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Mocellin P, Mikulovic S. The Role of the Medial Septum-Associated Networks in Controlling Locomotion and Motivation to Move. Front Neural Circuits 2021; 15:699798. [PMID: 34366795 PMCID: PMC8340000 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2021.699798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The Medial Septum and diagonal Band of Broca (MSDB) was initially studied for its role in locomotion. However, the last several decades were focussed on its intriguing function in theta rhythm generation. Early studies relied on electrical stimulation, lesions and pharmacological manipulation, and reported an inconclusive picture regarding the role of the MSDB circuits. Recent studies using more specific methodologies have started to elucidate the differential role of the MSDB's specific cell populations in controlling both theta rhythm and behaviour. In particular, a novel theory is emerging showing that different MSDB's cell populations project to different brain regions and control distinct aspects of behaviour. While the majority of these behaviours involve movement, increasing evidence suggests that MSDB-related networks govern the motivational aspect of actions, rather than locomotion per se. Here, we review the literature that links MSDB, theta activity, and locomotion and propose open questions, future directions, and methods that could be employed to elucidate the diverse roles of the MSDB-associated networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Mocellin
- Department of Cellular Neuroscience, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School for Brain and Behavior, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sanja Mikulovic
- Research Group Cognition and Emotion, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
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Colvin KJ, Killen HS, Kanter MJ, Halperin MC, Engel L, Currie PJ. Brain Site-Specific Inhibitory Effects of the GLP-1 Analogue Exendin-4 on Alcohol Intake and Operant Responding for Palatable Food. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249710. [PMID: 33352692 PMCID: PMC7766977 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 14.4 million Americans are experiencing alcohol use disorder (AUD) and about two-thirds of people who experience drug addiction will relapse, highlighting the need to develop novel and effective treatments. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a peptide hormone implicated in the mesocorticolimbic reward system and has become a peptide of interest with respect to its putative inhibitory effects on drug reward. In order to further develop treatments for those diagnosed with AUD, the interplay between GLP-1 receptor signaling and ethanol consumption must be elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the ability of the GLP-1 analogue, exendin-4 (Ex-4), to alter alcohol intake and operant responding for sucrose pellets in order to further understand the role of this compound in mediating reward. We selected multiple sites throughout the prosencephalic and mesencephalic regions of the brain, where we directly administered various doses of Ex-4 to male Sprague Dawley rats. In alcohol investigations, we utilized a two-bottle choice intermittent access protocol. In separate groups of rats, we adopted an operant paradigm in order to examine the effect of Ex-4 on motivated responding for palatable food. Results indicated that GLP-1 receptor signaling effectively suppressed voluntary alcohol intake when injected into the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the accumbens core (NAcC) and shell (NAcS), the dorsomedial hippocampus (DMHipp), and the lateral hypothalamus (LH), which are all structures linked to brain reward mechanisms. The arcuate nucleus (ARcN) and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus were unresponsive, as was the basolateral amygdala (BLA). However, Ex-4 treatment into the ArcN and PVN suppressed operant responding for sucrose pellets. In fact, the VTA, NAcC, NAcS, LH, and the DMHipp all showed comparable suppression of sucrose responding. Overall, our findings suggest that these central structures are implicated in brain reward circuitry, including alcohol and appetitive motivation, which may be mediated by GLP-1 receptor mechanisms. GLP-1, therefore, may play a critical role in modifying addictive behaviors via activation of multiple GLP-1 systems throughout the brain.
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Korean meditation music suppressed relapse to methamphetamine in rats. Neurosci Lett 2020; 715:134620. [PMID: 31711977 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Methamphetamine is a drug abused worldwide. Even though its abuse is a serious problem in many countries, there are few safe and effective therapies to treat addiction. In a previous study, music therapy attenuated relapse to morphine. Based on the study, we investigated whether music therapy suppresses the reinstatement of methamphetamine self-administration behavior. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to intravenously self-administer methamphetamine (0.1 mg/kg) using a fixed ratio 1 schedule in a daily 2 h session. Following 3 weeks of training, rats who had established a stable daily intake were subjected to extinction for 1 week. On the next day, priming injection was performed to induce reinstatement. Music therapy was played twice daily during the extinction period and immediately before the test session. In the second experiment, the selective GABAA and GABAB receptor antagonists were treated prior to the last music therapy to investigate a possible neuronal mechanism. Immunofluorescence was performed to immunohistochemically examine the behavioral effects. RESULTS The meditation music by Young-Dong Kim but not the control music by Jeff Beck reduced active lever responding during the reinstatement session. And the effects of music therapy were blocked by GABA receptors antagonists. Also, immunofluorescence showed the pattern of c-Fos expression in the nucleus accumbens paralleled the behavioral results. CONCLUSION Results of the present study suggest that meditation music by Young-Dong Kim can be a useful therapy to prevent the reinstatement of methamphetamine addiction during abstinence.
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Reiner DJ, Fredriksson I, Lofaro OM, Bossert JM, Shaham Y. Relapse to opioid seeking in rat models: behavior, pharmacology and circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:465-477. [PMID: 30293087 PMCID: PMC6333846 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-018-0234-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lifetime relapse rates remain a major obstacle in addressing the current opioid crisis. Relapse to opioid use can be modeled in rodent studies where drug self-administration is followed by a period of abstinence and a subsequent test for drug seeking. Abstinence can be achieved through extinction training, forced abstinence, or voluntary abstinence. Voluntary abstinence can be accomplished by introducing adverse consequences of continued drug self-administration (e.g., punishment or electric barrier) or by introducing an alternative nondrug reward in a discrete choice procedure (drug versus palatable food or social interaction). In this review, we first discuss pharmacological and circuit mechanisms of opioid seeking, as assessed in the classical extinction-reinstatement model, where reinstatement is induced by reexposure to the self-administered drug (drug priming), discrete cues, discriminative cues, drug-associated contexts, different forms of stress, or withdrawal states. Next, we discuss pharmacological and circuit mechanisms of relapse after forced or voluntary abstinence, including the phenomenon of "incubation of heroin craving" (the time-dependent increases in heroin seeking during abstinence). We conclude by discussing future directions of preclinical relapse-related studies using opioid drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Reiner
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, IRP-NIDA-NIH, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Ida Fredriksson
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, IRP-NIDA-NIH, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Olivia M. Lofaro
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, IRP-NIDA-NIH, Baltimore, MD USA
| | | | - Yavin Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, IRP-NIDA-NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Ewing S, Ranaldi R. Environmental enrichment facilitates cocaine abstinence in an animal conflict model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 166:35-41. [PMID: 29407873 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we sought to discover if housing in an enriched environment (EE) is an efficacious intervention for encouraging abstinence from cocaine seeking in an animal "conflict" model of abstinence. Sixteen Long-Evans rats were trained in 3-h daily sessions to self-administer a cocaine solution (1 mg/kg/infusion) until each demonstrated a stable pattern of drug-seeking. Afterward, half were placed in EE cages equipped with toys, obstacles, and a running wheel, while the other half were given clean, standard laboratory housing. All rats then completed daily 30-min sessions during which the 2/3 of flooring closest to the self-administration levers was electrified, causing discomfort should they approach the levers; current strength (mA) was increased after every day of drug seeking until the rat ceased activity on the active lever for 3 consecutive sessions (abstinence). Rats housed in EE abstained after fewer days and at lower current strengths than rats in standard housing. These results support the idea that EE administered after the development of a cocaine-taking habit may be an effective strategy to facilitate abstinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Ewing
- The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Robert Ranaldi
- The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Psychology, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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6
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Jerlhag E. GLP-1 signaling and alcohol-mediated behaviors; preclinical and clinical evidence. Neuropharmacology 2018; 136:343-349. [PMID: 29337226 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol addiction, affecting approximately four percent of the population, contributes significantly to the global burden of diseases and is a substantial cost to the society. The neurochemical mechanisms regulating alcohol mediated behaviors is complex and in more recent years a new physiological role of the gut-brain peptides, traditionally known to regulate appetite and food intake, have been suggested. Indeed, regulators of alcohol-mediated behaviors. One of these gut-brain peptides is the annorexigenic peptide glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), Preclinical studies show that GLP-1 receptor activation, either by GLP-1 or analogues, attenuate the ability of alcohol to activate the mesolimbic dopamine system as well as decrease alcohol consumption and operant self-administration. In further support for the endogenous GLP-1 system in addiction processes are the experimental data showing that a GLP-1 receptor antagonist increases alcohol intake. Moreover, GLP-1 receptor agonists prevent the ability of other addictive drugs to activate the mesolimbic dopamine system. The number of clinical studies is limited, but show i) that genetic variation in the GLP-1 receptor gene is associated with alcohol addiction as well as increased alcohol infusion in humans, ii) that plasma levels of GLP-1 are associated with the subjective experience of cocaine and iii) that a GLP-1 receptor agonist reduces alcohol intake in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus. These experimental and clinical studies raises the concern that clinically available GLP-1 receptor agonists deserves to be tested as potential treatments of patients with addictive disorders including alcohol addiction. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Metabolic Impairment as Risk Factors for Neurodegenerative Disorders.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Jerlhag
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 13A, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.
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7
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Vallöf D, Maccioni P, Colombo G, Mandrapa M, Jörnulf JW, Egecioglu E, Engel JA, Jerlhag E. The glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist liraglutide attenuates the reinforcing properties of alcohol in rodents. Addict Biol 2016; 21:422-37. [PMID: 26303264 PMCID: PMC5049632 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The incretin hormone, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), regulates gastric emptying, glucose-dependent stimulation of insulin secretion and glucagon release, and GLP-1 analogs are therefore approved for treatment of type II diabetes. GLP-1 receptors are expressed in reward-related areas such as the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, and GLP-1 was recently shown to regulate several alcohol-mediated behaviors as well as amphetamine-induced, cocaine-induced and nicotine-induced reward. The present series of experiments were undertaken to investigate the effect of the GLP-1 receptor agonist, liraglutide, on several alcohol-related behaviors in rats that model different aspects of alcohol use disorder in humans. Acute liraglutide treatment suppressed the well-documented effects of alcohol on the mesolimbic dopamine system, namely alcohol-induced accumbal dopamine release and conditioned place preference in mice. In addition, acute administration of liraglutide prevented the alcohol deprivation effect and reduced alcohol intake in outbred rats, while repeated treatment of liraglutide decreased alcohol intake in outbred rats as well as reduced operant self-administration of alcohol in selectively bred Sardinian alcohol-preferring rats. Collectively, these data suggest that GLP-1 receptor agonists could be tested for treatment of alcohol dependence in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Vallöf
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of PharmacologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgSweden
| | - Paola Maccioni
- Neuroscience Institute, Section of CagliariNational Research Council of ItalyItaly
| | - Giancarlo Colombo
- Neuroscience Institute, Section of CagliariNational Research Council of ItalyItaly
| | - Minja Mandrapa
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of PharmacologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgSweden
| | - Julia Winsa Jörnulf
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of PharmacologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgSweden
| | - Emil Egecioglu
- Institute of Experimental Medical Sciences, Section of Diabetes and MetabolismLund UniversitySweden
| | - Jörgen A. Engel
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of PharmacologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgSweden
| | - Elisabet Jerlhag
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of PharmacologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgSweden
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España RA, Schmeichel BE, Berridge CW. Norepinephrine at the nexus of arousal, motivation and relapse. Brain Res 2016; 1641:207-16. [PMID: 26773688 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Arousal plays a critical role in cognitive, affective and motivational processes. Consistent with this, the dysregulation of arousal-related neural systems is implicated in a variety of psychiatric disorders, including addiction. Noradrenergic systems exert potent arousal-enhancing actions that involve signaling at α1- and β-noradrenergic receptors within a distributed network of subcortical regions. The majority of research into noradrenergic modulation of arousal has focused on the nucleus locus coeruleus. Nevertheless, anatomical studies demonstrate that multiple noradrenergic nuclei innervate subcortical arousal-related regions, providing a substrate for differential regulation of arousal across these distinct noradrenergic nuclei. The arousal-promoting actions of psychostimulants and other drugs of abuse contribute to their widespread abuse. Moreover, relapse can be triggered by a variety of arousal-promoting events, including stress and re-exposure to drugs of abuse. Evidence has long-indicated that norepinephrine plays an important role in relapse. Recent observations suggest that noradrenergic signaling elicits affectively-neutral arousal that is sufficient to reinstate drug seeking. Collectively, these observations indicate that norepinephrine plays a key role in the interaction between arousal, motivation, and relapse. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A España
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| | - Brooke E Schmeichel
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States.
| | - Craig W Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States.
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Mantsch JR, Baker DA, Funk D, Lê AD, Shaham Y. Stress-Induced Reinstatement of Drug Seeking: 20 Years of Progress. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:335-56. [PMID: 25976297 PMCID: PMC4677117 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In human addicts, drug relapse and craving are often provoked by stress. Since 1995, this clinical scenario has been studied using a rat model of stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. Here, we first discuss the generality of stress-induced reinstatement to different drugs of abuse, different stressors, and different behavioral procedures. We also discuss neuropharmacological mechanisms, and brain areas and circuits controlling stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. We conclude by discussing results from translational human laboratory studies and clinical trials that were inspired by results from rat studies on stress-induced reinstatement. Our main conclusions are (1) The phenomenon of stress-induced reinstatement, first shown with an intermittent footshock stressor in rats trained to self-administer heroin, generalizes to other abused drugs, including cocaine, methamphetamine, nicotine, and alcohol, and is also observed in the conditioned place preference model in rats and mice. This phenomenon, however, is stressor specific and not all stressors induce reinstatement of drug seeking. (2) Neuropharmacological studies indicate the involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), noradrenaline, dopamine, glutamate, kappa/dynorphin, and several other peptide and neurotransmitter systems in stress-induced reinstatement. Neuropharmacology and circuitry studies indicate the involvement of CRF and noradrenaline transmission in bed nucleus of stria terminalis and central amygdala, and dopamine, CRF, kappa/dynorphin, and glutamate transmission in other components of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system (ventral tegmental area, medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and nucleus accumbens). (3) Translational human laboratory studies and a recent clinical trial study show the efficacy of alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists in decreasing stress-induced drug craving and stress-induced initial heroin lapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Mantsch
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - David A Baker
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Douglas Funk
- Center for Addiction and Mental Health, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anh D Lê
- Center for Addiction and Mental Health, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Yavin Shaham
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA-NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Chen YW, Fiscella KA, Bacharach SZ, Tanda G, Shaham Y, Calu DJ. Effect of yohimbine on reinstatement of operant responding in rats is dependent on cue contingency but not food reward history. Addict Biol 2015; 20:690-700. [PMID: 25065697 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Yohimbine is an alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonist that has been used in numerous studies as a pharmacological stressor in rodents, monkeys and humans. Recently, yohimbine has become the most common stress manipulation in studies on reinstatement of drug and food seeking. However, the wide range of conditions under which yohimbine promotes reward seeking is significantly greater than that of stressors like intermittent footshock. Here, we addressed two fundamental questions regarding yohimbine's effect on reinstatement of reward seeking: (1) whether the drug's effect on operant responding is dependent on previous reward history or cue contingency, and (2) whether yohimbine is aversive or rewarding under conditions typically used in reinstatement studies. We also used in vivo microdialysis to determine yohimbine's effect on dopamine levels in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). We found that the magnitude of yohimbine-induced (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) operant responding during the reinstatement tests was critically dependent on the contingency between lever pressing and discrete tone-light cue delivery but not the previous history with food reward during training. We also found that yohimbine (2 mg/kg) did not cause conditioned place aversion. Finally, we found that yohimbine modestly increased dopamine levels in mPFC but not NAc. Results suggest that yohimbine's effects on operant responding in reinstatement studies are likely independent of the history of contingent self-administration of food or drug rewards and may not be related to the commonly assumed stress-like effects of yohimbine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wei Chen
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch; NIDA, NIH, DHHS; Baltimore MD USA
| | | | | | - Gianluigi Tanda
- Medication Development Program; Intramural Research Program; NIDA, NIH, DHHS; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Yavin Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch; NIDA, NIH, DHHS; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Donna J. Calu
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch; NIDA, NIH, DHHS; Baltimore MD USA
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Septal Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Expression Determines Suppression of Cocaine-Induced Behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:1969-78. [PMID: 25669605 PMCID: PMC4839521 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and its receptor GLP-1R are a key component of the satiety signaling system, and long-acting GLP-1 analogs have been approved for the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus. Previous reports demonstrate that GLP-1 regulates glucose homeostasis alongside the rewarding effects of food. Both palatable food and illicit drugs activate brain reward circuitries, and pharmacological studies suggest that central nervous system GLP-1 signaling holds potential for the treatment of addiction. However, the role of endogenous GLP-1 in the attenuation of reward-oriented behavior, and the essential domains of the mesolimbic system mediating these beneficial effects, are largely unknown. We hypothesized that the central regions of highest Glp-1r gene activity are essential in mediating responses to drugs of abuse. Here, we show that Glp-1r-deficient (Glp-1r(-/-)) mice have greatly augmented cocaine-induced locomotor responses and enhanced conditional place preference compared with wild-type (Glp-1r(+/+)) controls. Employing mRNA in situ hybridization we located peak Glp-1r mRNA expression in GABAergic neurons of the dorsal lateral septum, an anatomical site with a crucial function in reward perception. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of dorsal lateral septum neurons revealed that genetic Glp-1r ablation leads to increased excitability of these cells. Viral vector-mediated Glp-1r gene delivery to the dorsal lateral septum of Glp-1r(-/-) animals reduced cocaine-induced locomotion and conditional place preference to wild-type levels. This site-specific genetic complementation did not affect the anxiogenic phenotype observed in Glp-1r(-/-) controls. These data reveal a novel role of GLP-1R in dorsal lateral septum function driving behavioral responses to cocaine.
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Baratta MV, Pomrenze MB, Nakamura S, Dolzani SD, Cooper DC. Control Over Stress Accelerates Extinction of Drug Seeking Via Prefrontal Cortical Activation. Neurobiol Stress 2015; 2:20-27. [PMID: 25954765 PMCID: PMC4418028 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Extinction is a form of inhibitory learning viewed as an essential process in suppressing conditioned responses to drug cues, yet there is little information concerning experiential variables that modulate its formation. Coping factors play an instrumental role in determining how adverse life events impact the transition from casual drug use to addiction. Here we provide evidence in rat that prior exposure to controllable stress accelerates the extinction of cocaine-seeking behavior relative to uncontrollable or no stress exposure. Subsequent experimentation using high-speed optogenetic tools determined if the infralimbic region (IL) of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex mediates the impact of controllable stress on cocaine-seeking behavior. Photoinhibition of pyramidal neurons in the IL during coping behavior did not interfere with subject's ability to control the stressor, but prevented the later control-induced facilitation of extinction. These results provide strong evidence that the degree of behavioral control over adverse events, rather than adverse events per se, potently modulates the extinction of cocaine-seeking behavior, and that controllable stress engages prefrontal circuitry that primes future extinction learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Baratta
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA ; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA
| | - Matthew B Pomrenze
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA
| | - Shinya Nakamura
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA
| | - Samuel D Dolzani
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA ; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA
| | - Donald C Cooper
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA ; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0447, USA
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Navailles S, Guillem K, Vouillac-Mendoza C, Ahmed SH. Coordinated Recruitment of Cortical–Subcortical Circuits and Ascending Dopamine and Serotonin Neurons During Inhibitory Control of Cocaine Seeking in Rats. Cereb Cortex 2014; 25:3167-81. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhu112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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14
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Amphetamine acts within the lateral hypothalamic area to elicit affectively neutral arousal and reinstate drug-seeking. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17:63-75. [PMID: 23895988 PMCID: PMC6150758 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145713000734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychostimulants, including amphetamine (AMPH), exert robust arousal-enhancing, reinforcing and locomotor-activating effects. These behavioural actions involve drug-induced elevations in extracellular norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) within a variety of cortical and subcortical regions. The lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), including the lateral hypothalamus proper, perifornical area and adjacent dorsomedial hypothalamus, is implicated in appetitive- and arousal-related processes. The LHA is innervated by both NE and DA projections and systemically administered AMPH has been demonstrated to activate LHA neurons. Combined, these and other observations suggest the LHA may be a site of action in the behavioural effects of psychostimulants. To test this hypothesis, we examined the degree to which AMPH (10 nmol, 25 nmol) acts within the LHA to exert arousing, locomotor-activating and reinforcing actions in quietly resting/sleeping rats. Although intra-LHA AMPH robustly increased time spent awake, this occurred in the absence of pronounced locomotor activation or reinforcing actions, as measured in a conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. Arousing and stressful conditions or drug re-exposure can elicit relapse in humans and reinstate drug-seeking in animals. Given the LHA is also implicated in the reinstatement of drug-seeking behaviour, additional studies examined whether AMPH acts within the LHA to reinstate an extinguished CPP produced with systemic AMPH administration. Our results demonstrate that AMPH action within the LHA is sufficient to reinstate drug-seeking behaviour, as measured in this paradigm. Collectively, these observations demonstrate that psychostimulants act within the LHA to elicit affectively neutral arousal and reinstate drug-seeking behaviour.
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Acupuncture at SI5 attenuates morphine seeking behavior after extinction. Neurosci Lett 2012; 529:23-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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Nair SG, Navarre BM, Cifani C, Pickens CL, Bossert JM, Shaham Y. Role of dorsal medial prefrontal cortex dopamine D1-family receptors in relapse to high-fat food seeking induced by the anxiogenic drug yohimbine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:497-510. [PMID: 20962767 PMCID: PMC3005956 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2010] [Revised: 08/21/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In humans, relapse to maladaptive eating habits during dieting is often provoked by stress. In rats, the anxiogenic drug yohimbine, which causes stress-like responses in both humans and nonhumans, reinstates food seeking in a relapse model. In this study, we examined the role of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) dopamine D1-family receptors, previously implicated in stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking, in yohimbine-induced reinstatement of food seeking. We trained food-restricted rats to lever press for 35% high-fat pellets every other day (9-15 sessions, 3 h each); pellet delivery was accompanied by a discrete tone-light cue. We then extinguished operant responding for 10-16 days by removing the pellets. Subsequently, we examined the effect of yohimbine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) on reinstatement of food seeking and Fos (a neuronal activity marker) induction in mPFC. We then examined the effect of systemic injections of the D1-family receptor antagonist SCH23390 (10 μg/kg, s.c.) on yohimbine-induced reinstatement and Fos induction, and that of mPFC SCH23390 (0.5 and 1.0 μg/side) injections on this reinstatement. Yohimbine-induced reinstatement was associated with strong Fos induction in the dorsal mPFC and with weaker Fos induction in the ventral mPFC. Systemic SCH23390 injections blocked both yohimbine-induced reinstatement and mPFC Fos induction. Dorsal, but not ventral, mPFC injections of SCH23390 decreased yohimbine-induced reinstatement of food seeking. In addition, dorsal mPFC SCH23390 injections decreased pellet-priming-induced reinstatement, but had no effect on ongoing high-fat pellet self-administration or discrete-cue-induced reinstatement. Results indicate a critical role of dorsal mPFC dopamine D1-family receptors in stress-induced relapse to palatable food seeking, as well as relapse induced by acute re-exposure to food taste, texture, and smell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunila G Nair
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP/NIH/DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Carlo Cifani
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP/NIH/DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Charles L Pickens
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP/NIH/DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Yavin Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP/NIH/DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Kupferschmidt DA, Tribe E, Erb S. Effects of repeated yohimbine on the extinction and reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 91:473-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 08/25/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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The effect of stress on craving for methadone depends on the timing of last methadone dose. Behav Res Ther 2008; 46:1170-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2008] [Revised: 03/28/2008] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Aguilar MA, Rodríguez-Arias M, Miñarro J. Neurobiological mechanisms of the reinstatement of drug-conditioned place preference. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 59:253-77. [PMID: 18762212 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2008] [Revised: 07/29/2008] [Accepted: 08/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a chronic disorder characterized by a high rate of relapse following detoxification. There are two main versions of the reinstatement model that are employed to study relapse to drug abuse; one based on the operant self-administration procedure, and the other on the classical conditioned place preference procedure. In the last seven years, the use of the latter version has become more widespread, and the results obtained complement those obtained in self-administration studies. It has been observed that the conditioned place preference induced by opioids, psychostimulants, nicotine, ethanol and other drugs of abuse can be extinguished and reinstated by drug priming or exposure to stressful events. Herein, the neuroanatomical and neurochemical basis of drug priming- and stress-induced reinstatement of morphine and cocaine, together with the molecular correlates of reinstatement behavior, are reviewed. Differences between the conditioned place preference and self-administration studies are also discussed. Evidence suggests that data of reinstatement with the CPP are to be viewed with caution until more extensive analysis of operant procedures has been performed, and that further research will undoubtedly improve our understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms of relapse to drug seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Aguilar
- Unidad de Investigación Psicobiologia de las Drogodependencias, Departamento de Psicobiología, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain
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Lê AD, Lê Dzung A, Funk D, Harding S, Juzytsch W, Li Z, Fletcher PJ. Intra-median raphe nucleus (MRN) infusions of muscimol, a GABA-A receptor agonist, reinstate alcohol seeking in rats: role of impulsivity and reward. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 195:605-15. [PMID: 17891381 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0943-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES We previously found that the inhibition of median raphe nucleus (MRN) 5-HT transmission by local injections of a 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT or corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) mimic the effect of foot shock stress to reinstate alcohol seeking. In this study, we further explored the role of the MRN by examining the effect of inhibition of MRN neurons, by injecting the GABA-A receptor agonist muscimol, on the reinstatement of alcohol seeking. MATERIALS AND METHODS Male rats were trained to lever press for 12% alcohol. Cannulae were implanted aimed at the MRN; some rats were also given intra-MRN injections of 5,7-DHT to destroy ascending 5-HT neurons. After retraining, alcohol responding was extinguished for 14 days. Subsequently, we tested the effect of muscimol injections into the MRN (0, 12.5, 25, 50 ng) on reinstatement. We also tested the effect of MRN muscimol injections on a measure of reward, conditioned place preference (CPP) and performance in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), which tests a variety of psychological processes including sustained attention and impulsivity. RESULTS MRN muscimol injections strongly reinstated alcohol seeking and this effect was not reversed by the depletion of 5-HT with 5,7-DHT. MRN muscimol injections did not induce a CPP, but did significantly impair multiple aspects of performance on the 5-CSRTT, including a marked increase in premature, or impulsive, responding. CONCLUSIONS Together with our previous findings, these results suggest that the inhibition of MRN projection neurons provokes alcohol seeking. Results from the 5-CSRTT suggest that increased impulsivity may contribute to these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh Dzung Lê
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada.
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21
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Bossert JM, Gray SM, Lu L, Shaham Y. Activation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell attenuates context-induced relapse to heroin seeking. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:2197-209. [PMID: 16341024 PMCID: PMC1570155 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Using a rat relapse model, we previously reported that re-exposing rats to a drug-associated context, following extinction of operant responding in a different context, reinstates heroin seeking. In an initial pharmacological characterization, we found that the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268, which acts centrally to reduce evoked glutamate release, attenuates context-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking when injected systemically or into the ventral tegmental area, the cell body region of the mesolimbic dopamine system. Here, we tested whether injections of LY379268 into the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a terminal region of the mesolimbic dopamine system, would also attenuate context-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking. Rats were trained to self-administer heroin; drug infusions were paired with a discrete tone-light cue. Subsequently, lever pressing was extinguished in the presence of the discrete cue in a context that differed from the drug self-administration context in terms of visual, auditory, tactile, and circadian cues. After extinction of responding, LY379268 was injected to different groups of rats into the NAc core or shell or into the caudate-putamen, a terminal region of the nigrastriatal dopamine system. Injections of LY379268 into the NAc shell (0.3 or 1.0 microg) dose-dependently attenuated context-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking. Injections of 1.0 microg of LY379268 into the NAc core had no effect, while a higher dose (3.0 microg) decreased this reinstatement. Injections of LY379268 (3.0 microg) 1.5 mm dorsal from the NAc core into the caudate-putamen were ineffective. Results suggest an important role of glutamate transmission in the NAc shell in context-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acids/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic/administration & dosage
- Conditioning, Operant/drug effects
- Conditioning, Operant/physiology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Enzyme Activation/drug effects
- Enzyme Activation/physiology
- Extinction, Psychological/drug effects
- Heroin/administration & dosage
- Heroin Dependence/drug therapy
- Heroin Dependence/physiopathology
- Male
- Narcotics/administration & dosage
- Nucleus Accumbens/drug effects
- Nucleus Accumbens/physiology
- Rats
- Rats, Long-Evans
- Receptors, Metabotropic Glutamate/agonists
- Receptors, Metabotropic Glutamate/physiology
- Secondary Prevention
- Self Administration
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Bossert
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH/DHHS, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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22
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Podlesnik CA, Jimenez-Gomez C, Shahan TA. Resurgence of alcohol seeking produced by discontinuing non-drug reinforcement as an animal model of drug relapse. Behav Pharmacol 2006; 17:369-74. [PMID: 16914956 DOI: 10.1097/01.fbp.0000224385.09486.ba] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Findings from basic behavioral research suggest that simply discontinuing reinforcement for a recently reinforced operant response can cause the recurrence (i.e. resurgence) of a different previously reinforced response. The present experiment examined resurgence as an animal model of drug relapse. Initially, rats pressed levers to self-administer alcohol during baseline conditions. Next, alcohol self-administration was discontinued and non-drug reinforcers (food pellets) were presented contingent on an alternative response (chain pulling). Finally, when the non-drug reinforcer was discontinued, alcohol seeking recurred even though alcohol was still unavailable for lever pressing. These results suggest that simply discontinuing non-drug reinforcement for a behavior may be sufficient to produce relapse to drug seeking. The resurgence procedure could provide a method to examine environmental, pharmacological, and neurobiological factors that lead to relapse following the loss of a non-drug source of reinforcement.
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23
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Shepard JD, Chuang DT, Shaham Y, Morales M. Effect of methamphetamine self-administration on tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter levels in mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways of the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 185:505-13. [PMID: 16555063 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0316-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2005] [Accepted: 01/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Many studies have examined the effect of experimenter-delivered methamphetamine on the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways. In contrast, little is known about the effect of methamphetamine self-administration on these neuronal pathways. We studied the effect of methamphetamine self-administration on two key regulators of dopamine transmission, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and dopamine transporter (DAT), in components of the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways. METHODS Rats self-administered methamphetamine (0.1 mg/kg per infusion, fixed-ratio-1 reinforcement schedule) or saline (control condition) for 9 h/day over 10 days. The brains of these rats were collected after 1 or 30 days of forced abstinence and the expression levels of TH and DAT were assayed by in situ, hybridization and western blot. RESULTS TH mRNA and protein levels were increased in the ventral tegmental area (VTA, the cell body region of the mesolimbic dopamine system) and the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC, the cell body region of the nigrostriatal dopamine system) after 1 day, but not 30 days, of forced abstinence from methamphetamine. In contrast, methamphetamine self-administration had no effect on TH protein levels in dopaminergic terminals located in the nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen. In addition, methamphetamine self-administration had no effect on DAT mRNA levels in the VTA. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that extended daily access to self-administered methamphetamine results in a transient, short-lasting effect on mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine neurons of the rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Shepard
- Cellular Neurobiology Research Branch, IRP/NIDA/NIH, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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24
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Ribeiro Do Couto B, Aguilar MA, Manzanedo C, Rodríguez-Arias M, Armario A, Miñarro J. Social stress is as effective as physical stress in reinstating morphine-induced place preference in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 185:459-70. [PMID: 16555060 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0345-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Accepted: 02/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Relapse to drug-seeking in abstinent heroin addicts and reinstatement in experimental animals are observed when exposed to drug-associated stimuli or cues, the drug itself, and stressful events. It has been shown that footshock-induced stress increases the rewarding effects of opiates, delays extinction, and induces the reinstatement of drug-seeking. However, the effects of social stress on the reinstatement of opiate-seeking after extinction has not been studied. OBJECTIVES The role of physical (restraint and tail pinch) and social (social defeat) stressors on the reinstatement of morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) was evaluated. METHODS Adult male OF1 mice were conditioned with 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg of morphine or saline. Only morphine-conditioned animals acquired CPP. All mice underwent extinction sessions until the CPP was extinguished. Then, the effects of physical or social stress on the reinstatement of CPP were evaluated. Morphine- and saline-conditioned animals were exposed to the respective stressor or control stress condition immediately or 15 min before reinstatement tests. In experiment 1, animals underwent restraint for 15 min. In experiment 2, animals were exposed to tail pinch or placed in a cage without any manipulation for 15 min. In experiment 3, animals performed an agonistic encounter with an isolated or anosmic mouse or were placed in a cage without any social contact or manipulation. RESULTS Restraint, tail pinch, and social defeat in an agonistic encounter with an isolated mouse produce the reinstatement of CPP in morphine-conditioned animals. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that social stress is as effective as physical stress in reinstating morphine-seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ribeiro Do Couto
- Departamento de Psicobiología, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 21, Valencia 46010, Spain
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25
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Sotomayor R, Forray MI, Gysling K. Acute morphine administration increases extracellular DA levels in the rat lateral septum by decreasing the GABAergic inhibitory tone in the ventral tegmental area. J Neurosci Res 2005; 81:132-9. [PMID: 15920742 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We studied the effect of an acute systemic administration of morphine and of a local intra-ventral tegmental area (VTA) infusion of the same drug on extracellular levels of dopamine (DA) in the lateral septum (LS) by in vivo microdialysis in anesthetized rats. The extracellular levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) were also measured in all dialysate samples. The acute systemic administration of morphine dose-dependently increased extracellular levels of DA but not of 5-HT in the LS, in the absence or presence of fluoxetine. This morphine effect was antagonized by the previous administration of naloxone, a specific opioid antagonist. The local infusion of morphine in the VTA also induced a significant increase of the extracellular levels of DA in the LS, concomitantly with a decrease of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) extracellular levels in the VTA itself. Intriguingly, the LS extracellular levels of DA returned to basal values before the VTA GABA extracellular levels recovered. Our results show for the first time that an acute administration of morphine increases DA extracellular levels in the LS. The results also suggest that DA cells in the VTA and innervating the LS are under an inhibitory GABAergic tone sensitive to morphine. Taken together, our neurochemical data and previous studies involving LS DA in stress-related behavior support the hypothesis that DA in the LS plays a significant role in addictive behavior. The participation of LS DA and 5-HT systems in stress-induced relapse to drug seeking should be studied further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Sotomayor
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Catholic University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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26
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Lu L, Shepard JD, Hall FS, Shaham Y. Effect of environmental stressors on opiate and psychostimulant reinforcement, reinstatement and discrimination in rats: a review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2003; 27:457-91. [PMID: 14505687 DOI: 10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00073-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Studies in humans suggest that exposure to life stressors is correlated with compulsive drug abuse and relapse to drugs during periods of abstinence. The behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms involved in the effect of stress on drug abuse, however, are not known. Here, we review data from studies using preclinical models in rats on the effect of environmental stressors on opiate and psychostimulant reinforcement, as measured by the intravenous drug self-administration and conditioned place preference procedures, on relapse to these drugs, as measured by the reinstatement procedure, and on the subjective effects of these drugs, as measured by the drug discrimination procedure. The results of the studies reviewed here suggest that while stressors are important modulators of the behavioral effects of opiate and psychostimulant drugs, the effect of stress on behavior in these animal models is stressor-specific, and to some degree, procedure- and drug-class-specific. The review of studies on the neurobiological mechanisms underlying stress-drug interactions in these animal models indicate that central noradrenaline and extrahypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor mediate the effect of one form of stress (intermittent footshock) on reinstatement of opiate and psychostimulant seeking after prolonged drug-free periods. At present, however, little is known about the neuronal events that mediate the effect of environmental stressors on opiate and psychostimulant reinforcement or discrimination. The broader implications of the data reviewed here for future research and for the treatment of opiate and psychostimulant addiction are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Lu
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH/DHHS, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Capriles N, Rodaros D, Sorge RE, Stewart J. A role for the prefrontal cortex in stress- and cocaine-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 168:66-74. [PMID: 12442201 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-002-1283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2002] [Accepted: 09/14/2002] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE It is well established that stress induces reinstatement of drug seeking in an animal model of relapse. Here we studied the role of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in foot-shock stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. METHODS Groups of rats were trained to self-administer cocaine (0.5 mg/kg per infusion, i.v., 3 h/day for 9 days) and after ten drug-free days were exposed to extinction and reinstatement test sessions. Each 60 min of extinction was separated by a 30-min time-out period after which the lever and stimulus lights were reintroduced. Rats were given four 1-h extinction sessions on day 1 and then on subsequent days were given two to three 1-h extinction sessions that were followed by a 3-h test for reinstatement. Tests were run every 48 h. In one set of experiments, the effects of inactivation of the prelimbic (PL), infralimbic (IL) or OFC by tetrodotoxin (TTX, 5 ng/0.5 micro l per side) on reinstatement induced by foot shock (5 min, intermittent, 1 mA) or priming injections of cocaine (20 mg/kg, i.p.) were determined. In a second set, the effects of infusions of the D1-like and D2-like dopamine receptor antagonists (SCH 23390 and raclopride) were studied using the same methods. RESULTS TTX infusions into the PL cortex blocked both foot shock and cocaine-induced reinstatement. TTX into OFC attenuated foot-shock-induced, but not cocaine-induced reinstatement. Infusions into IL were ineffective. Infusions of SCH 22390 (0.25 micro g/0.5 micro l per side) into either PL or OFC blocked foot-shock-induced reinstatement, but infusions into PL had no effect on cocaine-induced reinstatement. Raclopride (5 micro g/0.5 micro l per side) had no effect on foot-shock-induced reinstatement in either PL or OFC or on cocaine-induced reinstatement when infused into PL. Neither TTX nor SCH23390 infusions into PL or OFC had any effect on lever pressing for sucrose. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the PL and OFC regions form part of the circuitry mediating the effects of foot shock stress on reinstatement of drug seeking and that the PL region may be a common pathway for cue, drug and foot-shock stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Capriles
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8, Canada
- Mental Health Research Institute, University of Michigan, 205 Zina, Pitcher Place, MI 48109-0720, USA, USA
| | - Demetra Rodaros
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8, Canada
| | - Robert E Sorge
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8, Canada
| | - Jane Stewart
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8, Canada.
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Shaham Y, Shalev U, Lu L, de Wit H, Stewart J. The reinstatement model of drug relapse: history, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 168:3-20. [PMID: 12402102 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-002-1224-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1173] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2002] [Accepted: 07/10/2002] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RATIONAL AND OBJECTIVES The reinstatement model is currently used in many laboratories to investigate mechanisms underlying relapse to drug seeking. Here, we review briefly the history of the model and describe the different procedures that have been used to study the phenomenon of reinstatement of drug seeking. The results from studies using pharmacological and neuroanatomical techniques to determine the neuronal events that mediate reinstatement of heroin, cocaine and alcohol seeking by acute priming injections of drugs, drug-associated cues and environmental stressors are summarized. In addition, several issues are discussed, including (1) the concordance between the neuronal mechanisms involved in drug-induced reinstatement and those involved in drug reward and discrimination, (2) the role of drug withdrawal states and periods in reinstatement of drug seeking, (3) the role of neuronal adaptations induced by exposure to drugs in relapse, and (4) the degree to which the rat reinstatement model provides a suitable preclinical model of relapse to drug taking. CONCLUSIONS The data derived from studies using the reinstatement model suggest that the neuronal events that mediate drug-, cue- and stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking are not identical, that the mechanisms underlying drug-induced reinstatement are to some degree different from those mediating drug discrimination or reward, and that the duration of the withdrawal period following cocaine and heroin self-administration has a profound effect on reinstatement induced by drug cues and stress. Finally, there appears to be a good correspondence between the events that induce reinstatement in laboratory animals and those that provoke relapse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yavin Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA, USA.
| | - Uri Shalev
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA, USA
| | - Lin Lu
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, NIDA/IRP, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA, USA
| | - Harriet de Wit
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill., USA, USA
| | - Jane Stewart
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Canada
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Dallman MF, Akana SF, Laugero KD, Gomez F, Manalo S, Bell ME, Bhatnagar S. A spoonful of sugar: feedback signals of energy stores and corticosterone regulate responses to chronic stress. Physiol Behav 2003; 79:3-12. [PMID: 12818705 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(03)00100-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
To begin to understand the effects of chronic stress on food intake and energy stores, the effects of increased activity in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and glucocorticoids (GCs) on the body and brain must first be understood. We propose two major systems that are both GC sensitive: a metabolic feedback that is inhibitory and a direct central GC drive. Under basal conditions, the metabolic feedback signal to brain is dominant, although infusion of GC into a lateral brain ventricle blocks the effects of the metabolic feedback. Chronic stress activates GC secretion and brain nuclear GC receptor occupancy, markedly changing the normal relationships between these two major corticosteroid-activated systems. The stressor-induced switch in the relative strengths of these signals determines subsequent brain regulation of stress responses (behavioral, neuroendocrine and autonomic outflows). The metabolic feedback effects of GCs are mimicked by voluntary sucrose ingestion in adrenalectomized rats, and experiments suggest that the metabolic feedback also inhibits the stressor-induced direct GC drive on brain. We speculate that the interaction between peripheral and central GC-sensitive signaling systems may be coupled through the inhibitory actions of endogenous opiatergic inputs on corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary F Dallman
- Department of Physiology, University of California San Francisco, Box 0444, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA.
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30
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Lu L, Zhang B, Liu Z, Zhang Z. Reactivation of cocaine conditioned place preference induced by stress is reversed by cholecystokinin-B receptors antagonist in rats. Brain Res 2002; 954:132-40. [PMID: 12393241 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03359-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The effects of different cholecystokinin (CCK) receptor antagonists (devazepide and L365,260) on cocaine or stress-induced reactivation of cocaine conditioned place preference (CPP) were investigated in rats. After receiving alternate injection of cocaine (10 mg/kg) and saline for 8 consecutive days, the rats spent more time in the drug-paired side (cocaine CPP) on day 9. These animals did not show cocaine CPP on day 31 following saline-paired training daily from days 10 to 30 (21-day extinction). However, a single injection of cocaine (10 mg/kg) or 15 min of intermittent footshock could reinstate CPP on day 32 with significant more time spent in the drug-paired side in comparison with that on day 0. Systemic injection of CCK-A receptor antagonists, devazepide (0.1 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.), 30 min before cocaine priming, significantly attenuated cocaine-induced reinstatement of CPP, while CCK-B receptor antagonist, L365,260 (0.1 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.), did not show a similar effect. In contrast, pretreatment with L365,260 (0.1 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) but not devazepide (0.1 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly blocked stress-induced reinstatement of CPP. In another experiment, CCK-A or B receptor antagonists were infused into nucleus accumbens or amygdala to determine which brain area are involved in the role of different CCK receptors in stress or drug-induced relapse to cocaine seeking. The results show that infusion of the devazepide (10 microg) into the nucleus accumbens significantly inhibited the cocaine-induced reinstatement of CPP, while infusion of devazepide (1 and 10 microg) into amygdala did not affect cocaine-induced reactivation of CPP. Interestingly, infusion of L365,260 (1 and 10 microg) into both nucleus accumbens or amygdala significantly attenuated or blocked stress-induced reinstatement of CPP. These findings demonstrate that CCK-A and B receptor have different roles in relapse to drug craving and further suggest that the brain areas involved in the CCK receptors on reinstatement of drug seeking are not identical. CCK-B receptor antagonists might be of some value in the treatment and prevention of relapse to stress-induced to drug craving following long-term detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Lu
- Kailuan Mental Health Center, Tangshan 063001, China.
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31
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Abstract
Using an animal model of drug relapse, we found that intermittent footshock stress reinstates alcohol seeking, an effect attenuated by the 5-HT reuptake blocker fluoxetine and by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor antagonists. Here we studied the role of the 5-HT cell body region of the median raphe nucleus (MRN) and CRF receptors in this site in reinstatement of alcohol seeking. Rats were given alcohol in a two-bottle choice procedure (water vs alcohol) for 25 d and were then trained for 1 hr/d to press a lever for alcohol (12% w/v) for 23-30 d. Subsequently, lever pressing for alcohol was extinguished by terminating drug delivery for 5-9 d. Tests for reinstatement of alcohol seeking were then performed under extinction conditions. Intra-MRN infusions of 8-OH-DPAT [8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin] (a 5-HT1A agonist that decreases 5-HT cell firing and release) reinstated alcohol seeking. Reinstatement of alcohol seeking also was observed after intra-MRN infusions of low doses of CRF (3-10 ng), which mimicked the effect of ventricular infusions of higher doses of the peptide (300-1000 ng). Finally, intra-MRN infusions of the CRF receptor antagonist d-Phe CRF (50 ng) blocked the effect of intermittent footshock (10 min) on reinstatement. These data suggest that an interaction between CRF and 5-HT neurons within the MRN is involved in footshock stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking.
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Alaei H, Pourshanazari AA, Rafati A. Electrical stimulation of nucleus raphe dorsalis changes morphine self-administration and withdrawal symptoms in rats. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2002; 9:1. [PMID: 12385958 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-4680(02)00050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The involvement of antero-dorsal part of the nucleus raphe dorsalis (NRD) in motivational aspects of drug-taking behaviour during initiation of drug self-administration was investigated using a recently developed behavioural paradigm. In separate experiments animals were allowed to self-administer morphine (1 mg/kg per inf) ten consecutive daily 3-h sessions. During all morphine self-administration sessions lever-press behaviour was measured in absence of electrical stimulation of NRD, as an index of the motivational aspects involved in drug-taking behaviour. The electrical stimulation (pulse 0.5 ms, 150 &mgr;A, 20 Hz) of NRD 30 min before morphine self-administration produced a significant decrease in the initiation of morphine self-administration during all sessions (reduced number of lever-press behaviour). After the last test session, morphine withdrawal syndrome signs (wet dog shakes, jumping, writhing and diarrhoea) in the naloxone-induced behaviour were measured. Our results showed that these withdrawal syndrome signs decreased by application of electrical stimulation in NRD, in comparison with morphine groups. It is concluded that serotonergic system in the NRD might be involved in the motivational processes underlying morphine self-administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Alaei
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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33
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Abstract
Relapse to alcohol use after prolonged withdrawal periods is the major problem in the treatment of alcohol dependence in humans. However, until recently, relatively few preclinical studies concentrated on the elucidation of the neurochemical events underlying relapse to alcohol. In this article we will review recent data from studies in which alcohol-deprivation and reinstatement models were used to determine the mechanisms underlying relapse to alcohol in rats. In the alcohol-deprivation model, the intake of alcohol is determined after prolonged periods of forced abstinence in drug-experienced rats. In the reinstatement model, the ability of acute non-contingent exposure to drug or non-drug stimuli to reinstate drug seeking is determined following training for drug self-administration and subsequent extinction of the drug-reinforced behavior. We will review studies, which used these preclinical models, on the effect of specific pharmacological agents on relapse to alcohol seeking induced by re-exposure to alcohol and to alcohol-associated cues and by exposure to stress. Subsequently, we will describe potential neuronal circuits that may underlie relapse to alcohol. Finally, future directions and clinical implications of the study of relapse to alcohol in laboratory animals will be discussed briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lê
- Department of Neurosciences, Biobehavioral Pharmacology Section, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, M5S 2S1, Toronto, Canada.
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Wang X, Cen X, Lu L. Noradrenaline in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is critical for stress-induced reactivation of morphine-conditioned place preference in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2001; 432:153-61. [PMID: 11740951 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(01)01487-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The effect of noradrenaline in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and locus coeruleus on maintenance and reactivation of morphine-conditioned place preference induced by footshock stress was investigated in rats. After receiving alternate injection of morphine (10 mg/kg) and saline for 6 consecutive days, the rats spent more time in the drug-paired compartment (morphine-conditioned place preference) on day 7. These animals did not show morphine-conditioned place preference on day 37 following sham-footshock once every 3 days from days 8 to 36 (28 days drug-free). However, 15 min of intermittent footshock once every 3 days could induce the maintenance of morphine-conditioned place preference on day 37 with significantly more time spent in the drug-paired compartment than on day 0. Microinjection of the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist, clonidine (0.1 or 1 microg), into the locus coeruleus 30 min before footshock did not affect stress-induced maintenance of conditioned place preference. However, infusions of clonidine (1 microg) into the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis significantly attenuated the maintenance of conditioned place preference induced by footshock stress. In another experiment, after a 21-day extinction of morphine-conditioned place preference, a single footshock could reactivate the morphine place preference that was significantly blocked by pretreatment with infusion of clonidine (0.1 or 1 microg) into the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis but not the locus coeruleus. Reactivation of morphine-conditioned place preference elicited by footshock stress was significantly inhibited by 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesions in the ventral noradrenergic bundle, most of the norepinephrine input to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis arising from caudal brain stem noradrenergic cell groups. In contrast, chemical lesions of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle that arises from the locus coeruleus had no such effects. These findings suggest that noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus are not involved in stress-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking and further clearly demonstrate that noradrenaline in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis plays a critical role in mediating this effect. Comprehension of the neurochemical events underlying the stress-induced and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis-mediated reinstatement of drug-seeking may, therefore, throw more light on the biological bases of drug dependence and addictive behavior
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Affiliation(s)
- X Wang
- Kailuan Mental Health Center, 063001, Tangshan, PR China
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Erb S, Shaham Y, Stewart J. Stress-induced relapse to drug seeking in the rat: role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala. Stress 2001; 4:289-303. [PMID: 22432148 DOI: 10.3109/10253890109014753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in the role that the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), components of the extended amygdala, play in drug addiction. Within the BNST and CeA, there is an extensive system of intrinsic, primarily GABAergic, interconnections known to synthesize a variety of neuropeptides, including corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF). The actions of CRF at extrahypothalamic sites,including the BNST and CeA, have been implicated in stress responses and in the aversive effects of withdrawal from drugs of abuse. Most recently, we have shown a critical role for extrahypothalamic CRF in stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking in rats. In attempting to determine which brain circuitry mediates the effect of stress on relapse and, more specifically, where in the brain CRF acts to initiate the behaviours involved in relapse, we focused on the BNST and CeA. In the present paper, we summarize studies we have conducted that explore the role of these brain sites in stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking, and then consider how our findings can be understood within the more general context of what is known about the role of the BNST and CeA in stress-related and general approach behaviours, such as drug seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Erb
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd W, Montreal, Que., Canada.
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Shaham Y, Erb S, Stewart J. Stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: a review. BRAIN RESEARCH. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 2000; 33:13-33. [PMID: 10967352 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0173(00)00024-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 492] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Studies in humans suggest that exposure to stress increases the probability of relapse to drug use, but until recently there has been no animal model to study the mechanisms that mediate this effect. We have developed a reinstatement procedure that allows us to study the effect of stress on relapse to drug seeking in rats. Using this procedure, we have shown that exposure to intermittent footshock stress reliably reinstates heroin and cocaine seeking after prolonged drug-free periods. In the present paper, we summarize results from several studies on stress-induced reinstatement of heroin and cocaine seeking in rats. We first assess the degree to which the phenomenon of stress-induced relapse generalizes to other stressors, to behaviors controlled by other drugs of abuse, and to behaviors controlled by non-drug reinforcers. We then review evidence from studies concerned with the neurotransmitters, the brain sites, and the neural systems involved in stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. Finally, we consider the mechanisms that might underlie stress-induced relapse to drug seeking and the possible implications of the findings for the treatment of relapse to drug use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, IRP/NIDA/NIH, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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