Diet composition and selection of Père David's deer in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve, China

Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve is an ideal place to restore the wild population of Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Understanding foraging ecology and diet composition is essential for assessing population development or establishing long-term effective conservation measures for endangered species. However, little is known about the diet composition of Père David's deer and its diet selection mechanism. In this study, we used stable isotope technology to investigate the diet composition of Père David's deer according to various tissues (i.e., fur, muscle, liver, heart, and feces) and seasons, and evaluated the correlation between the nutrient composition of plants and diet composition. Bayesian isotope analysis showed that the autumn and winter diet estimated by fur and fecal samples indicated a diet dominated by C3 grasses (42.7%-57.2%, mean), while the summer diet estimated by muscle and liver samples was dominated by C3 forbs (30.9%-41.6%, mean). The Pearson correlation test indicated that the contribution of winter diet composition reflected by fur and fecal samples was associated with correlations with crude protein (r = .666, p < .01) and soluble sugars (r = .695, p < .01). The results indicated that crude protein and soluble sugars were important factors influencing the winter diet selection of Père David's deer. In the context of the current reintroduction facing many challenges, such as habitat fragmentation, wetland degradation, and human disturbance, comprehensively evaluating the diet selection mechanism of Père David's deer under different resource specificities and temporal changes should be considered in the future.

Ungulates and Their Impact on Reptiles: A Review of Interspecific Relationships

Several ungulate species are showing increasing population patterns within their geographical distribution ranges, leading to constant interactions with other animal species. Varying densities and activities of different ungulates may result in diverse impacts on other coexisting species groups, including large numbers of threatened species, such as reptiles. In this study, we performed an analysis of the available literature to investigate the impacts of ungulates on reptiles. We aimed to reveal the diversity of: (1) the geographical and environmental distribution of related investigations; (2) the ungulate and reptile species involved; and (3) the characteristics of interactions (direct or indirect, positive or negative) from 69 publications. Our results show that the most papers were reported from the Americas (42%) and Australia (28%). The proportions of studies were balanced for wild ungulates (53%) and livestock (47%). Wild boar (Sus scrofa) was found to be the most problematic species on reptiles whereas reptiles which suffered the harshest impacts were Squamates (i.e., lizards, and snakes). Ungulate activities (e.g., digging by wild boar) may directly harm reptiles (consuming or killing them) or indirectly affect them by modifying their habitats or destroying their hideouts. Some preferential effects were also noted (e.g., by moderate livestock grazing or when wild ungulates are prey for large reptiles). Published livestock impacts were mainly indirect and mostly negatively linked to overgrazing. We conclude that it is important to manage and monitor the densities of ungulates to minimize their negative impacts on reptile species, especially in case of wild boar and grazing livestock, but also to maintain their moderate beneficial effects (e.g., as prey basis).

Livestock displace European mouflon from optimal foraging sites

The conflict between free-ranging livestock and wildlife is a serious conservation concern across rural communities worldwide. Livestock may affect wild herbivores via direct competition for resources due to spatial and diet overlap or via behavioural interference. It is imperative that we disentangle the effects of livestock on wildlife behaviour to obtain an empirical basis able to stir management and conservation decisions. Here, we studied the effect of livestock presence on the habitat selection in a free-ranging European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) population in Sardinia, where the species is under strict protection. We collected spatial data on mouflon and livestock during two consecutive years to investigate whether the mouflon selection of key feeding grassland sites was negatively impacted by the livestock presence. We found that mouflon preferably selected grassland, and its selection significantly increased when grass was of better quality (greener). We showed that livestock presence led to the displacement of mouflon from such preferred feeding sites, an effect clearly exacerbated by livestock proximity. We indeed found that the selection of grassland by mouflon dropped significantly when the distance between livestock and mouflon was below ~ 650 m, providing a useful management threshold indication. Livestock presence in close proximity displaced mouflon to sub-optimal habitat, and its effects may have negative impact on the population dynamic of this species which is already characterized by low female productivity within harsh Mediterranean environment. Our results give clear management indications aimed at better managing livestock grazing within natural areas to ultimately improve wildlife conservation.

Assessing supernumerary roots occurrence as a possible adaptation enhancing teeth performance in Mediterranean deer populations

Teeth root morphology and integrity are essential to provide appropriate attachment, allowing for continuous and functional movement, with implications for adequate food processing, animal performance and longevity. We studied the occurrence of supernumerary roots in mandibular molariform teeth of red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) from seven separate populations spanning a range of latitudes in the Iberian Peninsula. We analyzed the influence of several factors, including sex, origin (native vs. reintroduced), lineage and habitat to assess extra root prevalence variations. The highest prevalence of supernumerary roots in deciduous teeth was found in pm3 (14%) and in permanent teeth in M1 (3%). We found significant differences between areas, lineages and soil type; however, no significant relationships were found with the origin, or with the sex of individuals. We speculate that the high prevalence of supernumerary roots in M1 might be related to increased wear in grazers. Furthermore, we suggest that this high prevalence in deciduous teeth might be associated with a hard diet, dry climatic conditions and a harsh weaning period, which suggest supernumerary roots might have adaptive value.

Spring diet differs among age-sex classes in Atlas Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia lervia) in a fenced nature reserve, Morocco

Atlas Barbary sheep, Ammotragus lervia lervia, are the only wild caprinid of Northwest Africa. Some studies have investigated their feeding ecology, but there is no information on intraspecific dietary variation. Therefore, we determined the spring diet and its variation between age-sex classes in Atlas Barbary sheep within a fenced nature reserve in the Western High Atlas mountain range, Morocco. We used faecal microhistological analysis to assess diet composition based on a reference epidermis catalogue. The habitat was a highly diversified open mixed forest with 61 identified species (55 genera; 24 families). The herbaceous layer was dominated by grasses, mainly Stipa capensis. Atlas Barbary sheep revealed to be opportunistic grazers, consuming 44 forage species; grasses and forbs constituted 87% of the overall diet. There were significant intraspecific dietary differences. Rams showed a more diverse (42 species) and distinct diet compared to those of ewes (22 species) and juveniles (lambs + yearlings) (only 10 species). All sex-age classes were mostly grazers, adults feeding on grasses and forbs in similar proportions, whereas juveniles feeding basically on grasses (more than 70% of their diet) and almost no forbs. Ewes and juveniles feed on browse at a higher proportion than rams do. Our findings would be useful for the restoration and management of the habitat and food resources within the reserve.

Epidemiological approach to nematode polyparasitism occurring in a sympatric wild ruminant multi-host scenario

The epidemiology behind multi-host/multi-parasite systems is particularly interesting to investigate for a better understanding of the complex dynamics naturally occurring in wildlife populations. We aimed to approach the naturally occurring polyparasitism of gastrointestinal nematodes in a sympatric wild ruminant scenario present in south-east Spain. To this end, the gastrointestinal tract of 252 wild ruminants of four different species (red deer, Cervus elaphus; mouflon, Ovis aries musimon; Iberian ibex, Capra pyrenaica and fallow deer, Dama dama) were studied in Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park (Andalusia, Spain). Of the analysed animals, 81.52% were positive for parasite infection and a total of 29 nematode species were identified. Out of these, 25 species were detected in at least two host species and 11 parasitized all ruminant species surveyed. The multi-host interaction between these nematodes and the four host species is discussed under the perspective of host family-based differences.

Multivariate Abundance Analysis of Multi-Host/Multi-Parasite Lungworms in a Sympatric Wild Ruminant Population

In the analysis of a multi-host/multi-parasite system and its associated risk factors, it is particularly interesting to understand the natural dynamics among pathogens, their hosts, and the environment in wildlife populations. This analysis is particularly feasible in a scenario where multiple overlapping host populations are present in high densities, along with a complex community of parasites. We aimed to describe and analyze the naturally occurring lungworm polyparasitism in a wild ruminant community in Southeast Spain. The respiratory tracts of 250 specimens belonging to four different species (red deer, mouflon, Iberian ibex, and fallow deer) were studied. Almost half (48.0%) of the animals were infected with bronchopulmonary nematodes. Seven different nematodes were identified of which two genera (Protostrongylus spp. and Dictyocaulus spp.) and three additional species (Cystocaulus ocreatus, Muellerius capillaris, and Neostrongylus linearis) were recorded in at least two ruminants, with the mouflon as the commonest host. Our study shows a significant effect of host species and sampling area, plus a marginal effect of age, on parasite multivariate abundance at the host population level. Mouflon and adults of all hosts appear to carry the highest parasite load on average. From a spatial perspective, the highest parasite abundance was detected at the central part of the park.

Prevalence of selected tick-borne pathogens in wild ungulates and ticks in southern Spain

A survey study was carried out to assess the occurrence of selected tick-borne pathogens (TBP) in wild ungulates in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain. Spleen samples were collected from 1,132 wild ungulates, including 578 red deer, 269 wild boar, 135 mouflon, 121 fallow deer and 29 roe deer, between 2009 and 2015. Eighty-nine ticks collected from TBP-positive animals were also analysed. Samples were tested by PCR and sequenced whenever possible. TBP DNA was detected in 127 of 863 wild ruminants (14.7%; 95% CI: 12.4-17.3) including the following: Anaplasma phagocytophilum (9.2%), Babesia divergens (2.9%), Theileria sp. OT3 (1.7%), Borrelia afzelii (0.7%) and Theileria capreoli (0.2%), but no positive samples were detected in wild boar (0/269). All the strains from mouflon were identified as Theileria sp. OT3, while B. divergens and T. capreoli were mainly found in red deer. Co-infection with A. phagocytophilum and B. divergens, and A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. was detected in red deer and mouflon, respectively. The risk factor analysis showed that the prevalences of A. phagocytophilum and piroplasms were species-related. Eighty-nine tick specimens collected from ungulates found to be infected with the selected TBP were identified as Hyalomma lusitanicum (95.5%) and Ixodes ricinus (4.5%). Thirty ticks were positive for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. (33.7%), 25 for Babesia/Theileria (28.1%) and two for B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). Eleven specimens showed co-infections with Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and Babesia/Theileria (10.1%) or Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). The estimated prevalences obtained in the present study suggest the possible contribution of wild ruminants to the maintenance of some selected TBP in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain, while the role of wild boar in the epidemiology of these pathogens seems to be limited in this region.

Functional traits of the world's late Quaternary large-bodied avian and mammalian herbivores

Prehistoric and recent extinctions of large-bodied terrestrial herbivores had significant and lasting impacts on Earth's ecosystems due to the loss of their distinct trait combinations. The world's surviving large-bodied avian and mammalian herbivores remain among the most threatened taxa. As such, a greater understanding of the ecological impacts of large herbivore losses is increasingly important. However, comprehensive and ecologically-relevant trait datasets for extinct and extant herbivores are lacking. Here, we present HerbiTraits, a comprehensive functional trait dataset for all late Quaternary terrestrial avian and mammalian herbivores ≥10 kg (545 species). HerbiTraits includes key traits that influence how herbivores interact with ecosystems, namely body mass, diet, fermentation type, habitat use, and limb morphology. Trait data were compiled from 557 sources and comprise the best available knowledge on late Quaternary large-bodied herbivores. HerbiTraits provides a tool for the analysis of herbivore functional diversity both past and present and its effects on Earth's ecosystems.

Barbary sheep tissues as bioindicators of radionuclide and stabile element contamination in Croatia: exposure assessment for consumers

Muscle, liver and kidney of 21 Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) from Mosor Mountain, Croatia, were sampled to quantify the activity of caesium and potassium radionuclides and five toxic and ten essential stabile elements in order to establish reference values for this species and to evaluate the potential of Barbary sheep tissues to reflect environmental pollution. We also assessed seasonal diet (botanical composition and dry matter content) of Barbary sheep based on analyses of a rumen content of culled animals. None of the 19 plant species (mostly grasses) identified as part of the Barbary sheep diet is known as a stabile element or radionuclide hyperaccumulator. Measured levels reflected low environmental pollution with arsenic, cadmium, mercury and lead, with levels generally less than those reported for wild herbivorous ungulates. Methodological differences (detection limit of elements in muscle) were shown to hamper interpretation and comparison of the Toxic Contamination Index (TCI) values with those published for other species. There was no homeostasis disturbance of trace elements in Barbary sheep, either due to inadequate intake via food or as an adverse effect due to a high toxic metal(loid) burden. Consumption of the muscle and liver of wild Barbary sheep can be considered safe for the health of adult consumers regarding toxic metal(loid)s and radioactive caesium, though the liver should be avoided as a food item in vulnerable population groups due to the possible adverse effects of cadmium and lead. Otherwise, muscle and liver are a rich source of copper, iron, selenium and zinc for consumers and, as such, can benefit the overall dietary intake of essential elements.

Avoiding toxic levels of essential minerals: a forgotten factor in deer diet preferences

Ungulates select diets with high energy, protein, and sodium contents. However, it is scarcely known the influence of essential minerals other than Na in diet preferences. Moreover, almost no information is available about the possible influence of toxic levels of essential minerals on avoidance of certain plant species. The aim of this research was to test the relative importance of mineral content of plants in diet selection by red deer (Cervus elaphus) in an annual basis. We determined mineral, protein and ash content in 35 common Mediterranean plant species (the most common ones in the study area). These plant species were previously classified as preferred and non-preferred. We found that deer preferred plants with low contents of Ca, Mg, K, P, S, Cu, Sr and Zn. The model obtained was greatly accurate identifying the preferred plant species (91.3% of correct assignments). After a detailed analysis of these minerals (considering deficiencies and toxicity levels both in preferred and non-preferred plants) we suggest that the avoidance of excessive sulphur in diet (i.e., selection for plants with low sulphur content) seems to override the maximization for other nutrients. Low sulphur content seems to be a forgotten factor with certain relevance for explaining diet selection in deer. Recent studies in livestock support this conclusion, which is highlighted here for the first time in diet selection by a wild large herbivore. Our results suggest that future studies should also take into account the toxicity levels of minerals as potential drivers of preferences.

Ecological effects of game management: does supplemental feeding affect herbivory pressure on native vegetation?

Context Supplemental feeding of large mammalian herbivores is a common management tool mainly aimed at promoting healthy populations and at increasing productivity and trophy sizes. Such management measure may indirectly affect herbivore effects on plant communities through altered foraging patterns. The quantification of the ecological effects of large herbivore management is important for designing holistic management and conservation programs. Aims Here we aimed at quantifying the ecological effects of supplemental feeding of Iberian red deer, Cervus elaphus hispanicus, on the composition of and on the browsing effects on Mediterranean woody plant community. Methods An experiment was set up in a hunting rangeland located in central Spain, where female deer were kept in enclosures with either exclusive access to natural forages or with additional ad libitum access to a nutritionally rich concentrate. The experiment also included a control area where deer were absent. Key results We observed significant differences in browsing impacts among the supplemented, non-supplemented and control areas, and such effect varied for the different plant species. Plant species which nutritional content complemented that of fodder were more highly consumed, for instance, Erica spp., which digestible fibre content is higher and N content lower than that of provided fodder. The presence of deer and the concentrate supplied, instead, did not influence the relative abundances of shrub species. Conclusions Artificial supplemental feeding provided to ungulates led to increased browsing on plant species which nutritional composition complemented that of the supplement provided. Implications So as to alleviate herbivory impact on all shrubs, we suggest that composition of supplemental feeding should adjust both to the natural forage availability and quality and to ungulate requirements across seasons.