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Xu L, Qi Q, Zhu J, Ma X. N-Methyl Protoporphyrin IX: An Understudied Porphyrin. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:2186-2193. [PMID: 36459538 PMCID: PMC10039788 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
N-Methyl protoporphyrin IX (NmePPIX) is a derivative of protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) and the lattice of heme. Certain xenobiotics strongly induce NmePPIX production in the liver. The existence of endogenous NmePPIX in untreated animal liver has also been reported. The detailed mechanisms of NmePPIX biosynthesis remain unclear, but cytochrome P450 enzymes are thought to be critical in xenobiotic-induced NmePPIX production. High levels of NmePPIX cause PPIX accumulation because NmePPIX is a potent inhibitor (Ki = 7 nM) of ferrochelatase, the last enzyme in the heme biosynthesis pathway that converts PPIX to heme. NmePPIX is also involved in several other physiological processes, including inhibition of nitric oxide production and promotion of lamin aggregation. Compared to the two well-characterized porphyrins, PPIX and heme, NmePPIX is understudied regarding the mechanism of formation, fate, and physiological functions. This Review summarizes the current understanding of NmePPIX and provides perspectives on areas of future research on NmePPIX.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Xiaochao Ma
- Corresponding Author: Xiaochao Ma, Ph.D., Center for Pharmacogenetics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261. Tel. (412) 648-9448;
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Tzankova V, Tacconi MT. DDC-Induced Hepatic Protoporphyria and Changes in Serum and in Liver Lipids Content in Rat: Impact of Peripheral Benzodiazepine Receptor. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2011. [DOI: 10.5504/bbeq.2011.0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Gray CH. The relationship between the neurological and biochemical lesions in acute intermittent porphyria. ACTA MEDICA SCANDINAVICA. SUPPLEMENTUM 2009; 445:41-7. [PMID: 5219939 DOI: 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1966.tb02337.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Laftah AH, Raja KB, Beaumont N, Simpson RJ, Deacon A, Solanky N, Srai SKS, Peters TJ. The effects of inhibition of haem biosynthesis by griseofulvin on intestinal iron absorption. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2004; 94:161-8. [PMID: 15078340 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2004.pto940402.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between haem biosynthesis and intestinal iron absorption in mice was investigated by ascertaining the effect of the haem synthesis inhibitor, griseofulvin, on duodenal iron absorption using both in vivo and in vitro measurements. Urinary 5-aminolaevulinic acid levels were increased within 24 hr of feeding mice with griseofulvin diet (2.5% w/w), with more marked increases seen after 3-7 days. Urinary porphobilinogen levels also showed a similar trend. In vivo intestinal iron absorption was significantly reduced (P<0.05) in experimental mice, mainly due to reduction in the transfer of 59Fe from the enterocytes to the portal circulation. In vitro studies using isolated duodenal fragments also exhibited marked decreases in both iron uptake and Fe (III) reduction. Changes in mucosal Divalent Metal Transporter 1 (DMT-1), Dcytb and Ireg1 (iron regulated protein 1) mRNA levels paralleled the changes in iron absorption. The reduction in iron absorption after griseofulvin treatment was normalised when mice were simultaneously injected with haem-arginate. These data support the hypothesis that intermediates in haem biosynthesis, particularly 5-aminolaevulinic acid, regulate intestinal iron absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abas H Laftah
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, GKT School of Medicine and Dentistry, Bessemer Rd, London SE5 9PJ, UK.
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Plösch T, Bloks VW, Baller JFW, Havinga R, Verkade HJ, Jansen PLM, Kuipers F. Mdr P-glycoproteins are not essential for biliary excretion of the hydrophobic heme precursor protoporphyrin in a griseofulvin-induced mouse model of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Hepatology 2002; 35:299-306. [PMID: 11826402 DOI: 10.1053/jhep.2002.30900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic complications in erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) have been attributed to toxic actions of accumulated protoporphyrin (PP). PP can only be removed via the bile but transport systems involved have not been defined. The aim of this study was to gain insight in the mode of biliary PP excretion, with emphasis on the potential contribution of the Mdr1 P-glycoprotein export pump and biliary lipids as PP carriers. Control mice and mice homozygous for Mdr1a/b (Abcb1) or Mdr2 (Abcb4) gene disruption, the latter unable to secrete phospholipids and cholesterol into bile, were treated with griseofulvin to chemically induce protoporphyria. All groups showed dramatically increased PP levels in erythrocytes and liver after griseofulvin treatment. Histologically, massive PP deposits were found in livers of control and Mdr1a/b(-/-) mice but not in those of Mdr2(-/-) mice. Serum unesterified cholesterol and phospholipids were increased by griseofulvin because of formation of lipoprotein-X in control and Mdr1a/b(-/-) mice only. Yet, bile flow was not impaired in griseofulvin-treated mice, and biliary bile salt, phospholipid, and cholesterol secretion rates were significantly increased. Surprisingly, biliary PP excretion was similar in all 3 groups of griseofulvin-treated mice: the observed linear relationship between hepatic and biliary PP concentrations and identical liver-to-bile concentration ratios in treated and untreated mice suggest a passive mode of excretion. In conclusion, the data show that Mdr P-glycoproteins are not critically involved in biliary removal of excess PP and indicate that the presence of biliary lipids is required for formation of intrahepatic PP deposits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Plösch
- Center for Liver, Digestive, and Metabolic Diseases, Groningen University Institute for Drug Exploration, Departments of Pediatrics and Gastroenterology, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Knasmüller S, Parzefall W, Helma C, Kassie F, Ecker S, Schulte-Hermann R. Toxic effects of griseofulvin: disease models, mechanisms, and risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol 1997; 27:495-537. [PMID: 9347226 DOI: 10.3109/10408449709078444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Griseofulvin (GF) has been in use for more than 30 years as a pharmaceutical drug in humans for the treatment of dermatomycoses. Animal studies give clear evidence that it causes a variety of acute and chronic toxic effects, including liver and thyroid cancer in rodents, abnormal germ cell maturation, teratogenicity, and embroyotoxicity in various species. No sufficient data from human studies are available at present to exclude a risk in humans: therefore, attempts were made to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the toxic effects of GF and to address the question whether such effects might occur in humans undergoing GF therapy. It is well documented that GF acts as a spindle poison and its reproductive toxicity as well as the induction of numerical chromosome aberrations and of micronuclei in somatic cells possibly may result from disturbance of microtubuli formation. Likewise, a causal relationship between aneuploidy and cancer has been repeatedly postulated. However, a critical survey of the data available on aneuploidogenic chemicals revealed insufficient evidence for such an association. Conceivably, other mechanisms may be responsible for the carcinogenic effects of the drug. The induction of thyroid tumors in rats by GF is apparently a consequence of the decrease of thyroxin levels and it is unlikely that such effects occur in GF-exposed humans. The appearance of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) in mice on GF-supplemented diet is preceded by various biochemical and morphological changes in the liver. Among these, hepatic porphyria is prominent, it may result from inhibition of ferrochelatase and (compensatory) induction of ALA synthetase. GF-induced accumulation of porphyrins in mouse liver is followed by cell damage and necrotic and inflammatory processes. Similar changes are known from certain human porphyrias which are also associated with an increased risk for HCC. However, the porphyrogenic effect of GF therapy in humans is moderate compared with that in the mouse model, although more detailed studies should be performed in order to clarify this relationship on a quantitative basis. A further important effect of GF-feeding in mice is the formation of Mallory bodies (MBs) in hepatocytes. These cytoskeletal abnormalities occur also in humans, although under different conditions; their appearance is associated with the induction of liver disease and HCC. Chronic liver damage associated with porphyria and MB formation, enhanced cell proliferation, liver enlargement, and enzyme induction all may contribute to the hepatocarcinogenic effect of GF in mice. In conclusion, further investigation is required for adequate assessment of health risks to humans under GF therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Knasmüller
- Institute of Tumor Biology, Cancer Research, University of Vienna, Austria
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Tsankova V, Magistrelli A, Cantoni L, Tacconi MT. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligands in rat liver mitochondria: effect on cholesterol translocation. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 294:601-7. [PMID: 8750724 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00603-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors mediate cholesterol translocation between the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes in steroidogenic tissues. They are found in many other tissues too, including liver. We studied the effect of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligands PK11195 [1-(2-chlorophenyl)-N-methyl-N-(1-methylpropyl)isoquinoline-3-carboxa mid e], Ro 5-4864 (4-chlorodiazepam), hemin, protoporphyrin IX and N-methyl protoporphyrin IX on cholesterol mitochondrial intermembrane transport of cholesterol in vitro in rat liver. Endogenous cholesterol translocation from outer to inner mitochondrial membranes was significantly increased by PK11195 and N-methyl protoporphyrin IX (140% and 150% increase, respectively, at 1 microM, P<0.01). 5 microM protoporphyrin IX, 1 microM Ro 5-4864 and 5 microM hemin was ineffective. When mitochondria were labeled with exogenous [4-14C]cholesterol, PK11195 and N-methyl protoporphyrin IX were the most effective in increasing total cholesterol incorporation and cholesterol translocation into inner membranes, and their effect was dose-dependent. These data suggest that in liver the binding to peripheral benzodiazepine receptors is related to cholesterol translocation and the interaction of ligands with these receptors may play a role in the complex mechanism of regulation of cholesterol traffic between liver mitochondrial membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Tsankova
- Instituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milano, Italy
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Cantoni L, Di Padova C, Rovagnati P, Ruggieri R, Dal Fiume D, Tritapepe R. Bile secretion and liver microsomal mixed function oxidase system in mice with griseofulvin-induced hepatic protoporphyria. Toxicology 1983; 27:27-39. [PMID: 6679936 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(83)90073-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Administration of 2.5% griseofulvin in the diet to male CD1 mice produced protoporphyria and cholestasis. Protoporphyria became evident as early as after 10 days of treatment, whereas cholestasis, expressed in terms of total bile flow reduction, developed only after 45 days of griseofulvin. Bile flow impairment was due both to the length of treatment and to the severity of liver protoporphyria. Griseofulvin administration was also associated with a significant modification of the relative amounts of hepatic microsomal cytochromes P-450 and b5, a loss in concentration/mg of protein of cytochrome P-450 and a concomitant increase of b5. Despite these changes, the activity of aniline hydroxylase expressed per mg of microsomal protein, assessed in vitro, was not modified.
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Ioannides C, Parke DV. The effect of allyl compounds on hepatic microsomal mixed function oxidation and porphyrogenesis. Chem Biol Interact 1976; 14:241-9. [PMID: 8216 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(76)90104-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The activities of 5-aminolaevulinate (5-ALA) synthetase and of various microsomat drug-metabolising enzymes have been determined in the livers of rats pretreated with different drugs and chemicals containing the allyl group. Safrole, isosafrole and secobarbital gave rise to slight increases in 5-ALA synthetase, whereas alclophenac and triallyl cyanurate almost doubled the enzyme activity and the known porphyrogenic agents, allylisopropylacetamide (AIA) and allobarbital caused increases of 1.5- and 2.5-fold, respectively. Allobarbital induced the microsomal drug-metabolising enzymes while secobarbital had only a weak effect and alclophenac and triallyl cyanurate had no effect at all. From these results it is suggested that induction of the synthesis of cytochrome P-450 is not rate dependent on the synthesis haem and induction of porphyrin biosynthesis.
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Lin C, Symchowicz S. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of griseofulvin in man and animals. Drug Metab Rev 1975; 4:75-95. [PMID: 1106976 DOI: 10.3109/03602537508993749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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De Matteis F. The effect of drugs on 5-aminolaevulinate synthetase and other enzymes in the pathway of liver haem biosynthesis. BASIC LIFE SCIENCES 1975; 6:185-205. [PMID: 1098646 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-8954-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Schulte-Hermann R. Induction of liver growth by xenobiotic compounds and other stimuli. CRC CRITICAL REVIEWS IN TOXICOLOGY 1974; 3:97-158. [PMID: 4373214 DOI: 10.3109/10408447409079856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Pinelli A, Favalli L. Allylisopropylacetamide-induced propyria-protective effect of 3,5-dimethylisooxazole. Biochem Pharmacol 1973; 22:797-801. [PMID: 4692646 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(73)90358-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Pinelli A, Favalli L, Formento M. Antiporphyric activity of 3,5-dimethylpyrazole in allylisopropylacetamide-treated rats. LIFE SCIENCES. PT. 2: BIOCHEMISTRY, GENERAL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1973; 12:117-25. [PMID: 4708199 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(73)90328-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Pinelli A, Capuano A, Bellei M. Antiporphyric activity of thiophene-2-carboxylic acid in allylisopropylacetamide-treated rats. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 1973; 279:203-6. [PMID: 4272458 DOI: 10.1007/bf00503984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Topham JC, McIntosh DA, Platt DS. Biochemical changes in rat liver in response to treatment with drugs and other agents. IV. Biochem Pharmacol 1972; 21:1019-24. [PMID: 4402677 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(72)90406-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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McIntosh DA, Topham JC. A comparison of mouse and rat liver enzymes and their response to treatment with various compounds. Biochem Pharmacol 1972; 21:1025-9. [PMID: 4402678 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(72)90407-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Waterfield MD, Del Favero A, Palfrey AJ. Electron-microscopic changes in the livers of mice treated with the porphyrinogenic agent 1,4-dihydro-3,5-dicarbethoxycollidine. J Pathol 1969; 98:151-4. [PMID: 5352371 DOI: 10.1002/path.1710980210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Über die Porphyrinsynthese in der Leberzellkultur unter der Einwirkung von Pharmaka und Steroiden. Clin Chem Lab Med 1969. [DOI: 10.1515/cclm.1969.7.2.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Schneck DW, Racz WJ, Hirsch GH, Bubbar GL, Marks GS. Studies of the relationship between chemical structure and porphyria-inducing activity. IV. Investigations in a cell culture system. Biochem Pharmacol 1968; 17:1385-99. [PMID: 5664355 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(68)90075-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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