1
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Acharya KR, Gregory KS, Sturrock ED. Advances in the structural basis for angiotensin-1 converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Biosci Rep 2024; 44:BSR20240130. [PMID: 39046229 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20240130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Human somatic angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a key zinc metallopeptidase that plays a pivotal role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) by regulating blood pressure and electrolyte balance. Inhibition of ACE is a cornerstone in the management of hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and renal disorders. Recent advances in structural biology techniques have provided invaluable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying ACE inhibition, facilitating the design and development of more effective therapeutic agents. This review focuses on the latest advancements in elucidating the structural basis for ACE inhibition. High-resolution crystallographic studies of minimally glycosylated individual domains of ACE have revealed intricate molecular details of the ACE catalytic N- and C-domains, and their detailed interactions with clinically relevant and newly designed domain-specific inhibitors. In addition, the recently elucidated structure of the glycosylated form of full-length ACE by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has shed light on the mechanism of ACE dimerization and revealed continuous conformational changes which occur prior to ligand binding. In addition to these experimental techniques, computational approaches have also played a pivotal role in elucidating the structural basis for ACE inhibition. Molecular dynamics simulations and computational docking studies have provided atomic details of inhibitor binding kinetics and energetics, facilitating the rational design of novel ACE inhibitors with improved potency and selectivity. Furthermore, computational analysis of the motions observed by cryo-EM allowed the identification of allosteric binding sites on ACE. This affords new opportunities for the development of next-generation allosteric inhibitors with enhanced pharmacological properties. Overall, the insights highlighted in this review could enable the rational design of novel ACE inhibitors with improved efficacy and safety profiles, ultimately leading to better therapeutic outcomes for patients with hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Kyle S Gregory
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa
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2
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Peptide inhibitors of angiotensin-I converting enzyme based on angiotensin (1–7) with selectivity for the C-terminal domain. Bioorg Chem 2022; 129:106204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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Exploring the Impact of ACE Inhibition in Immunity and Disease. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2022; 2022:9028969. [PMID: 36016727 PMCID: PMC9371878 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9028969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a zinc-dependent dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase and is crucial in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) but also implicated in immune regulation. Intrinsic ACE has been detected in several immune cell populations, including macrophages and neutrophils, where its overexpression results in enhanced bactericidal and antitumour responses, independent of angiotensin II. With roles in antigen presentation and inflammation, the impact of ACE inhibitors must be explored to understand how ACE inhibition may impact our ability to clear infections or malignancy, particularly in the wake of the coronavirus (SARS-CoV2) pandemic and as antibiotic resistance grows. Patients using ACE inhibitors may be more at risk of postsurgical complications as ACE inhibition in human neutrophils results in decreased ROS and phagocytosis whilst angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) have no effect. In contrast, ACE is also elevated in certain autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, and its inhibition benefits patient outcome where inflammatory immune cells are overactive. Although the ACE autoimmune landscape is changing, some studies have conflicting results and require further input. This review seeks to highlight the need for further research covering ACE inhibitor therapeutics and their potential role in improving autoimmune conditions, cancer, or how they may contribute to immunocompromise during infection and neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding ACE inhibition in immune cells is a developing field that will alter how ACE inhibitors are designed in future and aid in developing therapeutic interventions.
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4
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Arendse LB, Cozier GE, Eyermann CJ, Basarab GS, Schwager SL, Chibale K, Acharya KR, Sturrock ED. Probing the Requirements for Dual Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme C-Domain Selective/Neprilysin Inhibition. J Med Chem 2022; 65:3371-3387. [PMID: 35113565 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Selective inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme C-domain (cACE) and neprilysin (NEP), leaving the ACE N-domain (nACE) free to degrade bradykinin and other peptides, has the potential to provide the potent antihypertensive and cardioprotective benefits observed for nonselective dual ACE/NEP inhibitors, such as omapatrilat, without the increased risk of adverse effects. We have synthesized three 1-carboxy-3-phenylpropyl dipeptide inhibitors with nanomolar potency based on the previously reported C-domain selective ACE inhibitor lisinopril-tryptophan (LisW) to probe the structural requirements for potent dual cACE/NEP inhibition. Here we report the synthesis, enzyme kinetic data, and high-resolution crystal structures of these inhibitors bound to nACE and cACE, providing valuable insight into the factors driving potency and selectivity. Overall, these results highlight the importance of the interplay between the S1' and S2' subsites for ACE domain selectivity, providing guidance for future chemistry efforts toward the development of dual cACE/NEP inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Arendse
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa.,Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Gyles E Cozier
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Charles J Eyermann
- Drug Discovery and Development Centre (H3D), University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Gregory S Basarab
- Drug Discovery and Development Centre (H3D), University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Sylva L Schwager
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa.,Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Kelly Chibale
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa.,Drug Discovery and Development Centre (H3D), University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa.,Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa.,South African Medical Research Council Drug Discovery and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa.,Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
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5
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Alves-Lopes R, Montezano AC, Neves KB, Harvey A, Rios FJ, Skiba DS, Arendse LB, Guzik TJ, Graham D, Poglitsch M, Sturrock E, Touyz RM. Selective Inhibition of the C-Domain of ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme) Combined With Inhibition of NEP (Neprilysin): A Potential New Therapy for Hypertension. Hypertension 2021; 78:604-616. [PMID: 34304582 PMCID: PMC8357049 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.121.17041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhéure Alves-Lopes
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Augusto C. Montezano
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Karla B. Neves
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Adam Harvey
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Francisco J. Rios
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Dominik S. Skiba
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Lauren B. Arendse
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.S.)
| | - Tomasz J. Guzik
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | - Delyth Graham
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
| | | | - Edward Sturrock
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.S.)
| | - Rhian M. Touyz
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.A.-L., A.C.M., K.B.N., A.H., F.J.R., D.S.S., T.J.G., D.G., R.M.T.)
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6
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Song CC, Qiao BW, Zhang Q, Wang CX, Fu YH, Zhu BW. Study on the domain selective inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) by food-derived tyrosine-containing dipeptides. J Food Biochem 2021; 45:e13779. [PMID: 34060658 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this article, the selective inhibition of several tyrosine-containing dipeptides on N and C domain of ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) was studied, and the interaction mode of ACE and inhibitors was simulated by molecular docking. MTT assay was used to detect the effect of dipeptide on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The results showed that the food-derived dipeptides AY (Ala-Tyr), LY (Leu-Tyr), and IY (Ile-Tyr) containing tyrosine at the C-terminal were favorable structures for selective inhibition of ACE C-domain. These dipeptides showed competitive and mixed inhibition patterns, while the dipeptides EY (Glu-Tyr), RY (Arg-Tyr), FY (Phe-Tyr), and SY (Ser-Tyr) showed noncompetitive inhibition. Food-derived dipeptides containing tyrosine have no cytotoxicity on HUVEC cells, which provides a basis for the application of food-derived tyrosine dipeptides as antihypertensive peptides. This study provides a theoretical basis for exploring the selective inhibition mechanism of ACE inhibitory peptides containing tyrosine residue. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a two-domain dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase, which is a key enzyme to regulate blood pressure. ACE has two active sites, C- and N-domain, which have high catalytic activity. Although the amino acid sequences of the two active sites have 60% similarity, there are some differences in structure and function. The action mechanism of ACE domain should be clarified, and the structure-activity relationship between inhibitors and ACE domain has not been systematically studied. The aim of this study was to identify the selective inhibitory effect of food-derived tyrosine dipeptides on the domain of ACE. This provides a new idea for finding new antihypertensive drugs with less side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Cheng Song
- School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, P.R. China
| | - Bian-Wen Qiao
- School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, P.R. China
| | - Qin Zhang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, P.R. China
| | - Chen-Xin Wang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, P.R. China
| | - Ying-Huan Fu
- National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, Dalian, P.R. China.,School of Light Industry and Chemical Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, P.R. China
| | - Bei-Wei Zhu
- National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, Dalian, P.R. China
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7
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ACE2 and ACE: structure-based insights into mechanism, regulation and receptor recognition by SARS-CoV. Clin Sci (Lond) 2020; 134:2851-2871. [PMID: 33146371 PMCID: PMC7642307 DOI: 10.1042/cs20200899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is well-known for its role in blood pressure regulation via the renin–angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) but also functions in fertility, immunity, haematopoiesis and diseases such as obesity, fibrosis and Alzheimer’s dementia. Like ACE, the human homologue ACE2 is also involved in blood pressure regulation and cleaves a range of substrates involved in different physiological processes. Importantly, it is the functional receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-coronavirus (CoV)-2 responsible for the 2020, coronavirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2 is crucial for the design of therapies to combat this disease. This review provides a comparative analysis of methodologies and findings to describe how structural biology techniques like X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy have enabled remarkable discoveries into the structure–function relationship of ACE and ACE2. This, in turn, has enabled the development of ACE inhibitors for the treatment of cardiovascular disease and candidate therapies for the treatment of COVID-19. However, despite these advances the function of ACE homologues in non-human organisms is not yet fully understood. ACE homologues have been discovered in the tissues, body fluids and venom of species from diverse lineages and are known to have important functions in fertility, envenoming and insect–host defence mechanisms. We, therefore, further highlight the need for structural insight into insect and venom ACE homologues for the potential development of novel anti-venoms and insecticides.
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8
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Sharma U, Cozier GE, Sturrock ED, Acharya KR. Molecular Basis for Omapatrilat and Sampatrilat Binding to Neprilysin-Implications for Dual Inhibitor Design with Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme. J Med Chem 2020; 63:5488-5500. [PMID: 32337993 PMCID: PMC7304895 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Neprilysin
(NEP) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) are two
key zinc-dependent metallopeptidases in the natriuretic peptide and
kinin systems and renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system,
respectively. They play an important role in blood pressure regulation
and reducing the risk of heart failure. Vasopeptidase inhibitors omapatrilat
and sampatrilat possess dual activity against these enzymes by blocking
the ACE-dependent conversion of angiotensin I to the potent vasoconstrictor
angiotensin II while simultaneously halting the NEP-dependent degradation
of vasodilator atrial natriuretic peptide. Here, we report crystal
structures of omapatrilat, sampatrilat, and sampatrilat-ASP (a sampatrilat
analogue) in complex with NEP at 1.75, 2.65, and 2.6 Å, respectively.
A detailed analysis of these structures and the corresponding structures
of ACE with these inhibitors has provided the molecular basis of dual
inhibitor recognition involving the catalytic site in both enzymes.
This new information will be very useful in the design of safer and
more selective vasopeptidase inhibitors of NEP and ACE for effective
treatment in hypertension and heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urvashi Sharma
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Gyles E Cozier
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7935 Cape Town, Republic of South Africa
| | - K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
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9
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Caballero J. Considerations for Docking of Selective Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25020295. [PMID: 31940798 PMCID: PMC7024173 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25020295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a two-domain dipeptidylcarboxypeptidase, which has a direct involvement in the control of blood pressure by performing the hydrolysis of angiotensin I to produce angiotensin II. At the same time, ACE hydrolyzes other substrates such as the vasodilator peptide bradykinin and the anti-inflammatory peptide N-acetyl-SDKP. In this sense, ACE inhibitors are bioactive substances with potential use as medicinal products for treatment or prevention of hypertension, heart failures, myocardial infarction, and other important diseases. This review examined the most recent literature reporting ACE inhibitors with the help of molecular modeling. The examples exposed here demonstrate that molecular modeling methods, including docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR), etc, are essential for a complete structural picture of the mode of action of ACE inhibitors, where molecular docking has a key role. Examples show that too many works identified ACE inhibitory activities of natural peptides and peptides obtained from hydrolysates. In addition, other works report non-peptide compounds extracted from natural sources and synthetic compounds. In all these cases, molecular docking was used to provide explanation of the chemical interactions between inhibitors and the ACE binding sites. For docking applications, most of the examples exposed here do not consider that: (i) ACE has two domains (nACE and cACE) with available X-ray structures, which are relevant for the design of selective inhibitors, and (ii) nACE and cACE binding sites have large dimensions, which leads to non-reliable solutions during docking calculations. In support of the solution of these problems, the structural information found in Protein Data Bank (PDB) was used to perform an interaction fingerprints (IFPs) analysis applied on both nACE and cACE domains. This analysis provides plots that identify the chemical interactions between ligands and both ACE binding sites, which can be used to guide docking experiments in the search of selective natural components or novel drugs. In addition, the use of hydrogen bond constraints in the S2 and S2′ subsites of nACE and cACE are suggested to guarantee that docking solutions are reliable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Caballero
- Centro de Bioinformática y Simulación Molecular (CBSM), Universidad de Talca, 1 Poniente No. 1141, Casilla 721, Talca 3460000, Chile
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10
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Arendse LB, Danser AHJ, Poglitsch M, Touyz RM, Burnett JC, Llorens-Cortes C, Ehlers MR, Sturrock ED. Novel Therapeutic Approaches Targeting the Renin-Angiotensin System and Associated Peptides in Hypertension and Heart Failure. Pharmacol Rev 2019; 71:539-570. [PMID: 31537750 PMCID: PMC6782023 DOI: 10.1124/pr.118.017129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the success of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockade by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) blockers, current therapies for hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases are still inadequate. Identification of additional components of the RAS and associated vasoactive pathways, as well as new structural and functional insights into established targets, have led to novel therapeutic approaches with the potential to provide improved cardiovascular protection and better blood pressure control and/or reduced adverse side effects. The simultaneous modulation of several neurohumoral mediators in key interconnected blood pressure-regulating pathways has been an attractive approach to improve treatment efficacy, and several novel approaches involve combination therapy or dual-acting agents. In addition, increased understanding of the complexity of the RAS has led to novel approaches aimed at upregulating the ACE2/angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis to counter-regulate the harmful effects of the ACE/angiotensin II/angiotensin III/AT1R axis. These advances have opened new avenues for the development of novel drugs targeting the RAS to better treat hypertension and heart failure. Here we focus on new therapies in preclinical and early clinical stages of development, including novel small molecule inhibitors and receptor agonists/antagonists, less conventional strategies such as gene therapy to suppress angiotensinogen at the RNA level, recombinant ACE2 protein, and novel bispecific designer peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Arendse
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - A H Jan Danser
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - Marko Poglitsch
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - Rhian M Touyz
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - John C Burnett
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - Catherine Llorens-Cortes
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - Mario R Ehlers
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, South Africa (L.B.A., E.D.S.); Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (A.H.J.D.); Attoquant Diagnostics, Vienna, Austria (M.P.); Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom (R.M.T.); Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (J.C.B.); Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France (C.L.-C.); and Clinical Trials Group, Immune Tolerance Network, San Francisco, California (M.R.E.)
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11
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Lubbe L, Sturrock ED. Interacting cogs in the machinery of the renin angiotensin system. Biophys Rev 2019; 11:583-589. [PMID: 31177382 PMCID: PMC6682192 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-019-00555-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Somatic angiotensin converting enzyme (sACE) is well-known for its role in blood pressure regulation and consequently, ACE inhibitors are widely prescribed for the treatment of hypertension. More than 60 years after the discovery of sACE, however, the molecular details of its substrate hydrolysis and inhibition are still poorly understood. Isothermal titration calorimetry, molecular dynamics simulations and fine epitope mapping suggest that substrate or inhibitor binding triggers a hinging motion between the two subdomains of each domain. Ligand binding to one domain further induces a conformational change in sACE to negatively affect the second domain's function and can also cause dimerization between sACE molecules. This has been linked to an increase in sACE expression via intracellular signalling. Inhibitor-induced dimerization could thus decrease the efficacy of hypertension treatment. At present, the only structural information available for sACE are crystal structures of the truncated domains in the closed conformation due to the presence of ligands. These structures do not provide any information regarding the open active site conformation prior to ligand binding, the relative orientation of the two domains in full-length sACE, or the dimerization interface. To guarantee effective therapeutic intervention, further research is required to investigate the hinging, negative cooperativity and dimerization of sACE. This review describes our current understanding of these interactions and proposes how recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy could enable structural elucidation of their mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizelle Lubbe
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa.
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Polakovičová M, Jampílek J. Advances in Structural Biology of ACE and Development of Domain Selective ACE-inhibitors. Med Chem 2019; 15:574-587. [PMID: 31084594 DOI: 10.2174/1573406415666190514081132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) is one of the most important components of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system controlling blood pressure and renal functions. Inhibitors of ACE are first line therapeutics used in the treatment of hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases. Somatic ACE consists of two homologous catalytic domains, the C- and N-domains. Recent findings have shown that although both domains are highly homologous in structure, they may have different physiological functions. The C-domain is primarily involved in the control of blood pressure, in contrast to the N-domain that is engaged in the regulation of hematopoietic stem cell proliferation. The currently available ACE inhibitors have some adverse effects that can be attributed to the non-selective inhibition of both domains. In addition, specific Ndomain inhibitors have emerged as potential antifibrotic drugs. Therefore, ACE is still an important drug target for the development of novel domain-selective drugs not only for the cardiovascular system but also for other systems. OBJECTIVE Detailed structural information about interactions in the protein-ligand complex is crucial for rational drug design. This review highlights the structural information available from crystallographic data which is essential for the development of domain selective inhibitors of ACE. METHODS Over eighty crystal complexes of ACE are placed into the Protein Database. An overview of X-ray ACE complexes with various inhibitors in C- and N-domains and an analysis of their binding mode have given mechanistic explanation of the structural determinants of selective ligand binding. In addition, ACE domain selective inhibitors with dual modes of action in complexes with ACE are also discussed. CONCLUSION Selectivity of ACE inhibitors for the N- and C-domain is controlled by subtle differences in the amino-acids forming the active site. Reported studies of crystal complexes of inhibitors in the C- and N-domains revealed that most selective inhibitors interact with non-conserved amino-acids between domains and have distinct interactions with the residues in the S2 and S2' subsites of the ACE catalytic site. Moreover, unusual binding of the second molecule of inhibitors in the binding cavity opens new possibilities of exploiting more distant regions of the catalytic center in structure-based design of novel drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mája Polakovičová
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Odbojarov 10, SK-83232 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Josef Jampílek
- Division of Biologically Active Complexes and Molecular Magnets, Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Palacky University Olomouc, Slechtitelu 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic.,Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Ilkovicova 6, SK-84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
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13
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Perez-Rizquez C, Abian O, Palomo JM. Site-selective modification of tryptophan and protein tryptophan residues through PdNP bionanohybrid-catalysed C–H activation in aqueous media. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:12928-12931. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cc06971b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PdNP bionanohybrid catalyzed selective C–H bond arylation of tryptophan residues in proteins in aqueous media at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Olga Abian
- Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS)
- Zaragoza
- Spain
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI)
- Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI
| | - Jose M. Palomo
- Department of Biocatalysis
- Institute of Catalysis (ICP-CSIC)
- 28049 Madrid
- Spain
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Cozier GE, Arendse LB, Schwager SL, Sturrock ED, Acharya KR. Molecular Basis for Multiple Omapatrilat Binding Sites within the ACE C-Domain: Implications for Drug Design. J Med Chem 2018; 61:10141-10154. [PMID: 30372620 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Omapatrilat was designed as a vasopeptidase inhibitor with dual activity against the zinc metallopeptidases angiotensin-1 converting enzyme (ACE) and neprilysin (NEP). ACE has two homologous catalytic domains (nACE and cACE), which exhibit different substrate specificities. Here, we report high-resolution crystal structures of omapatrilat in complex with nACE and cACE and show omapatrilat has subnanomolar affinity for both domains. The structures show nearly identical binding interactions for omapatrilat in each domain, explaining the lack of domain selectivity. The cACE complex structure revealed an omapatrilat dimer occupying the cavity beyond the S2 subsite, and this dimer had low micromolar inhibition of nACE and cACE. These results highlight residues beyond the S2 subsite that could be exploited for domain selective inhibition. In addition, it suggests the possibility of either domain specific allosteric inhibitors that bind exclusively to the nonprime cavity or the potential for targeting specific substrates rather than completely inhibiting the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyles E Cozier
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry , University of Bath , Claverton Down , Bath BA2 7AY , United Kingdom
| | - Lauren B Arendse
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine , University of Cape Town , Observatory , 7925 Cape Town , Republic of South Africa
| | - Sylva L Schwager
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine , University of Cape Town , Observatory , 7925 Cape Town , Republic of South Africa
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine , University of Cape Town , Observatory , 7925 Cape Town , Republic of South Africa
| | - K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry , University of Bath , Claverton Down , Bath BA2 7AY , United Kingdom
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Sharifi N, Khajeh K, Mahernia S, Balalaie S, Ataie G, Jahanbani R, Amanlou M. Probing Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Domain-Dependent Inhibition of Onopordia, Isolated from Onopordon acanthium L., Using a Continuous Fluorescent Assay. PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.15171/ps.2018.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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16
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Xie CL, Choung SY, Cao GP, Lee KW, Choi YJ. In silico investigation of action mechanism of four novel angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory peptides modified with Trp. J Funct Foods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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17
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Sharp S, Poglitsch M, Zilla P, Davies NH, Sturrock ED. Pharmacodynamic effects of C-domain-specific ACE inhibitors on the renin-angiotensin system in myocardial infarcted rats. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2015; 16:1149-58. [PMID: 25757657 DOI: 10.1177/1470320314568438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a dynamic network that plays a critical role in blood pressure regulation and fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. Modulators of the RAS, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, are widely used to treat hypertension, heart failure and myocardial infarction. METHODS The effect of ACE inhibitors (lisinopril and C-domain-selective LisW-S) on the constituent peptides of the RAS following myocardial infarction was examined in rats. Ten angiotensin peptides were analysed using a sensitive LC-MS/MS-based assay to examine both the circulating and equilibrium levels of these peptides. RESULTS Administration of lisinopril or LisW-S caused a significant decrease in Ang 1-8/Ang 1-10 ratios as determined by circulating and equilibrium peptide level analysis. Furthermore, Ang 1-7 levels were elevated by both ACE inhibitors, but only lisinopril decreased the Ang 1-5/Ang 1-7 ratio. This indicates LisW-S C-domain specificity as Ang 1-5 is generated by hydrolysis of Ang 1-7 by the N-domain. Further corroboration of LisW-S C-domain specificity is that only lisinopril increased the circulating levels of the N-domain ACE substrate Ac-SDKP. CONCLUSION LisW-S is able to effectively block ACE in vivo by C-domain-selective inhibition. The LC-MS/MS-based assay allows the evaluation of the pharmacologic impact of RAS inhibitors in different pathophysiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Sharp
- Cardiovascular Research Unit, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marko Poglitsch
- Attoquant Diagnostics GmbH, Campus-Vienna-Biocenter 5, Austria
| | - Peter Zilla
- Cardiovascular Research Unit, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Neil H Davies
- Cardiovascular Research Unit, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa
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18
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Lunow D, Kaiser S, Rückriemen J, Pohl C, Henle T. Tryptophan-containing dipeptides are C-domain selective inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme. Food Chem 2015; 166:596-602. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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19
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Pharmacokinetic evaluation of lisinopril-tryptophan, a novel C-domain ACE inhibitor. Eur J Pharm Sci 2014; 56:113-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2014.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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20
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Effects of a domain-selective ACE inhibitor in a mouse model of chronic angiotensin II-dependent hypertension. Clin Sci (Lond) 2014; 127:57-63. [PMID: 24506807 DOI: 10.1042/cs20130808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The somatic isozyme of ACE (angiotensin I-converting enzyme) comprises two distinct zinc-dependent catalytic domains with different substrate specificities for angiotensin I (cleaved selectively by the C-domain) and bradykinin (cleaved equally efficiently by both the N- and C-domains). Classical ACEIs (ACE inhibitors) target both domains, with side effects such as cough and angio-oedema being attributed, in part, to N-domain inhibition, probably through bradykinin accumulation. We questioned whether a novel C-domain-selective ACEI (lisW-S) has anti-hypertensive effects without influencing bradykinin status. AngII (angiotensin II)-dependent hypertension was studied in mice that express active human renin in the liver (TtRhRen). Compared with wild-type littermates, TtRhRen mice displayed cardiac hypertrophy and had significantly elevated SBP [systolic BP (blood pressure)] as determined by tail cuff sphygmomanometry (150±3 compared with 112±5 mmHg; P<0.05) and telemetry (163±3 compared with 112±2 mmHg; P<0.01). Treatment with the non-selective ACEI lisinopril (1 mg/kg of body weight per day via an osmotic mini-pump for 2 weeks) reduced SBP (127±3 compared with. 154±6; P<0.05). Similarly, treatment with the C-domain selective ACEI lisW-S (lisinopril-tryptophan; 3.6 mg/kg of body weight per day via an osmotic mini-pump for 2 weeks) reduced BP. Treatment with lisinopril or lisW-S significantly reduced levels of AngII in kidneys (~4-fold; P<0.001). Ang-(2-8) [angiotensin-2-8)] was significantly reduced by lisinopril, but not by lisW-S. Plasma bradykinin levels were significantly increased only in the lisinopril group. These data suggest that C-domain-selective ACEIs reduce BP and AngII levels similarly to classical ACEIs. C-domain-selective ACEIs have the potential to avoid undesirable effects on the bradykinin system common to classic ACEIs and may represent a novel approach to the treatment of hypertension.
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21
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Danilov SM, Wade MS, Schwager SL, Douglas RG, Nesterovitch AB, Popova IA, Hogarth KD, Bhardwaj N, Schwartz DE, Sturrock ED, Garcia JGN. A novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme mutation (S333W) impairs N-domain enzymatic cleavage of the anti-fibrotic peptide, AcSDKP. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88001. [PMID: 24505347 PMCID: PMC3913711 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) has two functional N- and C-domain active centers that display differences in the metabolism of biologically-active peptides including the hemoregulatory tetrapeptide, Ac-SDKP, hydrolysed preferentially by the N domain active center. Elevated Ac-SDKP concentrations are associated with reduced tissue fibrosis. RESULTS We identified a patient of African descent exhibiting unusual blood ACE kinetics with reduced relative hydrolysis of two synthetic ACE substrates (ZPHL/HHL ratio) suggestive of the ACE N domain center inactivation. Inhibition of blood ACE activity by anti-catalytic mAbs and ACE inhibitors and conformational fingerprint of blood ACE suggested overall conformational changes in the ACE molecule and sequencing identified Ser333Trp substitution in the N domain of ACE. In silico analysis demonstrated S333W localized in the S1 pocket of the active site of the N domain with the bulky Trp adversely affecting binding of ACE substrates due to steric hindrance. Expression of mutant ACE (S333W) in CHO cells confirmed altered kinetic properties of mutant ACE and conformational changes in the N domain. Further, the S333W mutant displayed decreased ability (5-fold) to cleave the physiological substrate AcSDKP compared to wild-type ACE. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE A novel Ser333Trp ACE mutation results in dramatic changes in ACE kinetic properties and lowered clearance of Ac-SDKP. Individuals with this mutation (likely with significantly increased levels of the hemoregulatory tetrapeptide in blood and tissues), may confer protection against fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei M. Danilov
- Institute for Personalized Respiratory Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael S. Wade
- Institute for Personalized Respiratory Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sylva L. Schwager
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ross G. Douglas
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | | | - Isolda A. Popova
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kyle D. Hogarth
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Nakul Bhardwaj
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - David E. Schwartz
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Edward D. Sturrock
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Joe G. N. Garcia
- Department of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
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22
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Masuyer G, Akif M, Czarny B, Beau F, Schwager SLU, Sturrock ED, Isaac RE, Dive V, Acharya KR. Crystal structures of highly specific phosphinic tripeptide enantiomers in complex with the angiotensin-I converting enzyme. FEBS J 2014; 281:943-56. [PMID: 24289879 PMCID: PMC4154125 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human somatic angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) is a zinc-dependent dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase and a central component of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS). Its involvement in the modulation of physiological actions of peptide hormones has positioned ACE as an important therapeutic target for the treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. Here, we report the crystal structures of the two catalytic domains of human ACE (N- and C-) in complex with FI, the S enantiomer of the phosphinic ACE/ECE-1 (endothelin converting enzyme) dual inhibitor FII, to a resolution of 1.91 and 1.85 Å, respectively. In addition, we have determined the structure of AnCE (an ACE homologue from Drosophila melanogaster) in complex with both isomers. The inhibitor FI (S configuration) can adapt to the active site of ACE catalytic domains and shows key differences in its binding mechanism mostly through the reorientation of the isoxazole phenyl side group at the P₁' position compared with FII (R configuration). Differences in binding are also observed between FI and FII in complex with AnCE. Thus, the new structures of the ACE-inhibitor complexes presented here provide useful information for further exploration of ACE inhibitor pharmacophores involving phosphinic peptides and illustrate the role of chirality in enhancing drug specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohd Akif
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of BathUK
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of HyderabadIndia
| | - Bertrand Czarny
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des ProtéinesCEAiBiTecSGif‐sur‐YvetteFrance
| | - Fabrice Beau
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des ProtéinesCEAiBiTecSGif‐sur‐YvetteFrance
| | - Sylva L. U. Schwager
- Division of Medical BiochemistryInstitute of Infectious Disease and Molecular MedicineUniversity of Cape TownSouth Africa
| | - Edward D. Sturrock
- Division of Medical BiochemistryInstitute of Infectious Disease and Molecular MedicineUniversity of Cape TownSouth Africa
| | | | - Vincent Dive
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des ProtéinesCEAiBiTecSGif‐sur‐YvetteFrance
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Ehlers MR, Abrie JA, Sturrock ED. C domain-selective inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2013; 14:189-92. [DOI: 10.1177/1470320313489206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mario R Ehlers
- Immune Tolerance Network, University of California-San Francisco, USA
| | - J Albert Abrie
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Edward D Sturrock
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa
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Novel domain-selective ACE-inhibiting activity of synthetic growth hormone secretagogues. Pharmacol Res 2012; 66:317-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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Novel mechanism of inhibition of human angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) by a highly specific phosphinic tripeptide. Biochem J 2011; 436:53-9. [PMID: 21352096 PMCID: PMC3086271 DOI: 10.1042/bj20102123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human ACE (angiotensin-I-converting enzyme) has long been regarded as an excellent target for the treatment of hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases. Highly potent inhibitors have been developed and are extensively used in the clinic. To develop inhibitors with higher therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects, recent efforts have been directed towards the discovery of compounds able to simultaneously block more than one zinc metallopeptidase (apart from ACE) involved in blood pressure regulation in humans, such as neprilysin and ECE-1 (endothelin-converting enzyme-1). In the present paper, we show the first structures of testis ACE [C-ACE, which is identical with the C-domain of somatic ACE and the dominant domain responsible for blood pressure regulation, at 1.97Å (1 Å=0.1 nm)] and the N-domain of somatic ACE (N-ACE, at 2.15Å) in complex with a highly potent and selective dual ACE/ECE-1 inhibitor. The structural determinants revealed unique features of the binding of two molecules of the dual inhibitor in the active site of C-ACE. In both structures, the first molecule is positioned in the obligatory binding site and has a bulky bicyclic P(1)' residue with the unusual R configuration which, surprisingly, is accommodated by the large S(2)' pocket. In the C-ACE complex, the isoxazole phenyl group of the second molecule makes strong pi-pi stacking interactions with the amino benzoyl group of the first molecule locking them in a 'hand-shake' conformation. These features, for the first time, highlight the unusual architecture and flexibility of the active site of C-ACE, which could be further utilized for structure-based design of new C-ACE or vasopeptidase inhibitors.
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Bernstein KE, Shen XZ, Gonzalez-Villalobos RA, Billet S, Okwan-Duodu D, Ong FS, Fuchs S. Different in vivo functions of the two catalytic domains of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Curr Opin Pharmacol 2010; 11:105-11. [PMID: 21130035 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Revised: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) can cleave angiotensin I, bradykinin, neurotensin and many other peptide substrates in vitro. In part, this is due to the structure of ACE, a protein composed of two independent catalytic domains. Until very recently, little was known regarding the specific in vivo role of each ACE domain, and they were commonly regarded as equivalent. This is not true, as shown by mouse models with a genetic inactivation of either the ACE N- or C-domain. In vivo, most angiotensin II is produced by the ACE C-domain. Some peptides, such as the anti-fibrotic peptide AcSDKP, are substrates only of the ACE N-domain. Knowing the in vivo role of each ACE domain has great significance for developing ACE domain-specific inhibitors and for understanding the full effects of the anti-ACE pharmaceuticals in widespread clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth E Bernstein
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 110 N. George Burns Rd, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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27
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Akif M, Ntai I, Sturrock ED, Isaac RE, Bachmann BO, Acharya KR. Crystal structure of a phosphonotripeptide K-26 in complex with angiotensin converting enzyme homologue (AnCE) from Drosophila melanogaster. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 398:532-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.06.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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28
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Akif M, Georgiadis D, Mahajan A, Dive V, Sturrock ED, Isaac RE, Acharya KR. High-resolution crystal structures of Drosophila melanogaster angiotensin-converting enzyme in complex with novel inhibitors and antihypertensive drugs. J Mol Biol 2010; 400:502-17. [PMID: 20488190 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2010.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 05/10/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), one of the central components of the renin-angiotensin system, is a key therapeutic target for the treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. Human somatic ACE (sACE) has two homologous domains (N and C). The N- and C-domain catalytic sites have different activities toward various substrates. Moreover, some of the undesirable side effects of the currently available and widely used ACE inhibitors may arise from their targeting both domains leading to defects in other pathways. In addition, structural studies have shown that although both these domains have much in common at the inhibitor binding site, there are significant differences and these are greater at the peptide binding sites than regions distal to the active site. As a model system, we have used an ACE homologue from Drosophila melanogaster (AnCE, a single domain protein with ACE activity) to study ACE inhibitor binding. In an extensive study, we present high-resolution structures for native AnCE and in complex with six known antihypertensive drugs, a novel C-domain sACE specific inhibitor, lisW-S, and two sACE domain-specific phosphinic peptidyl inhibitors, RXPA380 and RXP407 (i.e., nine structures). These structures show detailed binding features of the inhibitors and highlight subtle changes in the orientation of side chains at different binding pockets in the active site in comparison with the active site of N- and C-domains of sACE. This study provides information about the structure-activity relationships that could be utilized for designing new inhibitors with improved domain selectivity for sACE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Akif
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Building 4 South, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
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