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A review of fundamental principles for animal models of DOHaD research: an Australian perspective. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2016; 7:449-472. [DOI: 10.1017/s2040174416000477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiology formed the basis of ‘the Barker hypothesis’, the concept of ‘developmental programming’ and today’s discipline of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Animal experimentation provided proof of the underlying concepts, and continues to generate knowledge of underlying mechanisms. Interventions in humans, based on DOHaD principles, will be informed by experiments in animals. As knowledge in this discipline has accumulated, from studies of humans and other animals, the complexity of interactions between genome, environment and epigenetics, has been revealed. The vast nature of programming stimuli and breadth of effects is becoming known. As a result of our accumulating knowledge we now appreciate the impact of many variables that contribute to programmed outcomes. To guide further animal research in this field, the Australia and New Zealand DOHaD society (ANZ DOHaD) Animals Models of DOHaD Research Working Group convened at the 2nd Annual ANZ DOHaD Congress in Melbourne, Australia in April 2015. This review summarizes the contributions of animal research to the understanding of DOHaD, and makes recommendations for the design and conduct of animal experiments to maximize relevance, reproducibility and translation of knowledge into improving health and well-being.
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Fowden AL, Valenzuela OA, Vaughan OR, Jellyman JK, Forhead AJ. Glucocorticoid programming of intrauterine development. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2016; 56 Suppl:S121-32. [PMID: 27345310 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2016.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are important environmental and maturational signals during intrauterine development. Toward term, the maturational rise in fetal glucocorticoid receptor concentrations decreases fetal growth and induces differentiation of key tissues essential for neonatal survival. When cortisol levels rise earlier in gestation as a result of suboptimal conditions for fetal growth, the switch from tissue accretion to differentiation is initiated prematurely, which alters the phenotype that develops from the genotype inherited at conception. Although this improves the chances of survival should delivery occur, it also has functional consequences for the offspring long after birth. Glucocorticoids are, therefore, also programming signals that permanently alter tissue structure and function during intrauterine development to optimize offspring fitness. However, if the postnatal environmental conditions differ from those signaled in utero, the phenotypical outcome of early-life glucocorticoid receptor overexposure may become maladaptive and lead to physiological dysfunction in the adult. This review focuses on the role of GCs in developmental programming, primarily in farm species. It examines the factors influencing GC bioavailability in utero and the effects that GCs have on the development of fetal tissues and organ systems, both at term and earlier in gestation. It also discusses the windows of susceptibility to GC overexposure in early life together with the molecular mechanisms and long-term consequences of GC programming with particular emphasis on the cardiovascular, metabolic, and endocrine phenotype of the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fowden
- Centre for Trophoblast and Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK.
| | - O A Valenzuela
- Centre for Trophoblast and Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | - O R Vaughan
- Centre for Trophoblast and Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | - J K Jellyman
- Centre for Trophoblast and Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90502, USA
| | - A J Forhead
- Centre for Trophoblast and Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK; Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
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Wu XM, Hu CP, Li XZ, Zou YQ, Zou JT, Li YY, Feng JT. Asthma pregnancy alters postnatal development of chromaffin cells in the rat adrenal medulla. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20337. [PMID: 21647384 PMCID: PMC3103586 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 04/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adrenal neuroendocrine plays an important role in asthma. The activity of the
sympathoadrenal system could be altered by early life events. The effects of
maternal asthma during pregnancy on the adrenal medulla of offspring remain
unknown. Methodology/Principal Findings This study aims to explore the influence of maternal asthma during pregnancy
on the development and function of adrenal medulla in offspring from
postnatal day 3 (P3) to postnatal day 60 (P60). Asthmatic pregnant rats
(AP), nerve growth factor (NGF)-treated pregnant rats (NP) and NGF
antibody-treated pregnant rats (ANP) were sensitized and challenged with
ovalbumin (OVA); NP and ANP were treated with NGF and NGF antibody
respectively. Offspring rats from the maternal group were divided into four
groups: offspring from control pregnant rats (OCP), offspring from AP (OAP),
offspring from NP (ONP), and offspring from ANP (OANP). The expressions of
phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) protein in adrenal medulla
were analyzed. The concentrations of epinephrine (EPI), corticosterone and
NGF in serum were measured. Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells (AMCC) were
prone to differentiate into sympathetic nerve cells in OAP and ONP. Both EPI
and PNMT were decreased in OAP from P3 to P14, and then reached normal level
gradually from P30 to P60, which were lower from birth to adulthood in ONP.
Corticosterone concentration increased significantly in OAP and ONP. Conclusion/Significance Asthma pregnancy may promote AMCC to differentiate into sympathetic neurons
in offspring rats and inhibit the synthesis of EPI, resulting in dysfunction
of bronchial relaxation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Ming Wu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Cheng-Ping Hu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiao-Zhao Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ye-Qiang Zou
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jun-Tao Zou
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yuan-Yuan Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jun-Tao Feng
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South
University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- * E-mail:
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Chittiprol S, Kumar AM, Satishchandra P, Taranath Shetty K, Bhimasena Rao RS, Subbakrishna DK, Philip M, Satish KS, Ravi Kumar H, Kumar M. Progressive dysregulation of autonomic and HPA axis functions in HIV-1 clade C infection in South India. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008; 33:30-40. [PMID: 17993249 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2007] [Revised: 09/13/2007] [Accepted: 09/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection causes a wide spectrum of abnormalities in neurological, neuropsychological, and neuroendocrinological functions. Several studies report disturbance in autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function in HIV-1B infected individuals. However, no such investigations on the effect of HIV-1 clade C infection, particularly during the initial phase of the disease progression, have been reported. The present investigations were carried out longitudinally over a 2-year period at 12 monthly intervals in clinically asymptomatic HIV-1 clade C seropositive patients (n=120) and seronegative control subjects (n=29). We determined both the basal levels and the dynamic changes in plasma levels of norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (E), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol (CORT). Studies were also extended longitudinally (at three separate yearly visits of each participant), to evaluate the response of autonomic and HPA axis to mirror star tracing challenge test (MSTCT) and the values were determined as area under the curve (AUC, corrected for baseline levels of NE, E, ACTH, and CORT). The findings show that the values of basal plasma NE levels, as well as NE response to MSTCT (AUC) at the first visit of HIV-1 seropositive individuals did not differ from those found in the control subjects (NE, pg/ml, HIV-1C=313.5+/-12.7 vs. controls=353.0+/-21.3; p=NS; AUC, HIV-1C=225+/-14.75 vs. controls=232.7+/-19.34; p=NS, respectively). At the subsequent two visits of HIV-1 positive patients however, NE response to MSTCT challenge was progressively attenuated (AUC=235+/-19.5 and 162.7+/-13.6; p<0.01 and 0.05, respectively) compared to that found at the first visit. On the other hand, plasma levels of E as well as E response to MSTCT at the first visit were significantly lower in HIV-1C seropositive individuals compared to those in the control subjects (pg/ml, HIV-1C=77.30+/-5.7 vs. controls=119.1+10.5; p<0.05; AUC, HIV-1C =83.29+/-7.5 vs. controls=172.3+/-18.9; p<0.001), but no further change was observed in AUC of E in response to MSTCT at the two subsequent yearly visits. The basal plasma levels of ACTH in HIV-1C seropositives were not different than in the control subjects (pg/ml: HIV-1C=20.0+/-0.9 vs. controls=23.1+/-1.6; p=NS), but ACTH response to MSTCT in HIV-1C seropositive patients at the first visit was lower than in the controls (AUC, HIV-1C=23.57+/-1.5 vs. controls=30.94+/-3.5; p<0.05), and fluctuated between high and low at the second and third visits (AUC, 28.89+/-2.3 and 21.69+/-2.36, respectively). However, the baseline plasma levels of cortisol as well as the response of cortisol to MSTCT (AUC) in HIV-1C seropositive individuals were higher than in the control subjects at the first visit (mug/dl, HIV-1C=9.83+/-0.39 vs. controls=6.3+/-0.56; p<0.05; AUC, HIV-1C=12.31+/-0.7 vs. control=9.18+/-0.9; p<0.05), and remained high at the two subsequent yearly follow up visits of HIV-1C (AUC, 11.8+/-0.86 and 11.98+/-0.77, respectively). These findings demonstrate attenuated autonomic functions, a disconnection between response of ACTH and cortisol to the MSTCT challenge, and an inverse relationship between plasma levels of catecholamine(s) and cortisol. Since plasma catecholamines and cortisol are the peripheral mediators of the autonomic and HPA axis function, the findings of this study reflect the overall adverse effect of HIV-1C infection on autonomic as well as HPA axis functions. The findings, apart from being the first to demonstrate the progressive dysregulation of autonomic nervous system and HPA axis function among HIV-1C infected seropositive individuals much ahead of the onset of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), also suggest that MSTCT, involving visuoconstructive cognitive abilities, is an effective stressor for unraveling the underlying dysfunctions in the neuroendocrine functions in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seetharamaiah Chittiprol
- Department of Neurochemistry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
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Ducsay CA, Hyatt K, Mlynarczyk M, Root BK, Kaushal KM, Myers DA. Long-term hypoxia modulates expression of key genes regulating adrenomedullary function in the late gestation ovine fetus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 293:R1997-2005. [PMID: 17699566 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00313.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously communicated that long-term hypoxia (LTH) resulted in a selective reduction in plasma epinephrine following acute stress in fetal sheep. The present study tested the hypothesis that LTH selectively reduces adrenomedullary expression of phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase (PNMT), the rate-limiting enzyme for epinephrine synthesis. We also examined the effect of LTH on adrenomedullary nicotinic, muscarinic, and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression. Ewes were maintained at high altitude (3,820 m) from 30 to 138 days gestation (dGA); adrenomedullary tissue was collected from LTH and age-matched, normoxic control fetuses at 139-141 dGA. Contrary to our hypothesis, in addition to PNMT, adrenomedullary expression (mRNA, protein) of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) were reduced in the LTH fetus. Immunocytochemistry indicated that TH and DBH expression was lower throughout the medulla, while PNMT appeared to reflect a reduction in PNMT-expressing cells. Nicotinic receptor alpha 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, beta 1, 2, and 4 subunits were expressed in the medulla of LTH and control fetuses. Messenger RNA for alpha 1 and 7 and beta 1 and 2 subunits was lower in LTH fetuses. Muscarinic receptors M1, M2, and M3 as well as the GR were also expressed, and no differences were noted between groups. In summary, LTH in fetal sheep has a profound effect on expression of key enzymes mediating adrenomedullary catecholamine synthesis. Further, LTH impacts nicotinic receptor subunit expression potentially altering cholinergic neurotransmission within the medulla. These findings have important implications regarding fetal cardiovascular and metabolic responses to stress in the LTH fetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A Ducsay
- Center for Perinatal Biology, Loma Linda University, California, USA
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Mühlhäusler BS, Adam CL, Marrocco EM, Findlay PA, Roberts CT, McFarlane JR, Kauter KG, McMillen IC. Impact of glucose infusion on the structural and functional characteristics of adipose tissue and on hypothalamic gene expression for appetite regulatory neuropeptides in the sheep fetus during late gestation. J Physiol 2005; 565:185-95. [PMID: 15661821 PMCID: PMC1464501 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.079079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, our aim was to determine whether intrafetal glucose infusion increases fetal adiposity, synthesis and secretion of leptin and regulates gene expression of the 'appetite regulatory' neuropeptides neuropepetide Y (NPY), agouti-related peptide (AGRP), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and receptors (leptin receptor (OB-Rb) and melancortin 3 receptor (MC3R)) within the fetal hypothalamus. Glucose (50% dextrose in saline) or saline was infused (7.5 ml h(-1)) into fetal sheep between 130 and 140 days gestation (term = 150 +/- 3 days gestation). Glucose infusion increased circulating glucose and insulin concentrations, mean lipid locule size (532.8 +/- 3.3 microm2 versus 456.7 +/- 14.8 microm2) and total unilocular fat mass (11.7 +/- 0.6 g versus 8.9 +/- 0.6 g) of the perirenal fat depot. The expression of OB-Rb mRNA was higher in the ventromedial nucleus compared to the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus in both glucose and saline infused fetuses (F= 8.04; P < 0.01) and there was a positive correlation between expression of OB-Rb and MC3R mRNA in the arcuate nucleus (r= 0.81; P < 0.005). Glucose infusion increased mRNA expression for POMC, but not for the anorectic neuropeptide CART, or the orexigenic neuropeptides NPY and AGRP, in the arcuate nucleus of the fetal hypothalamus. These findings demonstrate that increased circulating glucose and insulin regulate gene expression of the neuropeptides within the fetal hypothalamus that are part of the neural network regulating energy balance in adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Mühlhäusler
- Discipline of Physiology, Centre of the Early Origins of Adult Health, School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Australia
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Morrison JL, Riggs KW, Chien C, Gruber N, McMillen IC, Rurak DW. Chronic maternal fluoxetine infusion in pregnant sheep: effects on the maternal and fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes. Pediatr Res 2004; 56:40-6. [PMID: 15128928 DOI: 10.1203/01.pdr.0000128981.38670.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Depression during pregnancy is frequently treated with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine (FX). FX increases serotonergic neurotransmission and serotonin plays a role in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We have therefore investigated the effect of chronic administration of FX to the pregnant ewe on the maternal and fetal HPA axes. Nineteen late-gestation sheep were surgically prepared for chronic study of the fetus. FX (n = 7, 98.5 microg/kg/d) or sterile water (control, n = 8) was administered to the ewe for 8 d by constant rate i.v. infusion with an initial FX bolus dose of 70 mg. Maternal and fetal plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations were determined at 0700 h each day. Maternal plasma ACTH concentrations fell on infusion d 2, but no changes were observed in maternal plasma cortisol concentrations. Fetal plasma ACTH concentrations increased on infusion d 7, and fetal plasma cortisol concentrations increased on infusion d 6, 7, and 8 in the FX group. In addition, the regression coefficient for the relationship between fetal ACTH and cortisol levels was significantly greater in the FX group compared with the control group. Thus, maternal FX treatment increased fetal plasma cortisol concentration. These results are of particular interest in the context that exposure of the fetus to excess glucocorticoids at critical windows during development has been shown to increase the risk of poor health outcomes in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janna L Morrison
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, British Columbia Research Institute for Children's & Women's Health, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Yuen BSJ, Owens PC, Muhlhausler BS, Roberts CT, Symonds ME, Keisler DH, McFarlane JR, Kauter KG, Evens Y, McMillen IC. Leptin alters the structural and functional characteristics of adipose tissue before birth. FASEB J 2003; 17:1102-4. [PMID: 12709410 DOI: 10.1096/fj.02-0756fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine for the first time whether leptin can act to alter the structural and functional characteristics of adipose tissue before birth. Leptin (0.48 mg/kg/day) or saline was infused intravenously into fetal sheep for 4 days from either 136 or 137 days of gestation (term=147+/-3 days). Circulating leptin concentrations were increased approximately four- to fivefold by leptin infusion. Leptin infusion resulted in a significant increase in the proportion of smaller lipid locules present within fetal perirenal adipose tissue (PAT), and this was associated with a significant increase in the proportion of multilocular tissue and a significant decrease in the proportion and relative mass of unilocular tissue in fetal PAT. The relative abundance of leptin mRNA in fetal PAT was significantly lower in the leptin-infused group, and there was a positive correlation between the relative abundance of leptin mRNA and the proportion of unilocular adipose tissue in fetal PAT. The amount of uncoupling protein 1 tended to be higher (P=0.06) in leptin-infused compared with saline-infused fetuses. This is the first demonstration that leptin can act to regulate the lipid storage characteristics, leptin synthetic capacity, and potential thermogenic functions of fat before birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S J Yuen
- Department of Physiology, Adelaide University, SA 5005, Australia
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Fletcher AJW, Gardner DS, Edwards CMB, Fowden AL, Giussani DA. Cardiovascular and endocrine responses to acute hypoxaemia during and following dexamethasone infusion in the ovine fetus. J Physiol 2003; 549:271-87. [PMID: 12665612 PMCID: PMC2342926 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2002.036418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of fetal treatment with dexamethasone on ovine fetal cardiovascular defence responses to acute hypoxaemia, occurring either during or 48 h following the period of glucocorticoid exposure. To address the mechanisms underlying these responses, chemoreflex function and plasma concentrations of catecholamines, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and vasopressin were measured. Under general halothane anaesthesia, 26 Welsh Mountain sheep fetuses were surgically prepared for long-term recording at between 117 and 120 days of gestation (dGA; term is approximately 145 days) with vascular catheters and a Transonic flow probe around a femoral artery. Following at least 5 days of recovery, fetuses were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups. After 48 h of baseline recording, at 125 +/- 1 dGA, half of the fetuses (n = 13) were continuously infused I.V. with dexamethasone for 48 h at a rate of 2.06 +/- 0.13 microg kg-1 h-1. The remaining 13 fetuses were infused with heparinized saline at the same rate (controls). At 127 +/- 1 dGA, 2 days from the onset of infusions, seven fetuses from each group were subjected to 1 h of acute hypoxaemia. At 129 +/- 1 dGA, 2 days after the end of infusions, six fetuses from each group were subjected to 1 h of acute hypoxaemia. Similar reductions in fetal partial pressure of arterial oxygen occurred in control and dexamethasone-treated fetuses during the acute hypoxaemia protocols. In control fetuses, acute hypoxaemia led to transient bradycardia, femoral vasoconstriction and significant increases in plasma concentrations of catecholamines, vasopressin and NPY. In fetuses subjected to acute hypoxaemia during dexamethasone treatment, the increase in plasma NPY was enhanced, the bradycardic response was prolonged, and the plasma catecholamine and vasopressin responses were diminished. In fetuses subjected to acute hypoxaemia 48 h following dexamethasone treatment, femoral vasoconstriction and plasma catecholamine and vasopressin responses were enhanced, whilst the prolonged bradycardia and augmented plasma NPY responses persisted. These data show that fetal treatment with dexamethasone modifies the pattern and magnitude of fetal cardiovascular responses to acute oxygen deprivation. Modifications to different mechanisms mediating the fetal defence responses to acute hypoxaemia that occur during dexamethasone treatment may reverse, persist or even become enhanced by 48 h following the treatment period.
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Mamet J, Peyronnet J, Roux JC, Perrin D, Cottet-Emard JM, Pequignot JM, Lagercrantz H, Dalmaz Y. Long-term prenatal hypoxia alters maturation of adrenal medulla in rat. Pediatr Res 2002; 51:207-14. [PMID: 11809916 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-200202000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Catecholamine release from the adrenal medulla glands plays a vital role in postnatal adaptation. A number of pathologic situations are characterized by oxygen deficiency. The objective of the present study was to determine the influence of long-term prenatal hypoxia on maturation of the adrenal medulla. Pregnant rats were subjected to hypoxia (10% O2) from the fifth to the 20th d of gestation. The offspring were examined on the 19th d of gestation (E19), the day of birth (P0), and at postnatal (P) day of life P3, P7, P14, P21, and P68. The catecholamine content and activity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in vivo were assayed by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Cellular expression of TH and phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase was evaluated by protein immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization of the corresponding mRNA species. Exposure to prenatal hypoxia reduced the epinephrine content of the adrenal medulla on E19, P0, P3, and P7 while increasing the norepinephrine content on E19, P0, and P14. Furthermore, the peak epinephrine to norepinephrine ratio appearing between P7 and P10 in the normoxic offspring was absent in the hypoxic offspring. The in vivo TH activity was increased on P3 and P14 and decreased on P68. The percentage of chromaffin cells in the medulla expressing TH and phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase was lowered on E19, P0, and P7. TH and phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase mRNA levels were reduced on P7. Clearly prenatal hypoxia results in major changes in adrenal catecholamine stores and synthesis during the perinatal period, which persist into adulthood. The capacity to cope with postnatal stress might be disturbed as a consequence of prenatal hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Mamet
- Laboratory of Physiology (Energetic, Cellular, and Molecular Regulation, 69373 LYON cedex 08, France.
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Abstract
This paper is the twenty-second installment of the annual review of research concerning the opiate system. It summarizes papers published during 1999 that studied the behavioral effects of the opiate peptides and antagonists, excluding the purely analgesic effects, although stress-induced analgesia is included. The specific topics covered this year include stress; tolerance and dependence; learning, memory, and reward; eating and drinking; alcohol and other drugs of abuse; sexual activity, pregnancy, and development; mental illness and mood; seizures and other neurologic disorders; electrical-related activity; general activity and locomotion; gastrointestinal, renal, and hepatic function; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; and immunologic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Vaccarino
- Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA.
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