Blockade of substance P (neurokinin 1) receptors enhances extracellular serotonin when combined with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: an in vivo microdialysis study in mice

Insulin modulates emotional behavior through a serotonin-dependent mechanism

Type-2 Diabetes (T2D) is characterized by insulin resistance and accompanied by psychiatric comorbidities including major depressive disorders (MDD). Patients with T2D are twice more likely to suffer from MDD and clinical studies have shown that insulin resistance is positively correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms. However, the potential contribution of central insulin signaling in MDD in patients with T2D remains elusive. Here we hypothesized that insulin modulates the serotonergic (5-HT) system to control emotional behavior and that insulin resistance in 5-HT neurons contributes to the development of mood disorders in T2D. Our results show that insulin directly modulates the activity of dorsal raphe (DR) 5-HT neurons to dampen 5-HT neurotransmission through a 5-HT1A receptor-mediated inhibitory feedback. In addition, insulin-induced 5-HT neuromodulation is necessary to promote anxiolytic-like effect in response to intranasal insulin delivery. Interestingly, such an anxiolytic effect of intranasal insulin as well as the response of DR 5-HT neurons to insulin are both blunted in high-fat diet-fed T2D animals. Altogether, these findings point to a novel mechanism by which insulin directly modulates the activity of DR 5-HT neurons to dampen 5-HT neurotransmission and control emotional behaviors, and emphasize the idea that impaired insulin-sensitivity in these neurons is critical for the development of T2D-associated mood disorders.

Multiple facets of serotonergic modulation

The serotonergic system of the central nervous system (CNS) has been implicated in a broad range of physiological functions and behaviors, such as cognition, mood, social interaction, sexual behavior, feeding behavior, sleep-wake cycle and thermoregulation. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) establishes a plethora of interactions with neurochemical systems in the CNS via its numerous 5-HT receptors and autoreceptors. The facets of this control are multiple if we consider the molecular actors playing a role in the autoregulation of 5-HT neuron activity including the 5-HT_1A, 5-HT_1B, 5-HT_1D, 5-HT_2B, 5-HT₇ receptors as well as the serotonin transporter. Moreover, extrinsic loops involving other neurotransmitters giving the other 5-HT receptors the possibility to impact 5-HT neuron activity. Grasping the complexity of these interactions is essential for the development of a variety of therapeutic strategies for cognitive defects and mood disorders. Presently we can illustrate the plurality of the mechanisms and only conceive that these 5-HT controls are likely not uniform in terms of regional and neuronal distribution. Our understanding of the specific expression patterns of these receptors on specific circuits and neuronal populations are progressing and will expand our comprehension of the function and interaction of these receptors with other chemical systems. Thus, the development of new approaches profiling the expression of 5-HT receptors and autoreceptors should reveal additional facets of the 5-HT controls of neurochemical systems in the CNS.

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Serotonin Metabolism in Individual Brain Nuclei of Mice with Genetic Disruption of the NK1 Receptor Exposed to Acute Stress

Mice lacking the substance P (SP) neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor (NK1R-/-mice) were used to investigate whether SP affects serotonin (5-HT) function in the brain and to assess the effects of acute immobilisation stress on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis and 5-HT turnover in individual brain nuclei. Basal HPA activity and the expression of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in wild-type (WT)- and NK1R-/- mice were identical. Stress-induced increases in plasma ACTH concentration were considerably higher in NK1R-/- mice than in WT mice while corticosterone concentrations were equally elevated in both mouse lines. Acute stress did not alter the expression of CRH. In the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), basal 5-HT turnover was increased in NK1R-/- mice and a 15 min stress further magnified 5-HT utilisation in this region. In the frontoparietal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, central nucleus of amygdala, and the hippocampal CA1 region, stress increased 5-HT and/or 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) concentrations to a similar extent in WT and NK1R-/- mice. 5-HT turnover in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus was not affected by stress, but stress induced similar increases in 5-HT and 5-HIAA in the ventromedial and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei in WT and NK1R-/- mice. Our findings indicate that NK1 receptor activation suppresses ACTH release during acute stress but does not exert sustained inhibition of the HPA axis. Genetic deletion of the NK1 receptor accelerates 5-HT turnover in DRN under basal and stress conditions. No differences between the responses of serotonergic system to acute stress in WT and NK1R-/- mice occur in forebrain nuclei linked to the regulation of anxiety and neuroendocrine stress responses.

The potential role of substance P in brainstem homeostatic control in the pathogenesis of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

Victims of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) are believed to have an underlying dysfunction in medullary homeostatic control that impairs critical responses to life threatening challenges such as hypoxia, hypercarbia and asphyxia, often during a sleep period. This failure is thought to result from abnormalities in a network of neural pathways in the medulla oblongata that control respiration, chemosensitivity, autonomic function and arousal. Studies have mainly focused on the role of serotonin, 5-hydroxytyptamine (5HT), although the neuropeptide substance P (SP) has also been shown to play an integral role in the modulation of medullary homeostatic function, often in conjunction with 5-HT. Actions of SP include regulation of respiratory rhythm generation, integration of cardiovascular control, modulation of the baroreceptor reflex and mediation of the chemoreceptor reflex in response to hypoxia. Abnormalities in SP neurotransmission may, therefore, also play a significant role in homeostatic dysfunction of the neurotransmitter network in SIDS. This review focuses on the pathways within the medulla involving SP and its tachykinin NK1 receptor, their potential relationship with the medullary 5-HT system, and possible involvement in the pathogenesis of SIDS.

Ketamine treatment involves medial prefrontal cortex serotonin to induce a rapid antidepressant-like activity in BALB/cJ mice

Unlike classic serotonergic antidepressant drugs, ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, exhibits a rapid and persistent antidepressant (AD) activity, at sub-anaesthetic doses in treatment-resistant depressed patients and in preclinical studies in rodents. The mechanisms mediating this activity are unclear. Here, we assessed the role of the brain serotonergic system in the AD-like activity of an acute sub-anaesthetic ketamine dose. We compared ketamine and fluoxetine responses in several behavioral tests currently used to predict anxiolytic/antidepressant-like potential in rodents. We also measured their effects on extracellular serotonin levels [5-HT]_ext in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFCx) and brainstem dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), a serotonergic nucleus involved in emotional behavior, and on 5-HT cell firing in the DRN in highly anxious BALB/cJ mice. Ketamine (10 mg/kg i.p.) had no anxiolytic-like effect, but displayed a long lasting AD-like activity, i.e., 24 h post-administration, compared to fluoxetine (18 mg/kg i.p.). Ketamine (144%) and fluoxetine (171%) increased mPFCx [5-HT]_ext compared to vehicle. Ketamine-induced AD-like effect was abolished by a tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, para-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) pointing out the role of the 5-HT system in its behavioral activity. Interestingly, increase in cortical [5-HT]_ext following intra-mPFCx ketamine bilateral injection (0.25 μg/side) was correlated with its AD-like activity as measured on swimming duration in the FST in the same mice. Furthermore, pre-treatment with a selective AMPA receptor antagonist (intra-DRN NBQX) blunted the effects of intra-mPFCx ketamine on both the swimming duration in the FST and mPFCx [5-HT]_ext suggesting that the AD-like activity of ketamine required activation of DRN AMPA receptors and recruited the prefrontal cortex/brainstem DRN neural circuit in BALB/c mice. These results confirm a key role of cortical 5-HT release in ketamine's AD-like activity following the blockade of glutamatergic NMDA receptors. Tight interactions between mPFCx glutamatergic and serotonergic systems may explain the differences in this activity between ketamine and fluoxetine in vivo. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Ionotropic glutamate receptors'.

Blockade of the high-affinity noradrenaline transporter (NET) by the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor escitalopram: an in vivo microdialysis study in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Escitalopram, the S(+)-enantiomer of citalopram is the most selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor approved. Although all 5-HT selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) increase extracellular levels of 5-HT ([5-HT](ext)). some also enhance, to a lesser extent, extracellular levels of noradrenaline ([NA](ext)). However, the mechanisms by which SSRIs activate noradrenergic transmission in the brain remain to be determined.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

This study examined the effects of escitalopram, on both [5-HT](ext) and [NA](ext) in the frontal cortex (FCx) of freely moving wild-type (WT) and mutant mice lacking the 5-HT transporter (SERT(-/-)) by using intracerebral microdialysis. We explored the possibilities that escitalopram enhances [NA](ext), either by a direct mechanism involving the inhibition of the low- or high-affinity noradrenaline transporters, or by an indirect mechanism promoted by [5-HT](ext) elevation. The forced swim test (FST) was used to investigate whether enhancing cortical [5-HT](ext) and/or [NA](ext) affected the antidepressant-like activity of escitalopram.

KEY RESULTS

In WT mice, a single systemic administration of escitalopram produced a significant increase in cortical [5-HT](ext) and [NA](ext). As expected, escitalopram failed to increase cortical [5-HT](ext) in SERT(-/-) mice, whereas its neurochemical effects on [NA](ext) persisted in these mutants. In WT mice subjected to the FST, escitalopram increased swimming parameters without affecting climbing behaviour. Finally, escitalopram, at relevant concentrations, failed to inhibit cortical noradrenaline and 5-HT uptake mediated by low-affinity monoamine transporters.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These experiments suggest that escitalopram enhances, although moderately, cortical [NA](ext) in vivo by a direct mechanism involving the inhibition of the high-affinity noradrenaline transporter (NET).

Antidepressant activity: contribution of brain microdialysis in knock-out mice to the understanding of BDNF/5-HT transporter/5-HT autoreceptor interactions

Why antidepressants vary in terms of efficacy is currently unclear. Despite the leadership of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in the treatment of depression, the precise neurobiological mechanisms involved in their therapeutic action are poorly understood. A better knowledge of molecular interactions between monoaminergic system, pre- and post-synaptic partners, brain neuronal circuits and regions involved may help to overcome limitations of current treatments and identify new therapeutic targets. Intracerebral in vivo microdialysis (ICM) already provided important information about the brain mechanism of action of antidepressants first in anesthetized rats in the early 1990s, and since then in conscious wild-type or knock-out mice. The principle of ICM is based on the balance between release of neurotransmitters (e.g., monoamines) and reuptake by selective transporters [e.g., serotonin transporter for serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)]. Complementary to electrophysiology, this technique reflects pre-synaptic monoamines release and intrasynaptic events corresponding to ≈80% of whole brain tissue content. The inhibitory role of serotonergic autoreceptors infers that they limit somatodendritic and nerve terminal 5-HT release. It has been proposed that activation of 5-HT_1A and 5-HT_1B receptor sub-types limits the antidepressant-like activity of SSRIs. This hypothesis is based partially on results obtained in ICM experiments performed in naïve, non-stressed rodents. The present review will first remind the principle and methodology of ICM performed in mice. The crucial need of developing animal models that display anxiety and depression-like behaviors, neurochemical and brain morphological phenotypes reminiscent of these mood disorders in humans, will be underlined. Recently developed genetic mouse models have been generated to independently manipulate 5-HT_1A auto and heteroreceptors and ICM helped to clarify the role of the pre-synaptic component, i.e., by measuring extracellular levels of neurotransmitters in serotonergic nerve terminal regions and raphe nuclei. Finally, we will summarize main advantages of using ICM in mice through recent examples obtained in knock-outs (drug infusion through the ICM probe allows the search of a correlation between changes in extracellular neurotransmitter levels and antidepressant-like activity) or alternatives (infusion of a small-interfering RNA suppressing receptor functions in the mouse brain). We will also focus this review on post-synaptic components such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor in adult hippocampus that plays a crucial role in the neurogenic and anxiolytic/antidepressant-like activity of chronic SSRI treatment. Limitations of ICM will also be considered.

Combined NK₁ antagonism and serotonin reuptake inhibition: effects on emotional processing in humans

BACKGROUND

Synergistic effects of NK₁ receptor antagonism combined with serotonin reuptake inhibition have been reported in preclinical models. GSK424887 is a selective competitive antagonist of the human NK₁ receptor and inhibitor of the serotonin transporter. However, its actions in human models of depression have not been assessed.

METHODS

This study explored the effects of acute administration of GSK424887 compared to placebo in healthy male volunteers. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) citalopram was used as a positive control. A battery of emotional processing tasks was given at the peak time of drug effect.

RESULTS

GSK424887 enhanced attentional vigilance in the dot-probe task to both positive and negative stimuli. By contrast, citalopram enhanced perception of angry, sad and happy facial expressions and increased positive bias in the facial expression recognition task. Neither drug significantly affected emotion potentiated startle responses or emotional memory.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that acute administration of GSK424887 modulated some aspects of emotional processing but these effects were not similar to those seen previously with antidepressant agents. This was the first use of the battery of emotional processing tasks in a Phase 1 study. Repeated administration of the test and active control drugs may be needed to reliably characterise their effects.

Neurokinin-1 receptor deletion modulates behavioural and neurochemical alterations in an animal model of depression

The substance P/NK1 receptor system plays an important role in the regulation of stress and emotional responding and as such had been implicated in the pathophysiology of anxiety and depression. The present study investigated whether alterations in the substance P/NK1 receptor system in brain areas which regulate emotional responding accompany the depressive behavioural phenotype observed in the olfactory bulbectomised (OB) mouse. The effect of NK1 receptor deletion on behavioural responding and monoamine levels in discrete brain regions of the OB model, were also examined. Substance P levels in the frontal cortex and NK1 receptor expression in the amygdala and hippocampus were enhanced following olfactory bulbectomy. Although NK1 receptor knockout (NK1-/-) mice did not exhibit altered behavioural responding in the open field test, noradrenaline levels were enhanced in the frontal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus, as were serotonin levels in the frontal cortex. Locomotor activity and exploratory behaviour were enhanced in wild type OB mice, indicative of a depressive-like phenotype, an effect attenuated in NK1-/- mice. Bulbectomy induced a decrease in noradrenaline and 5-HIAA in the frontal cortex and an increase in serotonin in the amygdala, effects attenuated in OB NK1-/- mice. The present studies indicate that alterations in substance P/NK1 receptor system underlie, at least in part, the behavioural and monoaminergic changes in this animal model of depression.

S41744, a dual neurokinin (NK)1 receptor antagonist and serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor with potential antidepressant properties: a comparison to aprepitant (MK869) and paroxetine

Though neurokinin(1) (NK(1)) receptors are implicated in depressed states and their treatment, selective antagonists have disappointed in clinical trials. Accordingly, we designed a novel ligand, S41744 (2-piperazin-1-yl-indan-2-carboxylic-acid-(3-chloro-5-fluoro-benzyl)-methyl-amide), which both blocks NK(1) receptors and interferes with serotonin (5-HT) reuptake. S41744 mimicked the selective antagonist aprepitant in binding human (h)NK(1) receptors and in antagonising Substance-P-mediated Extracellular-Regulated-Kinase phosphorylation (pK(B), 7.7). Further, it dose-dependently (0.63-40.0 mg/kg, i.p.) displaced ex vivo [(3)H]-[Sar(9),Met(O(2))(11)]-Substance P binding to gerbil striatum, attenuated formalin-induced hind-paw licking in gerbils, and antagonised locomotion induced by i.c.v. administration of the NK(1) agonist GR73632 to guinea pigs. Like paroxetine, S41744 recognised h5-HT transporters, reduced synaptosomal uptake of 5-HT (pK(B), 7.9), and dose-dependently (0.63-10.0 mg/kg) elevated dialysis levels of 5-HT in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of freely-moving guinea pigs. Further, S41744 increased extracellular levels of 5-HT in frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats to a greater extent than paroxetine, and its inhibitory influence upon serotonergic perikarya was blunted relative to its affinity for 5-HT transporters. S41744 more potently blocked stress-induced vocalizations in guinea pigs than aprepitant and paroxetine, and it was active in forced-swim and marble-burying procedures of putative antidepressant properties in mice. While aprepitant displayed anxiolytic actions in stress-induced foot-tapping and social interaction tests in gerbils, paroxetine was anxiogenic and S41744 "neutral", reflecting balanced NK(1) antagonism and suppression of 5-HT reuptake. Moreover, S41744 shared anxiolytic actions of aprepitant in the rat Vogel Conflict Test. In conclusion, S41744 is an innovative NK(1) antagonist/5-HT reuptake inhibitor justifying further evaluation for treatment of stress-related disorders.

Pathogenic involvement of neuropeptides in anxiety and depression

Anxiety and depression are highly prevalent disorders of mood posing significant challenges to individuals and society. Current evidence indicates no single neurobiological determinant underpins these conditions and an integrated approach in both research and treatment is expedient. Basic, behavioral, and clinical science indicates various stress-responsive neuropeptides in the neuroendocrine, autonomic, and behavioral pathophysiology of stress-related disorders including anxiety and depression. This review draws on recent research to capture the consensus and implications of neuropeptide research concerning the pathogenesis of anxiety and depression.

NK1 (TACR1) receptor gene 'knockout' mouse phenotype predicts genetic association with ADHD

Mice with functional genetic ablation of the Tacr1 (substance P-preferring receptor) gene (NK1R-/-) are hyperactive. Here, we investigated whether this is mimicked by NK1R antagonism and whether dopaminergic transmission is disrupted in brain regions that govern motor performance. The locomotor activity of NK1R-/- and wild-type mice was compared after treatment with an NK1R antagonist and/or psychostimulant (d-amphetamine or methylphenidate). The inactivation of NK1R (by gene mutation or receptor antagonism) induced hyperactivity in mice, which was prevented by both psychostimulants. Using in vivo microdialysis, we then compared the regulation of extracellular dopamine in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum in the two genotypes. A lack of functional NK1R reduced (>50%) spontaneous dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex and abolished the striatal dopamine response to d-amphetamine. These behavioural and neurochemical abnormalities in NK1R-/- mice, together with their atypical response to psychostimulants, echo attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in humans. These findings prompted genetic studies on the TACR1 gene (the human equivalent of NK1R) in ADHD patients in a case-control study of 450 ADHD patients and 600 screened supernormal controls. Four single-nucleotide polymorphisms (rs3771829, rs3771833, rs3771856, and rs1701137) at the TACR1 gene, previously known to be associated with bipolar disorder or alcoholism, were strongly associated with ADHD. In conclusion, our proposal that NK1R-/- mice offer a mouse model of ADHD was borne out by our human studies, which suggest that DNA sequence changes in and around the TACR1 gene increase susceptibility to this disorder.

Neuropeptide and sigma receptors as novel therapeutic targets for the pharmacotherapy of depression

Among the most prevalent of mental illnesses, depression is increasing in incidence in the Western world. It presents with a wide variety of symptoms that involve both the CNS and the periphery. Multiple pharmacological observations led to the development of the monoamine theory as a biological basis for depression, according to which diminished neurotransmission within the CNS, including that of the dopamine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin systems, is the leading cause of the disorder. Current conventional pharmacological antidepressant therapies, using selective monoamine reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, aim to enhance monoaminergic neurotransmission. However, the use of these agents presents severe disadvantages, including a delay in the alleviation of depressive symptoms, significant adverse effects and high frequencies of non-responding patients. Neuroendocrinological data of recent decades reveal that depression and anxiety disorders may occur simultaneously due to hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyperactivity. As a result, the stress-diathesis model was developed, which attempts to associate genetic and environmental influences in the aetiology of depression. The amygdala and the hippocampus control the activity of the HPA axis in a counter-balancing way, and a plethora of regulatory neuropeptide signalling pathways are involved. Intervention at these molecular targets may lead to alternative antidepressant therapeutic solutions that are expected to overcome the limitations of existing antidepressants. This prospect is based on preclinical evidence from pharmacological and genetic modifications of the action of neuropeptides such as corticotropin-releasing factor, substance P, galanin, vasopressin and neuropeptide Y. The recent synthesis of orally potent non-peptide micromolecules that can selectively bind to various neuropeptide receptors permits the onset of clinical trials to evaluate their efficacy against depression.

Substance P scavenger enhances antioxidant defenses and prevents prothrombotic effects on the rat lung after acute exposure to oil smoke

Background

Airborne particulate matter, from cooking oil, smoking, engine exhaust and other sources, is associated with the development of atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. In order to explore the cellular and molecular events following exposure of rats to lard oil smoke, we measured the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), substance P, cellular adhesion molecules, and thrombosis in relation to inhibitors of substance P, the NK-1 receptor, and antioxidants.

Methods

Rats were exposed to oil smoke for 120 min with or without 20 min pretreatment with lovastatin (substance P scavenger), L733060 (NK-1 receptor antagonist), vitamin E (antioxidant) or catechins (antioxidant). The levels of substance P and ROS were measured. Histological studies observed ROS damage in the form of HEL adducts. The prothrombotic effects of oil smoke exposure were measured by experimental induction of thrombosis in vivo.

Results

Oil smoke exposure significantly increased substance P levels, ROS levels, ROS damage (HEL adduct levels), and the size of experimentally induced thrombi. The pretreatments reduced all of these effects of oil smoke exposure; at many time points the reductions were statistically significant.

Conclusion

We established a connection between oil smoke exposure and thrombosis which involves substance P and its receptor, the NK-1 receptor, and ROS. This study helps establish a mechanistic explanation of how airborne particulate matter can increase the risk of cardiovascular illness.

Neurokinin1 antagonists potentiate antidepressant properties of serotonin reuptake inhibitors, yet blunt their anxiogenic actions: a neurochemical, electrophysiological, and behavioral characterization

Though neurokinin(1) (NK(1)) receptor antagonists are active in experimental models of depression, clinical efficacy has proven disappointing. This encourages interest in association of NK(1) receptor blockade with inhibition of serotonin (5-HT) reuptake. The selective NK(1) antagonist, GR205171, dose-dependently enhanced citalopram-induced elevations of extracellular levels of 5-HT in frontal cortex, an action expressed stereospecifically vs its less active distomer, GR226206. Further, increases in 5-HT levels in dorsal hippocampus, basolateral amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and striatum were likewise potentiated, and GR205171 similarly facilitated the influence of fluoxetine upon levels of 5-HT, as well as dopamine and noradrenaline. In parallel electrophysiological studies, the inhibitory influence of citalopram and fluoxetine upon raphe-localized serotonergic neurones was stereospecifically blunted by GR205171. Antidepressant actions of citalopram in a forced-swim test in mice were stereospecifically potentiated by GR205171, and it also enhanced attenuation by citalopram of stress-related ultrasonic vocalizations in rats. Further, GR205171 and citalopram additively abrogated the advance in circadian rhythms provoked by exposure to light in hamsters. By contrast, GR205171 stereospecifically blocked anxiogenic actions of citalopram in social interaction procedures in rats and gerbils, and stereospecifically abolished facilitation of fear-induced foot tapping by fluoxetine in gerbils. By analogy to GR205171, a further NK(1) antagonist, RP67580, enhanced the influence of citalopram upon frontocortical levels of 5-HT and potentiated its actions in the forced swim test. In conclusion, NK(1)receptor blockade differentially modulates functional actions of SSRIs: antidepressant properties are reinforced, whereas anxiogenic effects are attenuated. Combined NK(1) receptor antagonism/5-HT reuptake inhibition may offer advantages in the management of depressed and anxious states.

Neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists modulate brain noradrenaline and serotonin interactions

Substance P (neurokinin-1; NK1) receptor antagonists represent a putative new class of antidepressant/anxiolytic drugs. Using in vivo electrophysiological paradigms in rats, this study examined the effects of acute, sub-acute and long-term administration of these drugs on the firing of rat noradrenaline and serotonin (5-HT) neurons. In the locus coeruleus, neither a 2-day treatment with the tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists [(2S,3S)-cis-2-(diphenylmethyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl) methyl]-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octan-3-amine (CP-96,345, 10 mg/kg/day, i.p.), CP-99,994 (10 mg/kg/day, i.p.), nor a 14-day of treatment with (+)-(2S,3S)-3-(2-methoxybenzylamino)-2-phenylpiperidine (CP-99,994, 10 mg/kg/day, s.c.) significantly modified the firing rate of noradrenaline neurons. However, all these treatments attenuated the inhibitory action of the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine on noradrenaline neuronal firing. While acute administration of the tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist CP-96,345 (10 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated the responsiveness of dorsal raphe 5-HT(1A) autoreceptors, lesioning noradrenaline neurons with the neurotoxin N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4) prevented the enhancing action of a 2-day treatment with CP-96,345 on 5-HT neuronal firing, suggesting that tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists influence 5-HT system via noradrenaline neurons independently of their firing rate.

Neurokinin 1 receptor antagonism promotes active stress coping via enhanced septal 5-HT transmission

Antagonists of the substance P (SP) preferring neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) represent a promising novel class of drugs for the treatment of stress-related disorders such as depression and anxiety disorders; however, the involved neuronal pathways releasing SP in response to stressors are ill defined. By using in vivo microdialysis in combination with a highly sensitive and selective radioimmunoassay we found that exposure to forced swim stress increased SP release in the rat lateral septum (LS), a key area in processing emotions and stress responses. Acute administration of the selective NK1R antagonist L-822429 injected either systemically or locally into the LS reduced passive and facilitated active stress-coping strategies in the forced swim test. This effect seems to be mediated by enhanced intraseptal serotonergic transmission via serotonin (5-HT)1A receptors since NK1R blockade reversed the swim stress-induced decrease to an increase in extracellular 5-HT efflux, and furthermore the behavioral effects of L-822429 were blocked by intraseptal 5-HT1A receptor antagonism. A direct heterosynaptic regulation by NK1R on 5-HT release from serotonergic fibers was ruled out by immunocytochemistry at the light and electron microscopic level indicating involvement of GABAergic interneuron(s) in this interaction. Taken together, our data identify the LS as a critical brain area for the involvement of SP transmission in the modulation of stress responses and demonstrate that NK1R blockade can elicit a functionally significant facilitatory effect on 5-HT transmission, which does not necessarily involve the previously proposed interaction with neuronal firing at the cell body level of raphe neurons.

Utilization of the least shrew as a rapid and selective screening model for the antiemetic potential and brain penetration of substance P and NK1 receptor antagonists

Substance P (SP) is thought to play a cardinal role in emesis via the activation of central tachykinin NK1 receptors during the delayed phase of vomiting produced by chemotherapeutics. Although the existing supportive evidence is significant, due to lack of an appropriate animal model, the evidence is indirect. As yet, no study has confirmed that emesis produced by SP or a selective NK1 receptor agonist is sensitive to brain penetrating antagonists of either NK1, NK2, or NK3 receptors. The goals of this investigation were to demonstrate: 1) whether intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of either SP, a brain penetrating (GR73632) or non-penetrating (e.g. SarMet-SP) NK1 receptor agonist, an NK2 receptor agonist (GR64349), or an NK3 receptor agonist (Pro7-NKB), would induce vomiting and/or scratching in the least shrew (Cryptotis parva) in a dose-dependent manner; and whether these effects are sensitive to the above selective receptor antagonists; 2) whether an exogenous emetic dose of SP (50 mg/kg, i.p.) can penetrate into the shrew brain stem and frontal cortex; 3) whether GR73632 (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced activation of NK1 receptors increases Fos-measured neuronal activity in the neurons of both brain stem emetic nuclei and the enteric nervous system of the gut; and 4) whether selective ablation of peripheral NK1 receptors can affect emesis produced by GR73632. The results clearly demonstrated that while SP produced vomiting only, GR73632 caused both emesis and scratching behavior dose-dependently in shrews, and these effects were sensitive to NK1-, but not NK2- or NK3-receptor antagonists. Neither the selective, non-penetrating NK1 receptor agonists, nor the selective NK2- or NK3-receptor agonists, caused a significant dose-dependent behavioral effect. An emetic dose of SP selectively and rapidly penetrated the brain stem but not the frontal cortex. Systemic GR73632 increased Fos expression in the enteric nerve plexi, the medial subnucleus of nucleus tractus solitarius, and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, but not the area postrema. Ablation of peripheral NK1 receptors attenuated the ability of GR73632 to induce a maximal frequency of emesis and shifted its percent animals vomiting dose-response curve to the right. The NK1-ablated shrews exhibited scratching behavior after systemic GR73632-injection. These results, for the first time, affirm a cardinal role for central NK1 receptors in SP-induced vomiting, and a facilitatory role for gastrointestinal NK1 receptors. In addition, these data support the validation of the least shrew as a specific and rapid behavioral animal model to screen concomitantly both the CNS penetration and the antiemetic potential of tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor-deficient mice exhibit a hippocampal hyperserotonergic phenotype

Growing evidence supports the involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in mood disorders and the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. However, the relationship between BDNF and serotonergic signalling is poorly understood. Heterozygous mutants BDNF +/- mice were utilized to investigate the influence of BDNF on the serotonin (5-HT) system and the activity of the serotonin transporter (SERT) in the hippocampus. The zero net flux method of quantitative microdialysis revealed that BDNF +/- heterozygous mice have increased basal extracellular 5-HT levels in the hippocampus and decreased 5-HT reuptake capacity. In keeping with these results, the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine failed to increase hippocampal extracellular 5-HT levels in BDNF +/- mice while it produced robust effects in wild-type littermates. Using in-vitro autoradiography and synaptosome techniques, we investigated the causes of attenuated 5-HT reuptake in BDNF +/- mice. A significant decrease in [3H]citalopram-binding-site density in the CA3 subregion of the ventral hippocampus and a significant reduction in [3H]5-HT uptake in hippocampal synaptosomes, revealed mainly a decrease in SERT function. However, 5-HT1A autoreceptors were not desensitized in BDNF +/- mice. These results provide evidence that constitutive reductions in BDNF modulate SERT function reuptake in the hippocampus.

Substance P Neurokinin 1 Receptor Activation within the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Controls Serotonin Release in the Mouse Frontal Cortex

Preclinical studies suggest that substance P (SP) neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor antagonists are efficient in the treatment of anxiety and depression. This therapeutic activity could be mediated via stimulation of serotonin (5-HT) neurons located in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), which receive important SP-NK1 receptor immunoreactive innervations. The present study examined the effects of intraraphe injection of SP on extracellular 5-HT levels in the frontal cortex, ventral hippocampus, and DRN by using intracerebral microdialysis in conscious mice. Intraraphe SP injection dose dependently decreased cortical 5-HT release, whereas no effects were detected in the ventral hippocampus. Cortical effects were blocked by the selective NK1 receptor antagonist N-[[2-methoxy-5-[5-(trifluoromethyl)tetrazol-1-yl]phenyl]methyl]-2-phenylpiperidin-3-amine (GR205171) and completely dampened in mice lacking NK1 receptors. Furthermore, genetic (in knockout 5-HT1A(-/-) mice) or pharmacological inactivation of 5-HT1A autoreceptors blocked cortical responses to SP. Contrasting with its cortical effects, intraraphe SP injection increased 5-HT outflow in the DRN in wild-type mice; this effect was potentiated by a local perfusion of the selective 5-HT1A antagonist N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-2-pyridinylcyclohexanecarboxamide (WAY100635). Finally, SP-induced changes in frontal cortex and DRN dialysate 5-HT levels were blocked by the DRN perfusion of the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)/kainate ionotropic receptor antagonist 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX). These data support the hypothesis that SP-induced over-activation of 5-HT1A autoreceptors within the DRN limits cortical 5-HT release. A better knowledge of the complex relationship between tachykininergic, serotonergic, and glutamatergic systems within the DRN might help better understand the pathophysiology and subsequent treatment of depression.

Augmentation of SSRI effects on serotonin by 5-HT2C antagonists: mechanistic studies

The treatment of depression may be improved by using an augmentation approach involving selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in combination with compounds that focus on antagonism of inhibitory serotonin receptors. Using microdialysis coupled to HPLC, it has recently been shown that the systemic co-administration of 5-HT(2C) antagonists with SSRIs augmented the acute effect of SSRIs on extracellular 5-HT. In this paper, we have investigated the mechanism through which this augmentation occurs. The increase in extracellular 5-HT was not observed when both compounds were locally infused. However, varying the route of administration for both compounds differentially revealed that an augmentation took place when the 5-HT(2C) antagonist was locally infused into ventral hippocampus and the SSRI given systemically, but not when systemic 5-HT(2C) antagonist was co-administered with the local infusion of citalopram. This suggests that the release of extracellular serotonin in ventral hippocampus may be controlled by (an)other brain area(s). As 5-HT(2C) receptors are not considered to be autoreceptors, this would implicate that other neurotransmitter systems are involved in this process. To investigate which neurotransmitter systems were involved in the interaction, systemic citalopram was challenged with several glutamatergic, GABA-ergic, noradrenergic, and dopaminergic compounds to determine their effects on serotonin release in ventral hippocampus. It was determined that the involvement of glutamate, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the augmentation did not seem likely, whereas evidence implicated a role for the GABA-ergic system in the augmentation.

Selective blockade of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)7 receptors enhances 5-HT transmission, antidepressant-like behavior, and rapid eye movement sleep suppression induced by citalopram in rodents

Evidence has accumulated supporting a role for 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)7 receptors in circadian rhythms, sleep, and mood disorders, presumably as a consequence of the modulation of 5-HT-mediated neuronal activity. We hypothesized that a selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, (2R)-1-[(3-hydroxyphenyl)sulfonyl]-2-[2-(4-methyl-1-piperidinyl)ethyl]-pyrrolidine (SB-269970), should increase activity of 5-HT neurons and potentiate the effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (citalopram). In rats, administration of 3 mg/kg s.c. citalopram alone increased the extracellular concentration of 5-HT. This effect of citalopram on extracellular 5-HT concentration was significantly enhanced by an ineffective dose of SB-269970. Combining this dose of SB-269970 with a low dose of citalopram also resulted in a significant increase in extracellular concentration of 5-HT, suggesting a potentiation of neurochemical effects. In mice, citalopram and SB-269970 dose-dependently decreased immobility time in the tail suspension test. The dose-effect curve of citalopram was shifted leftward by coadministration of an effective dose of SB-269970. Furthermore, combining ineffective doses of citalopram and SB-269970 also resulted in a significant decrease of immobility time in the tail suspension test, suggesting potentiation of antidepressant-like effects. In rats, SB-269970 potentiated the increase of rapid eye movement (REM) latency and the REM sleep decrease induced by citalopram. SB-269970 also reversed the increase in sleep fragmentation induced by citalopram. Rat plasma and brain concentrations of citalopram were not affected by coadministration of SB-269970, arguing for a pharmacodynamic rather than a pharmacokinetic mechanism. Overall, these results indicate that selective blockade of 5-HT7 receptors may enhance the antidepressant efficacy of citalopram and may provide a novel therapy to alleviate sleep disturbances associated with depression.

Differentiating antidepressants of the future: Efficacy and safety

There have been significant advances in the treatment of depression since the serendipitous discovery that modulating monoaminergic neurotransmission may be a pathological underpinning of the disease. Despite these advances, particularly over the last 15years with the introduction of selective serotonin and/or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI), there still remain multiple unmet clinical needs that would represent substantial improvements to current treatment regimens. In terms of efficacy there have been improvements in the percentage of patients achieving remission but this can still be dramatically improved and, in fact, issues still remain with relapse. Furthermore, advances are still required in terms of improving the onset of efficacy as well as addressing the large proportion of patients who remain treatment resistant. While this is not well understood, collective research in the area suggests the disease is heterogeneous in terms of the multiple parameters related to etiology, pathology and response to pharmacological agents. In addition to efficacy further therapeutic advances will also need to address such issues as cognitive impairment, pain, sexual dysfunction, nausea and emesis, weight gain and potential cardiovascular effects. With these unmet needs in mind, the next generation of antidepressants will need to differentiate themselves from the current array of therapeutics for depression. There are multiple strategies for addressing unmet needs that are currently being investigated. These range from combination monoaminergic approaches to subtype selective agents to novel targets that include mechanisms to modulate neuropeptides and excitatory amino acids (EAA). This review will discuss the many facets of differentiation and potential strategies for the development of novel antidepressants.

Blockade of 5-HT1A receptors by (+/-)-pindolol potentiates cortical 5-HT outflow, but not antidepressant-like activity of paroxetine: microdialysis and behavioral approaches in 5-HT1A receptor knockout mice

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like paroxetine (Prx) often requires 4-6 weeks to achieve clinical benefits in depressed patients. Pindolol shortens this delay and it has been suggested that this effect is mediated by somatodendritic 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) 1A autoreceptors. However clinical data on the beneficial effects of pindolol are conflicting. To study the effects of (+/-)-pindolol-paroxetine administration, we used genetical and pharmacological approaches in 5-HT1A knockout mice (5-HT1A-/-). Two assays, in vivo intracerebral microdialysis in awake mice and the forced swimming test (FST), were used to assess the antidepressant-like effects of this drug combination. Basal levels of extracellular serotonin, 5-HT ([5-HT]ext) in the frontal cortex (FCX) and the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) did not differ between the two strains of mice, suggesting a lack of tonic control of 5-HT1A autoreceptors on nerve terminal 5-HT release. Prx (1 and 4 mg/kg) dose-dependently increased cortical [5-HT]ext in both genotypes, but the effects were greater in mutants. The selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, WAY-100635 (0.5 mg/kg), or (+/-)-pindolol (5 and 10 mg/kg) potentiated the effects of Prx (4 mg/kg) on cortical [5-HT]ext in 5-HT1A+/+, but not in 5-HT1A-/- mice. Similar responses were obtained following local intra-raphe perfusion by reverse microdialysis of either WAY-100635 or (+/-)-pindolol (100 microM each). In the FST, Prx administration dose-dependently decreased the immobility time in both strains of mice, but the response was much greater in 5HT1A-/- mice. In contrast, (+/-)-pindolol blocked Prx-induced decreases in the immobility time while WAY-100635 had no effect in both genotypes. These findings using 5-HT1A-/- mice confirm that (+/-)-pindolol behaves as an antagonist of 5-HT1A autoreceptor in mice, but its blockade of paroxetine-induced antidepressant-like effects in the FST may be due to its binding to other neurotransmitter receptors.

Immunocytochemical evidence for the existence of substance P receptor (NK1) in serotonin neurons of rat and mouse dorsal raphe nucleus

In addition to its neurotransmitter/modulator role in pain perception, substance P (SP) is involved in a regulation of mood, as antagonists of its neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1r) have been found to have antidepressant-like effects in humans. In rodents, treatment with NK1r antagonists has been shown to increase the firing of dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) neurons and to induce a desensitization of their 5-HT1A autoreceptors, suggesting local interactions between the SP and 5-HT systems. To search for the presence of NK1r on 5-HT neurons of the DRN, we used light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry, as well as confocal microscopy, after single- and double-labelling of NK1r and of the biosynthetic enzyme of 5-HT, tryptophan hydroxylase (TpOH). A significant number of 5-HT (TpOH-positive) cell bodies and dendrites endowed with NK1r were thus demonstrated in the caudal part of rat and mouse DRN. As visualized by electron microscopy after gold immunolabelling, NK1r was mostly cytoplasmic in 5-HT neurons, while predominating on the plasma membrane in the case of TpOH-negative dendrites. The proportion of NK1r observed on the plasma membrane of 5-HT neurons was, however, slightly higher in mouse than rat. Thus, in both rat and mouse DRN, a subpopulation of 5-HT neurons is endowed with NK1r receptors and may be directly involved in the antidepressant-like effects of NK1r antagonists. These 5-HT neurons represent a new element in the neuronal circuitry currently proposed to account for the role of SP in mood regulation.

NK1 receptor antagonists under investigation for the treatment of affective disorders

Substance P-neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor pathways have been repeatedly implicated in the pathophysiology of affective disorders. Anatomical studies in humans have shown a high expression of NK1 receptors in brain regions that are important for the regulation of affective behaviours and stress responses. A large body of evidence that has been generated from animal experiments indicates that treatment with a selective NK1 receptor antagonist might be effective in the treatment of certain forms of anxiety and depressive disorders. Accordingly, numerous NK1 receptor antagonists have either been synthesised and are under clinical development, or have already been tested in clinical trials. However, the initial encouraging clinical results were followed by repeated demonstrations of a lack of effectiveness, thus disappointment and doubt currently surrounds the idea that these compounds may become effective antidepressants. Research continues and novel molecules may show better pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties and, therefore, may achieve therapeutic success. Furthermore, NK1 receptor antagonists that are ineffective in the treatment of mood disorders may still prove to be effective in the treatment of anxiety problems.

Antidepressant-like activity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors combined with a NK1 receptor antagonist in the mouse forced swimming test

Substance P antagonists of the neurokinin-1 receptor type (NK1) have growing interest as new antidepressant therapies. It has been postulated that these drugs exert this putative therapeutic effect without direct interactions with serotonin (5-HT) neurons. In line with this assumption, previous intracerebral in vivo microdialysis experiments provided evidence that the NK1 receptor antagonists did not change basal cortical 5-HT levels. However, we found that increases in cortical 5-HT overflow caused by systemic injection of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), paroxetine was higher in freely moving (C57BL/6x129sv) NK1-/- mutants than in wild-type NK1+/+ mice. More recently, a pharmacological study has led to a similar conclusion since GR205171, a NK1 receptor antagonist, potentiated paroxetine-induced increases in cortical 5-HT dialysate following its acute systemic or intra-raphe administration to wild-type mice . In the present study, we tested whether an acute combination of SSRI and NK1 receptor antagonist could display antidepressant-like activity using the forced swimming test in Swiss mice. We found that a single systemic dose of GR205171 (10 and 30 mg/kg, i.p.) had no effect by itself. However, it selectively potentiated the antidepressant-like activity of subactive doses of two serotonergic antidepressant drugs, citalopram and paroxetine (without psychomotor stimulant activity), but not that of noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, desipramine. In agreement with neurochemical data, the present study confirms that co-administration of a NK1 receptor antagonist with an antidepressant drug such as a SSRI may have a therapeutic potential to improve the treatment of major depressive episodes in human compared to SSRI alone.

Multi-target strategies for the improved treatment of depressive states: Conceptual foundations and neuronal substrates, drug discovery and therapeutic application

Major depression is a debilitating and recurrent disorder with a substantial lifetime risk and a high social cost. Depressed patients generally display co-morbid symptoms, and depression frequently accompanies other serious disorders. Currently available drugs display limited efficacy and a pronounced delay to onset of action, and all provoke distressing side effects. Cloning of the human genome has fuelled expectations that symptomatic treatment may soon become more rapid and effective, and that depressive states may ultimately be "prevented" or "cured". In pursuing these objectives, in particular for genome-derived, non-monoaminergic targets, "specificity" of drug actions is often emphasized. That is, priority is afforded to agents that interact exclusively with a single site hypothesized as critically involved in the pathogenesis and/or control of depression. Certain highly selective drugs may prove effective, and they remain indispensable in the experimental (and clinical) evaluation of the significance of novel mechanisms. However, by analogy to other multifactorial disorders, "multi-target" agents may be better adapted to the improved treatment of depressive states. Support for this contention is garnered from a broad palette of observations, ranging from mechanisms of action of adjunctive drug combinations and electroconvulsive therapy to "network theory" analysis of the etiology and management of depressive states. The review also outlines opportunities to be exploited, and challenges to be addressed, in the discovery and characterization of drugs recognizing multiple targets. Finally, a diversity of multi-target strategies is proposed for the more efficacious and rapid control of core and co-morbid symptoms of depression, together with improved tolerance relative to currently available agents.

New approaches to antidepressant drug discovery: beyond monoamines

All available antidepressant medications are based on serendipitous discoveries of the clinical efficacy of two classes of antidepressants more than 50 years ago. These tricyclic and monoamine oxidase inhibitor antidepressants were subsequently found to promote serotonin or noradrenaline function in the brain. Newer agents are more specific but have the same core mechanisms of action in promoting these monoamine neurotransmitters. This is unfortunate, because only approximately 50% of individuals with depression show full remission in response to these mechanisms. This review summarizes the obstacles that have hindered the development of non-monoamine-based antidepressants, and provides a progress report on some of the most promising current strategies.

Serotonin 5-HT2C receptors as a target for the treatment of depressive and anxious states: focus on novel therapeutic strategies

Serotonin (5-HT)2C receptors play an important role in the modulation of monoaminergic transmission, mood, motor behaviour, appetite and endocrine secretion, and alterations in their functional status have been detected in anxiodepressive states. Further, 5-HT2C sites are involved in the actions of several classes of antidepressant. At the onset of treatment, indirect activation of 5-HT2C receptors participates in the anxiogenic effects of selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) as well as their inhibition of sleep, sexual behaviour and appetite. Conversely, progressive down-regulation of 5-HT2C receptors parallels the gradual onset of clinical efficacy of SSRIs. Other antidepressants, such as nefazodone or mirtazapine, act as direct antagonists of 5-HT2C receptors. These observations underpin interest in 5-HT2C receptor blockade as a strategy for treating depressive and anxious states. This notion is supported by findings that 5-HT2C receptor antagonists stimulate dopaminergic and adrenergic pathways, exert antidepressant and anxiolytic actions in behavioural paradigms, and favour sleep and sexual function. In addition to selective antagonists, novel strategies for exploitation of 5-HT2C receptors embrace inverse agonists, allosteric modulators, ligands of homo/heterodimers, modulators of interactions with 'postsynaptic proteins', dual melatonin agonists/5-HT2C receptor antagonists and mixed 5-HT2C/alpha2-adrenergic antagonists. Intriguingly, there is evidence that stimulation of regionally discrete populations of 5-HT2C receptors is effective in certain behavioural models of antidepressant activity, and promotes neurogenesis in the hippocampus. This article explains how these ostensibly paradoxical actions of 5-HT2C antagonists and agonists can be reconciled and discusses both established and innovative strategies for the exploitation of 5-HT2C receptors in the improved management of depressed and anxious states.

Innovative approaches for the development of antidepressant drugs: current and future strategies

Depression is a highly debilitating disorder that has been estimated to affect up to 21% of the world population. Despite the advances in the treatment of depression with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), there continue to be many unmet clinical needs with respect to both efficacy and side effects. These needs range from efficacy in treatment resistant patients, to improved onset, to reductions in side effects such as emesis or sexual dysfunction. To address these needs, there are numerous combination therapies and novel targets that have been identified that may demonstrate improvements in one or more areas. There is tremendous diversity in the types of targets and approaches being taken. At one end of a spectrum is combination therapies that maintain the benefits associated with SSRIs but attempt to either improve efficacy or reduce side effects by adding additional mechanisms (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2C, alpha-2A). At the other end of the spectrum are more novel targets, such as neurotrophins (BDNF, IGF), based on recent findings that antidepressants induce neurogenesis. In between, there are many approaches that range from directly targeting serotonin receptors (5-HT2C, 5-HT6) to targeting the multiplicity of potential mechanisms associated with excitatory (glutamate, NMDA, mGluR2, mGluR5) or inhibitory amino acid systems (GABA) or peptidergic systems (neurokinin 1, corticotropin-releasing factor 1, melanin-concentrating hormone 1, V1b). The present review addresses the most exciting approaches and reviews the localization, neurochemical and behavioral data that provide the supporting rationale for each of these targets or target combinations.

Applicability of reverse microdialysis in pharmacological and toxicological studies

A recent application of microdialysis is the introduction of a substance into the extracellular space via the microdialysis probe. The inclusion of a higher amount of a drug in the perfusate allows the drug to diffuse through the microdialysis membrane to the tissue. This technique, actually called as reverse microdialysis, not only allows the local administration of a substance but also permits the simultaneous sampling of the extracellular levels of endogenous compounds. Local effects of exogenous compounds have been studied in the central nervous system, hepatic tissue, dermis, heart and corpora luteae of experimental animals by means of reverse microdialysis. In central nervous studies, reverse microdialysis has been extensively used for the study of the effects on neurotransmission at different central nuclei of diverse pharmacological and toxicological agents, such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, antiparkinsonians, hallucinogens, drugs of abuse and experimental drugs. In the clinical setting, reverse microdialysis has been used for the study of local effects of drugs in the adipose tissue, skeletal muscle and dermis. The aim of this review is to describe the principles of the reverse microdialysis, to compare the technique with other available methods and finally to describe the applicability of reverse microdialysis in the study of drugs properties both in basic and clinical research.

No modulatory effect of neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists on serotonin uptake in human and rat brain synaptosomes

Some studies have demonstrated antidepressant activity of neurokinin-1-receptor antagonists (NK-1-RA) in major depressive disorder. However, the underlying mechanisms of this antidepressant effect are largely unknown. Preclinical studies in rats and mice have suggested that NK-1-RA do increase the neuronal release of serotonin (5-HT). This, however, seems to be compensated by an increased 5-HT reuptake, indicating that NK-1-RA have no inhibitory effect on the 5-HT transporter in rodents. Given the possibility that modulation of neurotransmitter release and reuptake may differ between species, with major differences found between rodents and humans, we investigated for the first time the possible modulatory effect of NK-1-RA on 5-HT uptake in human brain synaptosomes and compared it with the situation in rat cortex. We found that the specific human NK-1-RA L-733060, in contrast to the SSRI fluvoxamine (IC50=10(-7.96)M) did not inhibit 5-HT uptake in human brain synaptosomes and did not modulate fluvoxamine-induced 5-HT uptake inhibition at 1 muM. Furthermore, substance P as well as Sar9Met(O2)11SP, as the major agonists at the NK-1-R, did not modulate 5-HT uptake in human brain synaptosomes. Similar results were found in rat cortex synaptosomes by using the rat-specific NK-1-RA WIN51708. These results show that in humans, as in rodents, inhibition of the 5-HT transporter is probably not the underlying mechanism of the assumed antidepressant activity of NK-1-RA.

The selective tachykinin neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor antagonist, GR 205,171, stereospecifically inhibits light-induced phase advances of hamster circadian activity rhythms

Circadian rhythms in mammals are generated by master pacemaker cells located within the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. In hamsters, the suprachiasmatic nucleus contains a small collection of cells immunoreactive for substance P, the endogenous ligand of tachykinin neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptors. In addition, two other nuclei which form part of the circadian system, the intergeniculate leaflet of the thalamus and the raphe nuclei, also contain fibers and/or cell bodies immunoreactive for substance P. In light of these observations, we evaluated the influence of the selective tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist, GR 205,171, upon circadian activity rhythms in the hamster. Systemic injection of GR 205,171 dose-dependently (2.5-40.0 mg/kg, i.p.) inhibited light-induced phase advances in hamster circadian wheel running activity rhythms by approximately 50%. In contrast, GR 226,206, the less active enantiomer of GR 205,171, failed to affect light-induced phase advances. In addition, we examined the potential ability of GR 205,171 to induce non-photic phase shifts in hamster wheel running rhythms when injected at mid-day to late night circadian times. However, GR 205,171 (40 mg/kg) did not elicit non-photic phase shifts at these times indicating that tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists are only effective when a light stimulus is applied to the pacemaker. Although GR 205,171 may, in theory, activate several sites within the circadian system, we suggest that GR 205,171 acts in the raphe nuclei to increase inhibitory serotonergic input to pacemaker cells in the suprachiasmatic nuclei, thereby suppressing photic modulation of the pacemaker. These findings have important implications for the use of tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists in the treatment of depression and other central nervous system disorders.

Sustained pharmacological blockade of NK1 substance P receptors causes functional desensitization of dorsal raphe 5-HT 1A autoreceptors in mice

Antagonists at NK1 substance P receptors have demonstrated similar antidepressant properties in both animal paradigms and in human as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that induce desensitization of 5-HT 1A autoreceptors within the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). We investigated whether this receptor adaptation also occurs upon NK1 receptor blockade. C57B/L6J mice were treated for 21 days with the selective NK1 receptor antagonist GR 205171 (10 mg/kg daily) through subcutaneously implanted osmotic mini pumps, and DRN 5-HT 1A autoreceptor functioning was assessed using various approaches. Recording of DRN serotonergic neurons in brainstem slices showed that GR 205171 treatment reduced (by approximately 1.5 fold) the potency of the 5-HT 1A receptor agonist, ipsapirone, to inhibit cell firing. In parallel, the 5-HT 1A autoreceptor-mediated [35S]GTP-gamma-S binding induced by 5-carboxamidotryptamine onto the DRN in brainstem sections was significantly decreased in GR 205171-treated mice. In vivo microdialysis showed that the cortical 5-HT overflow caused by acute injection of the SSRI paroxetine (1 mg/kg) was twice as high in GR 205171-treated as in vehicle-treated controls. In the DRN, basal 5-HT outflow was significantly enhanced by GR 205171 treatment. These data supported the hypothesis that chronic NK1 receptor blockade induces a functional desensitization of 5-HT 1A autoreceptors similar to that observed with SSRIs.

Behavioural Models for the Characterisation of Established and Innovative Antidepressant Agents

To improve the management of depressive states, it is essential to develop preclinical behavioural models for the characterisation of both conventional and new antidepressant agents. This need is illustrated in this article with two very different classes of antidepressant agents, serotonin and/or noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and neurokinin NK1 receptor antagonists. Their effects are evaluated in rodent models of (i) the detection of potential antidepressant activity via marble-burying behaviour in mice; (ii) drug discrimination procedures in rats (mechanistic); and (iii) the evaluation of potential activity on co-morbid symptoms, such as anxiety, via the social recognition test in rats and gerbils. It is concluded that behavioural assays offer a palette of techniques for the characterisation of clinically active antidepressants as well as for innovative (acting on new targets) or improved (multi-target) antidepressants. Nevertheless, for antidepressants of the future, as for established antidepressants, feedback from clinical trials are awaited to confirm the predictive value of these models.

Compréhension du mécanisme d’action des antidépresseurs anciens ou nouveaux : apport des modèles de souris génétiquement modifiées en pharmacologie in vivo

The main hypothesis regarding the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs is monoaminergic and mainly involves two neurotransmitters, serotonin and noradrenaline. Despite the well-recognized therapeutic efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), some disadvantages still occur. For example, they often require 4-6 weeks to achieve clinical benefits in depressed patients. In the past, some molecules that could shorten this long delay of action have been identified. The role of presynaptic autoreceptors - the activation of which leads to an inhibitory feedback control on neurotransmitter synthesis and release - has been extensively studied for antidepressant effects. In our laboratory, we studied the combined effects of an SSRI and a serotonin autoreceptor antagonist of the 5-HT1B subtype using intracerebral in vivo microdialysis in awake, freely moving mice. Important information on SSRIs has been obtained by applying this technique to genetically modified animals, such as constitutive knockout (KO) mice lacking 5-HT1B receptors (5-HT1B KO) generated by homologous recombination: we compared the effects of a combined treatment on extracellular/intrasynaptic levels of serotonin in various nerve terminals area in wild-type control and KO mice. Thus, we found that indirect activation of 5-HT1B autoreceptors limits the effects of SSRIs on dialysate 5-HT levels at serotonergic nerve terminals such as the ventral hippocampus. The study of substance P (neurokinin 1 receptor [R-NK1]) offers another example of the use of KO mice in the development of a new class of antidepressant drugs. NK1 receptor antagonists may display anxiolytic/antidepressant-like properties. The lack of selective compounds for each tachykinin receptor subtype (R-NK 1, R-NK2 or R-NK3) and differences in their affinity between animal species have made R-NK1 KO mice a very useful experimental tool. In collaborative work we found that genetic (R-NK1 KO mice) or pharmacological (GR205171) blockade of R-NK1 is associated with several changes: the increase in cortical 5-HT outflow caused by systemic injection of paroxetine was 4- to 6-fold higher in freely moving R-NK1 KO mice than in wild-type controls. The constitutive lack of NK1 receptors is associated with a functional desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT1A autoreceptors, resembling that induced by chronic treatment with SSRI antidepressants. These results highlight the link between a neurotransmitter (serotonin) and a neuropeptide (substance P). This genetic strategy allowed us to point out that multiple targets participate to the effects of classical antidepressant drugs within the brain. We hope that, soon, some mice lines (constitutive or tissue specific, conditional rescue mice having alterations of sleep/wakefulness and/or food intake, altered central serotonin and/or noradrenaline neurotransmission, deficit in neurotrophic factors, but increases in intrasynaptic concentrations of substance P) could be a relevant model of the physiopathology of depressive disorders, and could help us understand the appearance of some symptoms. These recent findings suggest that instead of being rejected, the monoaminergic hypothesis of depression should be improved, corrected and completed by studying the role of other neurotransmitter, neuromodulatory compounds (substance P, BDNF [brain-derived neurotrophic factor]). By doing so, it thus could be possible to improve antidepressant drug treatment, i.e. shorten their long delay of action and/or to decrease treatment resistance or improve its tolerance.

Effect of neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists on serotoninergic, noradrenergic and hippocampal neurons: comparison with antidepressant drugs

Neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonists have been reported to possess antidepressant and anxiolytic properties in controlled trials. Since antidepressant and anxiolytic drugs act mainly by enhancing serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) neurotransmission in forebrain areas, the main focus of the present review is to critically examine the electrophysiological effects of NK1 receptor antagonists on serotoninergic and noradrenergic neurons, and then hippocampal neurons. It is concluded that NK1 antagonists increase the firing and burst activity of 5-HT neurons, increase burst activity of NE neurons, and modulate postsynaptic transmission at the hippocampus level. Further research is needed in order to develop more selective ligands for the human NK1 receptor and to gain better knowledge of required brain penetration and optimal pharmacodynamic conditions for their use in patients.

The role of monoamines in the actions of established and "novel" antidepressant agents: a critical review

Monoaminergic pathways are highly responsive to aversive stimuli and play a crucial role in the control of affect, cognition, endocrine secretion, chronobiotic rhythms, appetite, and motor function, all of which are profoundly disrupted in depressive states. Accordingly, a perturbation of monoaminergic transmission is implicated in the aetiology of depressive disorders, and all clinically available antidepressants increase corticolimbic availability of monoamines. However, their limited efficacy, delayed onset of action, and undesirable side effects underlie ongoing efforts to identify improved therapeutic agents. Sequencing the human genome has raised the hope not only of better symptomatic control of depression, but even of the prevention or cure of depressive states. In the pursuit of these goals, there is currently a tendency to focus on selective ligands of "novel" nonmonoaminergic targets. However, certain classes of novel agent (such as neurokinin(1) receptor antagonists) indirectly modulate the activity of monoaminergic networks. Others may act "downstream" of them, converging onto common cellular substrates controlling gene expression, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis. Further, by analogy to the broad-based actions of currently employed drugs, multitarget agents may be better adapted than selective agents to the management of depression-a complex disorder with hereditary, developmental, and environmental origins. It is, thus, important to continue the creative exploration of clinically validated and innovative monoaminergic strategies within a multitarget framework. In this light, drugs combining monoaminergic and nonmonoaminergic mechanisms of action may be of particular interest. The present article provides a critical overview of monoaminergic strategies for the treatment of depressive states, both established and under development, and discusses interactions of novel "nonmonoaminergic" antidepressants with monoaminergic mechanisms.

Rapid and precise method to locate microdialysis probe implantation in the rodent brain

An important concern about microdialysis methodology is the histological validation of the dialysis probe implantation site in brain tissue of rodents (rat, mouse). Several methods have been described on standard histological staining (i.e., cresyl violet, formalin fixation, fast green perfusion, etc.). However, this methodology is time consuming. These requirements are not compatible with a histological validation prior to analysis of microdialysis samples. Here, we developed a new method to locate the track of the dialysis probe in the rodent brain. This method is based on a digital photomicrograph of a coronal section of the rodent frozen brain. The fitting of an appropriate coronal diagram of the rats' and mice' brain atlas with this photomicrograph, allowed us to locate precisely and quickly the track of the dialysis probe.

Strategies for producing faster acting antidepressants

Existing antidepressant treatments exhibit limited efficacy and a slow onset of action. Several neurobiological adaptive mechanisms might delay the clinical effects of antidepressants, whose therapeutic action is primarily triggered by an increase of serotonergic and noradrenergic neurotransmission. Here, we review several potential mechanisms that could be useful to increase the speed of current antidepressant drugs, such as additional blockade of aminergic autoreceptors or antagonism of certain postsynaptic (5-HT2A, 5-HT2C) receptors. The potential use of strategies not based on monoaminergic transmission, such as CRF and NK1 receptor antagonists, or more novel strategies, based on glutamatergic or GABAergic transmission or on intracellular messengers, are also reviewed.

A comparison of neurokinin 1 receptor knock-out (NK1−/−) and wildtype mice: exploratory behaviour and extracellular noradrenaline concentration in the cerebral cortex of anaesthetised subjects

In behavioural screens, mice lacking functional NK1 receptors (NK1-/-) resemble wildtypes (NK1+/+) that have been given an antianxiety/antidepressant drug. Most, if not all, antidepressants increase noradrenergic transmission in the brain. Here, we have used in vivo microdialysis to compare the concentrations of extracellular noradrenaline ('efflux') in the cerebral cortex of anaesthetised NK1-/- and NK1+/+ mice. The effects of systemic administration of the antidepressant, desipramine, with and without local infusion of the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist, RX821002, were also evaluated. Finally, we compared the effects of desipramine on behaviour of NK1+/+ and NK1-/- mice in an activity chamber and in a light/dark exploration box. Basal noradrenaline efflux was increased 2 to 4-fold in NK1-/- mice compared with NK1+/+ mice but there was no difference in the effects of desipramine. RX821002 increased noradrenaline efflux in all vehicle-injected mice but, in desipramine-pretreated mice, noradrenaline efflux was increased in NK1+/+ mice, only. All behaviours in the light/dark exploration box differed in the two genotypes. Furthermore, with the exception of 'grooming', the effects of desipramine on behaviour of NK1-/- mice could be explained by the effects of this antidepressant on locomotor activity. Finally, alpha(2)-adrenoceptors are possibly desensitised in NK1-/- mice. We have yet to establish whether this is a cause or a consequence of the increased noradrenaline efflux.