/zs200095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alu Konno
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda 5-10-1, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan
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17
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Jungnickel MK, Sutton KA, Baker MA, Cohen MG, Sanderson MJ, Florman HM. The flagellar protein Enkurin is required for mouse sperm motility and for transport through the female reproductive tract. Biol Reprod 2019; 99:789-797. [PMID: 29733335 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Enkurin was identified initially in mouse sperm where it was suggested to act as an intracellular adaptor protein linking membrane calcium influx to intracellular signaling pathways. In order to examine the function of this protein, a targeted mutation was introduced into the mouse Enkurin gene. Males that were homozygous for this mutated allele were subfertile. This was associated with lower rates of sperm transport in the female reproductive tract, including reduced entry into the oviduct and slower migration to the site of fertilization in the distal oviduct, and with poor progressive motility in vitro. Flagella from wild-type animals exhibited symmetrical bending and progressive motility in culture medium, and demembranated flagella exhibited the "curlicue" response to Ca2+ in vitro. In contrast, flagella of mice homozygous for the mutated allele displayed only asymmetric bending, nonprogressive motility, and a loss of Ca2+-responsiveness following demembrantion. We propose that Enkurin is part of a flagellar Ca2+-sensor that regulates bending and that the motility defects following mutation of the locus are the proximate cause of subfertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa K Jungnickel
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Keith A Sutton
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mark A Baker
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael G Cohen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael J Sanderson
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Harvey M Florman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
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18
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Wijerathne TD, Kim JH, Kim MJ, Kim CY, Chae MR, Lee SW, Lee KP. Onion peel extract and its constituent, quercetin inhibits human Slo3 in a pH and calcium dependent manner. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 23:381-392. [PMID: 31496875 PMCID: PMC6717788 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2019.23.5.381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sperm function and male fertility are closely related to pH dependent K+ current (KSper) in human sperm, which is most likely composed of Slo3 and its auxiliary subunit leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 52 (LRRC52). Onion peel extract (OPE) and its major active ingredient quercetin are widely used as fertility enhancers; however, the effect of OPE and quercetin on Slo3 has not been elucidated. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of quercetin on human Slo3 channels. Human Slo3 and LRRC52 were co-transfected into HEK293 cells and pharmacological properties were studied with the whole cell patch clamp technique. We successfully expressed and measured pH sensitive and calcium insensitive Slo3 currents in HEK293 cells. We found that OPE and its key ingredient quercetin inhibit Slo3 currents. Inhibition by quercetin is dose dependent and this degree of inhibition decreases with elevating internal alkalization and internal free calcium concentrations. Functional moieties in the quercetin polyphenolic ring govern the degree of inhibition of Slo3 by quercetin, and the composition of such functional moieties are sensitive to the pH of the medium. These results suggest that quercetin inhibits Slo3 in a pH and calcium dependent manner. Therefore, we surmise that quercetin induced depolarization in spermatozoa may enhance the voltage gated proton channel (Hv1), and activate non-selective cation channels of sperm (CatSper) dependent calcium influx to trigger sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tharaka Darshana Wijerathne
- Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
| | - Min Ji Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
| | - Chul Young Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan 15588, Korea
| | - Mee Ree Chae
- Department of Urology, Samsung Medical Center, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, Korea
| | - Sung Won Lee
- Department of Urology, Samsung Medical Center, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, Korea
| | - Kyu Pil Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
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19
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Sasaki K, Shiba K, Nakamura A, Kawano N, Satouh Y, Yamaguchi H, Morikawa M, Shibata D, Yanase R, Jokura K, Nomura M, Miyado M, Takada S, Ueno H, Nonaka S, Baba T, Ikawa M, Kikkawa M, Miyado K, Inaba K. Calaxin is required for cilia-driven determination of vertebrate laterality. Commun Biol 2019; 2:226. [PMID: 31240264 PMCID: PMC6586612 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0462-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Calaxin is a Ca2+-binding dynein-associated protein that regulates flagellar and ciliary movement. In ascidians, calaxin plays essential roles in chemotaxis of sperm. However, nothing has been known for the function of calaxin in vertebrates. Here we show that the mice with a null mutation in Efcab1, which encodes calaxin, display typical phenotypes of primary ciliary dyskinesia, including hydrocephalus, situs inversus, and abnormal motility of trachea cilia and sperm flagella. Strikingly, both males and females are viable and fertile, indicating that calaxin is not essential for fertilization in mice. The 9 + 2 axonemal structures of epithelial multicilia and sperm flagella are normal, but the formation of 9 + 0 nodal cilia is significantly disrupted. Knockout of calaxin in zebrafish also causes situs inversus due to the irregular ciliary beating of Kupffer's vesicle cilia, although the 9 + 2 axonemal structure appears to remain normal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Sasaki
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Akihiro Nakamura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, 157-8535 Japan
| | - Natsuko Kawano
- Department of Life Science, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kanagawa, 214-8574 Japan
| | - Yuhkoh Satouh
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871 Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Motohiro Morikawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Daisuke Shibata
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Ryuji Yanase
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Kei Jokura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Mami Nomura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
| | - Mami Miyado
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, 157-8535 Japan
| | - Shuji Takada
- Department of Systems BioMedicine, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, 157-8535 Japan
| | - Hironori Ueno
- Molecular Function & Life Sciences, Aichi University of Education, Aichi, 448-8542 Japan
| | - Shigenori Nonaka
- Spatiotemporal Regulations Group, Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), Okazaki, 444-8585 Japan
- Laboratory for Spatiotemporal Regulations, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, 444-8585 Japan
| | - Tadashi Baba
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, and Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, 305-8577 Japan
| | - Masahito Ikawa
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871 Japan
| | - Masahide Kikkawa
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Kenji Miyado
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, 157-8535 Japan
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, 415-0025 Japan
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Puga Molina LC, Luque GM, Balestrini PA, Marín-Briggiler CI, Romarowski A, Buffone MG. Molecular Basis of Human Sperm Capacitation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:72. [PMID: 30105226 PMCID: PMC6078053 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the early 1950s, Austin and Chang independently described the changes that are required for the sperm to fertilize oocytes in vivo. These changes were originally grouped under name of “capacitation” and were the first step in the development of in vitro fertilization (IVF) in humans. Following these initial and fundamental findings, a remarkable number of observations led to characterization of the molecular steps behind this process. The discovery of certain sperm-specific molecules and the possibility to record ion currents through patch-clamp approaches helped to integrate the initial biochemical observation with the activity of ion channels. This is of particular importance in the male gamete due to the fact that sperm are transcriptionally inactive. Therefore, sperm must control all these changes that occur during their transit through the male and female reproductive tracts by complex signaling cascades that include post-translational modifications. This review is focused on the principal molecular mechanisms that govern human sperm capacitation with particular emphasis on comparing all the reported pieces of evidence with the mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lis C Puga Molina
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Guillermina M Luque
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Paula A Balestrini
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Clara I Marín-Briggiler
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Romarowski
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano G Buffone
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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21
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Crystal structure of a Ca 2+-dependent regulator of flagellar motility reveals the open-closed structural transition. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2014. [PMID: 29386625 PMCID: PMC5792641 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19898-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sperm chemotaxis toward a chemoattractant is very important for the success of fertilization. Calaxin, a member of the neuronal calcium sensor protein family, directly acts on outer-arm dynein and regulates specific flagellar movement during sperm chemotaxis of ascidian, Ciona intestinalis. Here, we present the crystal structures of calaxin both in the open and closed states upon Ca2+ and Mg2+ binding. The crystal structures revealed that three of the four EF-hands of a calaxin molecule bound Ca2+ ions and that EF2 and EF3 played a critical role in the conformational transition between the open and closed states. The rotation of α7 and α8 helices induces a significant conformational change of a part of the α10 helix into the loop. The structural differences between the Ca2+- and Mg2+-bound forms indicates that EF3 in the closed state has a lower affinity for Mg2+, suggesting that calaxin tends to adopt the open state in Mg2+-bound form. SAXS data supports that Ca2+-binding causes the structural transition toward the closed state. The changes in the structural transition of the C-terminal domain may be required to bind outer-arm dynein. These results provide a novel mechanism for recognizing a target protein using a calcium sensor protein.
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22
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Mizuno K, Shiba K, Yaguchi J, Shibata D, Yaguchi S, Prulière G, Chenevert J, Inaba K. Calaxin establishes basal body orientation and coordinates movement of monocilia in sea urchin embryos. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10751. [PMID: 28883641 PMCID: PMC5589754 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10822-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Through their coordinated alignment and beating, motile cilia generate directional fluid flow and organismal movement. While the mechanisms used by multiciliated epithelial tissues to achieve this coordination have been widely studied, much less is known about regulation of monociliated tissues such as those found in the vertebrate node and swimming planktonic larvae. Here, we show that a calcium sensor protein associated with outer arm dynein, calaxin, is a critical regulator for the coordinated movements of monocilia. Knockdown of calaxin gene in sea urchin embryos results in uncoordinated ciliary beating and defective directional movement of the embryos, but no apparent abnormality in axoneme ultrastructure. Examination of the beating cycle of individual calaxin-deficient cilia revealed a marked effect on the waveform and spatial range of ciliary bending. These findings indicate that calaxin-mediated regulation of ciliary beating is responsible for proper basal body orientation and ciliary alignment in fields of monociliated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsutoshi Mizuno
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan.,Center for Developmental Biology, RIKEN, 2-2-3 Minatojima-Minamimachi, Chuou-ku, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Junko Yaguchi
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Daisuke Shibata
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Yaguchi
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Gérard Prulière
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06 and CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer, Observatoire Océanologique, 06230, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Janet Chenevert
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06 and CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer, Observatoire Océanologique, 06230, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan.
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23
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Shiba K, Inaba K. Inverse relationship of Ca 2+-dependent flagellar response between animal sperm and prasinophyte algae. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2017; 130:465-473. [PMID: 28424932 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-017-0931-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Symmetry/asymmetry conversion of eukaryotic flagellar waveform is caused by the changes in intracellular Ca2+. Animal sperm flagella show symmetric or asymmetric waveform at lower or higher concentration of intracellular Ca2+, respectively. In Chlamydomonas, high Ca2+ induces conversion of flagellar waveform from asymmetric to symmetry, resulting in the backward movement. This mirror image relationship between animal sperm and Chlamydomonas could be explained by the distinct calcium sensors used to regulate the outer arm dyneins (Inaba 2015). Here we analyze the flagellar Ca2+-response of the prasinophyte Pterosperma cristatum, which shows backward movement by undulating four flagella, the appearance similar to animal sperm. The moving path of Pterosperma shows relatively straight in artificial seawater (ASW) or ASW in the presence of a Ca2+ ionophore A23187, whereas it becomes circular in a low Ca2+ solution. Analysis of flagellar waveform reveals symmetric or asymmetric waveform propagation in ASW or a low Ca2+ solution, respectively. These patterns of flagellar responses are completely opposite to those in sperm flagella of the sea urchin Anthocidaris crassispina, supporting the idea previously proposed that the difference in flagellar response to Ca2+ attributes to the evolutional innovation of calcium sensors of outer arm dynein in opisthokont or bikont lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan.
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24
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Lindemann CB, Lesich KA. Functional anatomy of the mammalian sperm flagellum. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2016; 73:652-669. [PMID: 27712041 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The eukaryotic flagellum is the organelle responsible for the propulsion of the male gamete in most animals. Without exception, sperm of all mammalian species use a flagellum for swimming. The mammalian sperm has a centrally located 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubule doublets and hundreds of accessory proteins that together constitute an axoneme. However, they also possess several characteristic peri-axonemal structures that make the mammalian sperm tail function differently. These modifications include nine outer dense fibers (ODFs) that are paired with the nine outer microtubule doublets of the axoneme, and are anchored in a structure called the connecting piece located at the base. The presence of the ODFs and connecting piece, and the absence of a basal body, dictate that physical forces generated by the dynein motors are transmitted to the base of the flagellum through the ODFs. Mammalian sperm flagella also possess a mitochondrial and a fibrous sheath that encircle most of the axoneme. These sheaths and the ODFs add mechanical rigidity to the flagellum creating the functional effect of increasing bend wavelength, which requires the entrainment of more dynein motors in the production of a single wave. The sheaths also act as a retinaculum and maintain the integrity of the central axoneme when large bending torques are generated by dynein. Large torque production is crucial to the process of hyperactivation and the unique motility transitions associated with effective fertilizing capacity. Consequently, these specialized anatomical features are essential for the effective interaction of sperm with the female reproductive tract and ovum. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathleen A Lesich
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan
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25
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Rodríguez-Arribas M, Yakhine-Diop SMS, Pedro JMBS, Gómez-Suaga P, Gómez-Sánchez R, Martínez-Chacón G, Fuentes JM, González-Polo RA, Niso-Santano M. Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs): Overview and Its Role in Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:6287-6303. [PMID: 27714635 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0140-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) are structures that regulate physiological functions between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria in order to maintain calcium signaling and mitochondrial biogenesis. Several proteins located in MAMs, including those encoded by PARK genes and some of neurodegeneration-related proteins (huntingtin, presenilin, etc.), ensure this regulation. In this regard, MAM alteration is associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's (PD), Alzheimer's (AD), and Huntington's diseases (HD) and contributes to the appearance of the pathogenesis features, i.e., autophagy dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and lately, neuronal death. Moreover,, ER stress and/or damaged mitochondria can be the cause of these disruptions. Therefore, ER-mitochondria contact structure and function are crucial to multiple cellular processes. This review is focused on the molecular interaction between ER and mitochondria indispensable to MAM formation and on MAM alteration-induced etiology of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rodríguez-Arribas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain
| | - S M S Yakhine-Diop
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain
| | - J M Bravo-San Pedro
- Equipe 11 labellisée Ligue contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM U1138, 75006, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, 75006, Paris, France.,Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, 94805, Villejuif, France
| | - P Gómez-Suaga
- Department Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute Kings College London, London, SE5 9RX, UK
| | - R Gómez-Sánchez
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - G Martínez-Chacón
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain
| | - J M Fuentes
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain
| | - R A González-Polo
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain. .,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.
| | - M Niso-Santano
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. De la Universidad S/N, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain. .,Facultad de Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P, 10003, Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain.
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26
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Abstract
Sperm motility is driven by motile cytoskeletal elements in the tail, called axonemes. The structure of axonemes consists of 9 + 2 microtubules, molecular motors (dyneins), and their regulatory structures. Axonemes are well conserved in motile cilia and flagella through eukaryotic evolution. Deficiency in the axonemal structure causes defects in sperm motility, and often leads to male infertility. It has been known since the 1970s that, in some cases, male infertility is linked with other symptoms or diseases such as Kartagener syndrome. Given that these links are mostly caused by deficiencies in the common components of cilia and flagella, they are called "immotile cilia syndrome" or "primary ciliary dyskinesia," or more recently, "ciliopathy," which includes deficiencies in primary and sensory cilia. Here, we review the structure of the sperm flagellum and epithelial cilia in the human body, and discuss how male fertility is linked to ciliopathy.
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27
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Wang X, Liu B, Liu F, Huan P. A calaxin Gene in the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas and Its Potential Roles in Cilia. Zoolog Sci 2015; 32:419-26. [DOI: 10.2108/zs150009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academyof Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Baozhong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academyof Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Pin Huan
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academyof Sciences, Qingdao, China
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28
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Miller MR, Mansell SA, Meyers SA, Lishko PV. Flagellar ion channels of sperm: similarities and differences between species. Cell Calcium 2015; 58:105-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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29
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Konno A, Shiba K, Cai C, Inaba K. Branchial cilia and sperm flagella recruit distinct axonemal components. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126005. [PMID: 25962172 PMCID: PMC4427456 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic cilia and flagella have highly conserved 9 + 2 structures. They are functionally diverged to play cell-type-specific roles even in a multicellular organism. Although their structural components are therefore believed to be common, few studies have investigated the molecular diversity of the protein components of the cilia and flagella in a single organism. Here we carried out a proteomic analysis and compared protein components between branchial cilia and sperm flagella in a marine invertebrate chordate, Ciona intestinalis. Distinct feature of protein recruitment in branchial cilia and sperm flagella has been clarified; (1) Isoforms of α- and β-tubulins as well as those of actins are distinctly used in branchial cilia or sperm flagella. (2) Structural components, such as dynein docking complex, tektins and an outer dense fiber protein, are used differently by the cilia and flagella. (3) Sperm flagella are specialized for the cAMP- and Ca2+-dependent regulation of outer arm dynein and for energy metabolism by glycolytic enzymes. Our present study clearly demonstrates that flagellar or ciliary proteins are properly recruited according to their function and stability, despite their apparent structural resemblance and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alu Konno
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda 5-10-1, Shizuoka 415–0025, Japan
| | - Kogiku Shiba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda 5-10-1, Shizuoka 415–0025, Japan
| | - Chunhua Cai
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda 5-10-1, Shizuoka 415–0025, Japan
| | - Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda 5-10-1, Shizuoka 415–0025, Japan
- * E-mail:
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30
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Inaba K. Calcium sensors of ciliary outer arm dynein: functions and phylogenetic considerations for eukaryotic evolution. Cilia 2015; 4:6. [PMID: 25932323 PMCID: PMC4415241 DOI: 10.1186/s13630-015-0015-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The motility of eukaryotic cilia and flagella is modulated in response to several extracellular stimuli. Ca(2+) is the most critical intracellular factor for these changes in motility, directly acting on the axonemes and altering flagellar asymmetry. Calaxin is an opisthokont-specific neuronal calcium sensor protein first described in the sperm of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. It binds to a heavy chain of two-headed outer arm dynein in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner and regulates 'asymmetric' wave propagation at high concentrations of Ca(2+). A Ca(2+)-binding subunit of outer arm dynein in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the light chain 4 (LC4), which is a Ca(2+)-sensor phylogenetically different from calaxin, shows Ca(2+)-dependent binding to a heavy chain of three-headed outer arm dynein. However, LC4 appears to participate in 'symmetric' wave propagation at high concentrations of Ca(2+). LC4-type dynein light chain is present in bikonts, except for some subclasses of the Excavata. Thus, flagellar asymmetry-symmetry conversion in response to Ca(2+) concentration represents a 'mirror image' relationship between Ciona and Chlamydomonas. Phylogenetic analyses indicate the duplication, divergence, and loss of heavy chain and Ca(2+)-sensors of outer arm dynein among excavate species. These features imply a divergence point with respect to Ca(2+)-dependent regulation of outer arm dynein in cilia and flagella during the evolution of eukaryotic supergroups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025 Japan
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31
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Alavi SMH, Matsumura N, Shiba K, Itoh N, Takahashi KG, Inaba K, Osada M. Roles of extracellular ions and pH in 5-HT-induced sperm motility in marine bivalve. Reproduction 2014; 147:331-45. [PMID: 24398874 DOI: 10.1530/rep-13-0418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Factors that inhibit and stimulate the initiation of sperm motility were determined for Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum), Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), and Japanese scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis). Compared with artificial seawater (ASW), serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine creatinine sulfate, 5-HT) could fully trigger sperm motility and increase sperm velocity and motility duration. Sperm motility was decreased in ASW at pH 6.5-7.0 and suppressed at pH 4.0. In Manila clam and Pacific oyster, 5-HT could overcome the inhibitory effects of acidic pH on sperm motility. In the presence of nigericin (a K(+)/H(+) exchanger), sperm motility was only triggered at pH 8.3. Testicular fluid K(+) concentrations were two- to fourfold higher than that in ASW. Sperm motility and velocity were decreased in ASW or 5-HT containing ≥40 mM K(+) or ≥2.5 mM 4-aminopyridine, suggesting K(+) efflux requirement to initiate motility. Sperm motility and velocity were reduced in ASW or 5-HT containing EGTA or W-7, suggesting that extracellular Ca(2)(+) is required for Ca(2)(+)/calmodulin-dependent flagellar beating. Ca(2)(+) influx occurs via Ca(2)(+) channels because sperm motility and velocity were decreased in both ASW and 5-HT containing T-type and L-type Ca(2)(+) channel blockers. 5-HT-dependent initiation of sperm motility was associated with intracellular Ca(2)(+) rise, which was comparable to that seen in ASW but was not observed in the presence of EGTA or a Ca(2)(+) channel blocker. Extracellular Na(+) is also essential for sperm motility initiation via regulation of Na(+)/Ca(2)(+) exchange. Overall, 5-HT-dependent initiation of sperm motility in marine bivalve mollusks is an osmolality-independent mechanism and regulated by extracellular pH, K(+), Ca(2)(+), and Na(+).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayyed Mohammad Hadi Alavi
- Laboratory of Aquacultural Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 1-1 Tsutsumidori-amamiyamachi, Sendai 981-8555, Japan
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32
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Kutomi O, Seki M, Nakamura S, Kamachi H, Noguchi M. Inactivation of Ca2+-induced ciliary reversal by high-salt extraction in the cilia of Paramecium. PROTOPLASMA 2013; 250:1219-1227. [PMID: 23636433 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-013-0504-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular Ca(2+) induces ciliary reversal and backward swimming in Paramecium. However, it is not known how the Ca(2+) signal controls the motor machinery to induce ciliary reversal. We found that demembranated cilia on the ciliated cortical sheets from Paramecium caudatum lost the ability to undergo ciliary reversal after brief extraction with a solution containing 0.5 M KCl. KNO(3), which is similar to KCl with respect to chaotropic effect; it had the same effect as that of KCl on ciliary response. Cyclic AMP antagonizes Ca(2+)-induced ciliary reversal. Limited trypsin digestion prevents endogenous A-kinase and cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of an outer arm dynein light chain and induces ciliary reversal. However, the trypsin digestion prior to the high-salt extraction did not affect the inhibition of Ca(2+)-induced ciliary reversal caused by the high-salt extraction. Furthermore, during the course of the high-salt extraction, some axonemal proteins were extracted from ciliary axonemes, suggesting that they may be responsible for Ca(2+)-induced ciliary reversal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Kutomi
- Department of Environmental Biology and Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-8555, Japan,
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Physiological functions of osmolality and calcium ions on the initiation of sperm motility and swimming performance in redside dace, Clinostomus elongatus. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2013; 166:147-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2013] [Revised: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Jin Y, Yaguchi S, Shiba K, Yamada L, Yaguchi J, Shibata D, Sawada H, Inaba K. Glutathione transferase theta in apical ciliary tuft regulates mechanical reception and swimming behavior of Sea Urchin Embryos. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2013; 70:453-70. [PMID: 23907936 PMCID: PMC3812683 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2013] [Revised: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
An apical tuft, which is observed in a wide range of embryos/larvae of marine invertebrates, is composed of a group of cilia that are longer and less motile than the abundant lateral cilia covering the rest of the embryonic surface. Although the apical tuft has been thought to function as a sensory organ, its molecular composition and roles are poorly understood. Here, we identified a glutathione transferase theta (GSTT) as an abundant and specific component of the apical tuft in sea urchin embryos. The expression of GSTT mRNA increases and becomes limited to the animal plate of the mesenchyme blastula, gastrula, and prism larva. Electron microscopy and tandem mass spectrometry demonstrated that the apical tuft contains almost every axonemal component for ciliary motility. Low concentrations of an inhibitor of glutathione transferase bromosulphophthalein (BSP) induce bending of apical tuft, suggesting that GSTT regulates motility of apical tuft cilia. Embryos treated with BSP swim with normal velocity and trajectories but show less efficiency of changing direction when they collide with an object. These results suggest that GSTT in the apical tuft plays an important role in the mechanical reception for the motility regulation of lateral motile cilia in sea urchin embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinhua Jin
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
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Franco C, Soares R, Pires E, Koci K, Almeida AM, Santos R, Coelho AV. Understanding regeneration through proteomics. Proteomics 2013; 13:686-709. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201200397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Franco
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
| | - Renata Soares
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
| | - Elisabete Pires
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
| | - Kamila Koci
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
| | - André M. Almeida
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
- Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical; Lisboa Portugal
| | - Romana Santos
- Unidade de Investigação em Ciências Orais e Biomédicas, Faculdade de Medicina Dentária; Universidade de Lisboa; Portugal
| | - Ana Varela Coelho
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica; Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Oeiras Portugal
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Calaxin drives sperm chemotaxis by Ca²⁺-mediated direct modulation of a dynein motor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:20497-502. [PMID: 23169663 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1217018109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sperm chemotaxis occurs widely in animals and plants and plays an important role in the success of fertilization. Several studies have recently demonstrated that Ca(2+) influx through specific Ca(2+) channels is a prerequisite for sperm chemotactic movement. However, the regulator that modulates flagellar movement in response to Ca(2+) is unknown. Here we show that a neuronal calcium sensor, calaxin, directly acts on outer-arm dynein and regulates specific flagellar movement during sperm chemotaxis. Calaxin inhibition resulted in significant loss of sperm chemotactic movement, despite normal increases in intracellular calcium concentration. Using a demembranated sperm model, we demonstrate that calaxin is essential for generation and propagation of Ca(2+)-induced asymmetric flagellar bending. An in vitro motility assay revealed that calaxin directly suppressed the velocity of microtubule sliding by outer-arm dynein at high Ca(2+) concentrations. This study describes the missing link between chemoattractant-mediated Ca(2+) signaling and motor-driven microtubule sliding during sperm chemotaxis.
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Konno A, Setou M, Ikegami K. Ciliary and flagellar structure and function--their regulations by posttranslational modifications of axonemal tubulin. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 294:133-70. [PMID: 22364873 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394305-7.00003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are evolutionarily conserved microtubule-based organelles protruding from the cell surface. They perform dynein-driven beating which contributes to cell locomotion or flow generation. They also play important roles in sensing as cellular antennae, which allows cells to respond to various external stimuli. The main components of cilia and flagella, α- and β-tubulins, are known to undergo various posttranslational modifications (PTMs), including phosphorylation, palmitoylation, tyrosination/detyrosination, Δ2 modification, acetylation, glutamylation, and glycylation. Recent identification of tubulin-modifying enzymes, especially tubulin tyrosine ligase-like proteins which perform tubulin glutamylation and glycylation, has demonstrated the importance of tubulin modifications for the assembly and functions of cilia and flagella. In this chapter, we review recent work on PTMs of ciliary and flagellar tubulins in conjunction with discussing the basic knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alu Konno
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
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Darszon A, Nishigaki T, Beltran C, Treviño CL. Calcium Channels in the Development, Maturation, and Function of Spermatozoa. Physiol Rev 2011; 91:1305-55. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00028.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A proper dialogue between spermatozoa and the egg is essential for conception of a new individual in sexually reproducing animals. Ca2+ is crucial in orchestrating this unique event leading to a new life. No wonder that nature has devised different Ca2+-permeable channels and located them at distinct sites in spermatozoa so that they can help fertilize the egg. New tools to study sperm ionic currents, and image intracellular Ca2+ with better spatial and temporal resolution even in swimming spermatozoa, are revealing how sperm ion channels participate in fertilization. This review critically examines the involvement of Ca2+ channels in multiple signaling processes needed for spermatozoa to mature, travel towards the egg, and fertilize it. Remarkably, these tiny specialized cells can express exclusive channels like CatSper for Ca2+ and SLO3 for K+, which are attractive targets for contraception and for the discovery of novel signaling complexes. Learning more about fertilization is a matter of capital importance; societies face growing pressure to counteract rising male infertility rates, provide safe male gamete-based contraceptives, and preserve biodiversity through improved captive breeding and assisted conception initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Darszon
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Takuya Nishigaki
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Carmen Beltran
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Claudia L. Treviño
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
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Nakachi M, Nakajima A, Nomura M, Yonezawa K, Ueno K, Endo T, Inaba K. Proteomic profiling reveals compartment-specific, novel functions of ascidian sperm proteins. Mol Reprod Dev 2011; 78:529-49. [DOI: 10.1002/mrd.21341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Guerrero A, Carneiro J, Pimentel A, Wood CD, Corkidi G, Darszon A. Strategies for locating the female gamete: the importance of measuring sperm trajectories in three spatial dimensions. Mol Hum Reprod 2011; 17:511-23. [PMID: 21642645 PMCID: PMC3136205 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gar042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The spermatozoon must find its female gamete partner and deliver its genetic material to generate a new individual. This requires that the spermatozoon be motile and endowed with sophisticated swimming strategies to locate the oocyte. A common strategy is chemotaxis, in which spermatozoa detect and follow a gradient of chemical signals released by the egg and its associated structures. Decoding the female gamete’s positional information is a process that spermatozoa undergo in a three-dimensional (3D) space; however, due to their speed and small size, this process has been studied almost exclusively in spermatozoa restricted to swimming in two dimensions (2D). This review examines the relationship between the mechanics of sperm propulsion and the physiological function of these cells in 3D. It also considers whether it is possible to derive all the 3D sperm swimming characteristics by extrapolating from 2D measurements. It is concluded that full insight into flagellar beat dynamics, swimming paths and chemotaxis under physiological conditions will eventually require quantitative imaging of flagellar form, ion flux changes, cell trajectories and modelling of free-swimming spermatozoa in 3D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adán Guerrero
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnologıa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México.
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Yoshida M, Yoshida K. Sperm chemotaxis and regulation of flagellar movement by Ca2+. Mol Hum Reprod 2011; 17:457-65. [PMID: 21610215 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gar041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Yoshida
- Misaki Marine Biological Station, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Miura, Kanagawa 238-0225, Japan.
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Inaba K. Sperm flagella: comparative and phylogenetic perspectives of protein components. Mol Hum Reprod 2011; 17:524-38. [PMID: 21586547 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gar034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sperm motility is necessary for the transport of male DNA to eggs in species with both external and internal fertilization. Flagella comprise several proteins for generating and regulating motility. Central cytoskeletal structures called axonemes have been well conserved through evolution. In mammalian sperm flagella, two accessory structures (outer dense fiber and the fibrous sheath) surround the axoneme. The axonemal bend movement is based on the active sliding of axonemal doublet microtubules by the molecular motor dynein, which is divided into outer and inner arm dyneins according to positioning on the doublet microtubule. Outer and inner arm dyneins play different roles in the production and regulation of flagellar motility. Several regulatory mechanisms are known for both dyneins, which are important in motility activation and chemotaxis at fertilization. Although dynein itself has certain properties that contribute to the formation and propagation of flagellar bending, other axonemal structures-specifically, the radial spoke/central pair apparatus-have essential roles in the regulation of flagellar bending. Recent genetic and proteomic studies have explored several new components of axonemes and shed light on the generation and regulation of sperm motility during fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shizuoka, Japan.
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Chang H, Suarez SS. Two distinct Ca(2+) signaling pathways modulate sperm flagellar beating patterns in mice. Biol Reprod 2011; 85:296-305. [PMID: 21389347 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.110.089789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperactivation, a swimming pattern of mammalian sperm in the oviduct, is essential for fertilization. It is characterized by asymmetrical flagellar beating and an increase of cytoplasmic Ca(2+). We observed that some mouse sperm swimming in the oviduct produce high-amplitude pro-hook bends (bends in the direction of the hook on the head), whereas other sperm produce high-amplitude anti-hook bends. Switching direction of the major bends could serve to redirect sperm toward oocytes. We hypothesized that different Ca(2+) signaling pathways produce high-amplitude pro-hook and anti-hook bends. In vitro, sperm that hyperactivated during capacitation (because of activation of CATSPER plasma membrane Ca(2+) channels) developed high-amplitude pro-hook bends. The CATSPER activators procaine and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) also induced high-amplitude pro-hook bends. Thimerosal, which triggers a Ca(2+) release from internal stores, induced high-amplitude anti-hook bends. Activation of CATSPER channels is facilitated by a pH rise, so both Ca(2+) and pH responses to treatments with 4-AP and thimerosal were monitored. Thimerosal triggered a Ca(2+) increase that initiated at the base of the flagellum, whereas 4-AP initiated a rise in the proximal principal piece. Only 4-AP triggered a flagellar pH rise. Proteins were extracted from sperm for examination of phosphorylation patterns induced by Ca(2+) signaling. Procaine and 4-AP induced phosphorylation of proteins on threonine and serine, whereas thimerosal primarily induced dephosphorylation of proteins. Tyrosine phosphorylation was unaffected. We concluded that hyperactivation, which is associated with capacitation, can be modulated by release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores to reverse the direction of the dominant flagellar bend and, thus, redirect sperm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haixin Chang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Alavi SMH, Butts IA, Hatef A, Mommens M, Trippel EA, Litvak MK, Babiak I. Sperm morphology, ATP content, and analysis of motility in Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). CAN J ZOOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Spermatozoon of Atlantic halibut ( Hippoglossus hippoglossus (L., 1758)) is uniflagellated, lacks an acrosome, and is differentiated into a head, midpiece, and flagellum. There are two to five mitochondria in the midpiece, as well as proximal and distal centrioles. The flagellum consisted of 9 + 2 microtubules surrounded by plasma membrane, which is extended at the proximal part of the flagellum owing to the presence of vacuoles. After sperm activation in seawater, sperm motility and velocity decreased from 98.4% ± 3.4% and 170.3 ± 8.9 µm·s–1 at 15 s after sperm activation to 4.8% ± 4.7% and 9.2 ± 8.9 µm·s–1 at 120 s after sperm activation, respectively. ATP content (nmol·L–1 ATP per 108 spermatozoa) significantly decreased at 60 s after sperm activation (5.9 ± 1.5) compared with at 0 and 30 s after sperm activation (14.9 ± 1.5 and 14.5 ± 1.5, respectively). Beating waves propagated along the full length of the flagellum after sperm activation, whereas waves were restricted to the proximal section during the latter motility period. Wave amplitude significantly decreased at 45 s after sperm activation, but wavelength did not differ. The present study showed associations among sperm morphology, ATP content, flagellar wave parameters, and sperm velocity, which could be used in comparative spermatology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayyed Mohammad Hadi Alavi
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Ian A.E. Butts
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Azadeh Hatef
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Maren Mommens
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Edward A. Trippel
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Matthew K. Litvak
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
| | - Igor Babiak
- South Bohemia Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 389 25 Vodňany, Czech Republic
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Biological Station, 531 Brandy Cove Road, St. Andrews, NB E5B 2L9, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick (Saint John), Ganong Hall, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB E2L 4L5, Canada
- Reproductive Biology Research Group, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, University of Nordland, Bodø, 8049, Norway
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, 63B York Street, Sackville, NB E4L 1G7, Canada
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Parpura V, Grubišić V, Verkhratsky A. Ca(2+) sources for the exocytotic release of glutamate from astrocytes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2010; 1813:984-91. [PMID: 21118669 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Revised: 11/07/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes can exocytotically release the gliotransmitter glutamate from vesicular compartments. Increased cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration is necessary and sufficient for this process. The predominant source of Ca(2+) for exocytosis in astrocytes resides within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and ryanodine receptors of the ER provide a conduit for the release of Ca(2+) to the cytosol. The ER store is (re)filled by the store-specific Ca(2+)-ATPase. Ultimately, the depleted ER is replenished by Ca(2+) which enters from the extracellular space to the cytosol via store-operated Ca(2+) entry; the TRPC1 protein has been implicated in this part of the astrocytic exocytotic process. Voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels and plasma membrane Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers are additional means for cytosolic Ca(2+) entry. Cytosolic Ca(2+) levels can be modulated by mitochondria, which can take up cytosolic Ca(2+) via the Ca(2+) uniporter and release Ca(2+) into cytosol via the mitochondrial Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, as well as by the formation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. The interplay between various Ca(2+) sources generates cytosolic Ca(2+) dynamics that can drive Ca(2+)-dependent exocytotic release of glutamate from astrocytes. An understanding of this process in vivo will reveal some of the astrocytic functions in health and disease of the brain. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 11th European Symposium on Calcium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Parpura
- Department of Neurobiology, Center for Glial Biology in Medicine, Civitan International Research Center, Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanotechnology Laboratories, and Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama, Birmingham 35294-0021, USA.
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King SM. Sensing the mechanical state of the axoneme and integration of Ca2+ signaling by outer arm dynein. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2010; 67:207-13. [PMID: 20186692 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Axonemal dyneins have been demonstrated to monitor the mechanical state of the axoneme and must also alter activity in response to various signaling pathways. The central pair/radial spoke systems are clearly involved in controlling inner dynein arm function; however, the mechanisms by which the outer dynein arm transduces regulatory signals appear quite distinct at the molecular level. In Chlamydomonas, these regulatory components include thioredoxins involved in response to redox changes, molecules that tether the gamma heavy-chain motor unit to the A-tubule of the outer doublet and a Ca(2+)-binding protein that controls the structure of the gamma heavy-chain N-terminal domain. Together, these studies now suggest that the gamma heavy chain acts as a key regulatory node for controlling outer arm function in response to alterations in curvature and ligand binding. Furthermore, they allow us to propose a testable molecular mechanism by which altered Ca(2+) levels might lead to a change in ciliary waveform by controlling whether one heavy chain of outer arm dynein acts as a microtubule translocase or as an ATP-dependent brake that limits the amount of interdoublet sliding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M King
- Department of Molecular, Microbial and Structural Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3305, USA.
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47
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Chang H, Suarez SS. Rethinking the relationship between hyperactivation and chemotaxis in mammalian sperm. Biol Reprod 2010; 83:507-13. [PMID: 20463353 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.109.083113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperactivation, a motility pattern of mammalian sperm in the oviduct, is essential to fertilization. Hyperactivation helps sperm to swim effectively through oviductal mucus, to escape from the sperm reservoir, and to penetrate the cumulus matrix and zona pellucida of the oocyte. There is some evidence that mammalian sperm can undergo chemotaxis; however, the relationship of chemotaxis to hyperactivation is unknown. Ca(2+) signaling is involved in hyperactivation and implicated in chemotaxis as well. In vivo, sperm hyperactivate in the lower oviduct, far from the cumulus-oocyte complex and possibly beyond the influence of chemotactic gradients emanating from the oocyte or cumulus. Thus, sperm are likely to be hyperactivated before sensing chemotactic gradients. Chemotactic signals might modulate hyperactivation to direct sperm toward oocytes as they reach a region of influence. Ca(2+)-directed modulation of hyperactivation is a potential mechanism of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haixin Chang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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48
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Konno A, Padma P, Ushimaru Y, Inaba K. Multidimensional Analysis of Uncharacterized Sperm Proteins inCiona intestinalis: EST-Based Analysis and Functional Immunoscreening of Testis-Expressed Genes. Zoolog Sci 2010; 27:204-15. [DOI: 10.2108/zsj.27.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Abstract
Metazoan spermatozoa, especially those from marine invertebrates and fish, are excellent sources for isolating axonemal dyneins because of their cellular homogeneity and the large amounts that can be collected. Sperm flagella can be easily isolated by homogenization and subsequent centrifugation. Axonemes are obtained by demembranation of flagella with the nonionic detergent Triton X-100. The outer arm dyneins have been most widely studied because they are specifically extracted by a high-salt solution and can be isolated as a relatively pure fraction of ~20S two-headed dynein by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Only a few reports have described the isolation of inner arm dyneins from sperm and the protocol has room for improvement. Sperm show clear changes in motility at fertilization, which are exerted through the regulation of axonemal dyneins by protein phosphorylation and Ca(2+) binding. Therefore dyneins from sperm flagella are an excellent biochemically tractable source for studying the regulation of axonemal dyneins. Here we describe protocols used for purification of flagellar dyneins from sperm of tunicates, sea urchins, and fish. The techniques described here could be applied to other species with appropriate modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Inaba
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shizuoka, Japan
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Morita M, Kitamura M, Nakajima A, Sri Susilo E, Takemura A, Okuno M. Regulation of sperm flagellar motility activation and chemotaxis caused by egg-derived substance(s) in sea cucumber. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 66:202-14. [PMID: 19235200 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The sea cucumber Holothuria atra is a broadcast spawner. Among broadcast spawners, fertilization occurs by means of an egg-derived substance(s) that induces sperm flagellar motility activation and chemotaxis. Holothuria atra sperm were quiescent in seawater, but exhibited flagellar motility activation near eggs with chorion (intact eggs). In addition, they moved in a helical motion toward intact eggs as well as a capillary filled with the water layer of the egg extracts, suggesting that an egg-derived compound(s) causes motility activation and chemotaxis. Furthermore, demembranated sperm flagella were reactivated in high pH (> 7.8) solution without cAMP, and a phosphorylation assay using (gamma-32P)ATP showed that axonemal protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation also occurred in a pH-dependent manner. These results suggest that the activation of sperm motility in holothurians is controlled by pH-sensitive changes in axonemal protein phosphorylation. Ca2+ concentration affected the swimming trajectory of demembranated sperm, indicating that Ca2+-binding proteins present at the flagella may be associated with regulation of flagellar waveform. Moreover, the phosphorylation states of several axonemal proteins were Ca2+-sensitive, indicating that Ca2+ impacts both kinase and phosphatase activities. In addition, in vivo sperm protein phosphorylation occurred after treatment with a water-soluble egg extract. Our results suggest that one or more egg-derived compounds activate motility and subsequent chemotactic behavior via Ca2+-sensitive flagellar protein phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Morita
- Tropical Biosphere Research Center, Sesoko Station, University of the Ryukyus, Sesoko, Motobu, Okinawa, Japan.
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