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Papaianni M, Paris D, Woo SL, Fulgione A, Rigano MM, Parrilli E, Tutino ML, Marra R, Manganiello G, Casillo A, Limone A, Zoina A, Motta A, Lorito M, Capparelli R. Plant Dynamic Metabolic Response to Bacteriophage Treatment After Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris Infection. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:732. [PMID: 32390981 PMCID: PMC7189621 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Periodic epidemics of black rot disease occur worldwide causing substantial yield losses. Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) represents one of the most common bacteria able to cause the above disease in cruciferous plants such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and Arabidopsis thaliana. In agriculture, several strategies are being developed to contain the Xanthomonas infection. The use of bacteriophages could represent a valid and efficient approach to overcome this widespread phenomenon. Several studies have highlighted the potential usefulness of implementing phage therapy to control plant diseases as well as Xcc infection. In the present study, we characterized the effect of a lytic phage on the plant Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes infected with Xcc and, for the first time, the correlated plant metabolic response. The results highlighted the potential benefits of bacteriophages: reduction of bacterium proliferation, alteration of the biofilm structure and/or modulation of the plant metabolism and defense response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Papaianni
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Debora Paris
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
| | - Sheridan L Woo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Task Force on Microbiome Studies, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Andrea Fulgione
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Manuela Rigano
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Ermenegilda Parrilli
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria L Tutino
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Roberta Marra
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Gelsomina Manganiello
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Casillo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Limone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Naples, Italy
| | - Astolfo Zoina
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
| | - Andrea Motta
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
| | - Matteo Lorito
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Task Force on Microbiome Studies, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Rosanna Capparelli
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Task Force on Microbiome Studies, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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He Y, Xu J, Wang X, He X, Wang Y, Zhou J, Zhang S, Meng X. The Arabidopsis Pleiotropic Drug Resistance Transporters PEN3 and PDR12 Mediate Camalexin Secretion for Resistance to Botrytis cinerea. THE PLANT CELL 2019; 31:2206-2222. [PMID: 31239392 PMCID: PMC6751113 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.19.00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant defense often depends on the synthesis and targeted delivery of antimicrobial metabolites at pathogen contact sites. The pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) transporter PENETRATION3 (PEN3)/PDR8 in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) has been implicated in resistance to a variety of fungal pathogens. However, the antimicrobial metabolite(s) transported by PEN3 for extracellular defense remains unidentified. Here, we report that PEN3 functions redundantly with another PDR transporter (PDR12) to mediate the secretion of camalexin, the major phytoalexin in Arabidopsis. Consistent with this, the pen3 pdr12 double mutants exhibit dramatically enhanced susceptibility to the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea as well as severe hypersensitivity to exogenous camalexin. PEN3 and PDR12 are transcriptionally activated upon B. cinerea infection, and their expression is regulated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 (MPK3) and MPK6, and their downstream WRKY33 transcription factor. Further genetic analysis indicated that PEN3 and PDR12 contribute to B. cinerea resistance through exporting not only camalexin but also other unidentified metabolite(s) derived from Trp metabolism, suggesting that PEN3 and PDR12 have multiple functions in Arabidopsis immunity via transport of distinct Trp metabolic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxia He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Juan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xiaoyang Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xiaomeng He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yangxiayu Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Jinggeng Zhou
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Shuqun Zhang
- Division of Biochemistry, Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211
| | - Xiangzong Meng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
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3
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Preston GM. Profiling the extended phenotype of plant pathogens: Challenges in Bacterial Molecular Plant Pathology. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2017; 18:443-456. [PMID: 28026146 PMCID: PMC6638297 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
One of the most fundamental questions in plant pathology is what determines whether a pathogen grows within a plant? This question is frequently studied in terms of the role of elicitors and pathogenicity factors in the triggering or overcoming of host defences. However, this focus fails to address the basic question of how the environment in host tissues acts to support or restrict pathogen growth. Efforts to understand this aspect of host-pathogen interactions are commonly confounded by several issues, including the complexity of the plant environment, the artificial nature of many experimental infection systems and the fact that the physiological properties of a pathogen growing in association with a plant can be very different from the properties of the pathogen in culture. It is also important to recognize that the phenotype and evolution of pathogen and host are inextricably linked through their interactions, such that the environment experienced by a pathogen within a host, and its phenotype within the host, is a product of both its interaction with its host and its evolutionary history, including its co-evolution with host plants. As the phenotypic properties of a pathogen within a host cannot be defined in isolation from the host, it may be appropriate to think of pathogens as having an 'extended phenotype' that is the product of their genotype, host interactions and population structure within the host environment. This article reflects on the challenge of defining and studying this extended phenotype, in relation to the questions posed below, and considers how knowledge of the phenotype of pathogens in the host environment could be used to improve disease control. What determines whether a pathogen grows within a plant? What aspects of pathogen biology should be considered in describing the extended phenotype of a pathogen within a host? How can we study the extended phenotype in ways that provide insights into the phenotypic properties of pathogens during natural infections?
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Affiliation(s)
- Gail M. Preston
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of OxfordSouth Parks RoadOxfordOX1 3RBUK
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Engelsdorf T, Will C, Hofmann J, Schmitt C, Merritt BB, Rieger L, Frenger MS, Marschall A, Franke RB, Pattathil S, Voll LM. Cell wall composition and penetration resistance against the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum higginsianum are affected by impaired starch turnover in Arabidopsis mutants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:701-713. [PMID: 28204541 PMCID: PMC5441917 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Penetration resistance represents the first level of plant defense against phytopathogenic fungi. Here, we report that the starch-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana phosphoglucomutase (pgm) mutant has impaired penetration resistance against the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum. We could not determine any changes in leaf cutin and epicuticular wax composition or indolic glucosinolate levels, but detected complex alterations in the cell wall monosaccharide composition of pgm. Notably, other mutants deficient in starch biosynthesis (adg1) or mobilization (sex1) had similarly affected cell wall composition and penetration resistance. Glycome profiling analysis showed that both overall cell wall polysaccharide extractability and relative extractability of specific pectin and xylan epitopes were affected in pgm, suggesting extensive structural changes in pgm cell walls. Screening of mutants with alterations in content or modification of specific cell wall monosaccharides indicated an important function of pectic polymers for penetration resistance and hyphal growth of C. higginsianum during the biotrophic interaction phase. While mutants with affected pectic rhamnogalacturonan-I (mur8) were hypersusceptible, penetration frequency and morphology of fungal hyphae were impaired on pmr5 pmr6 mutants with increased pectin levels. Our results reveal a strong impact of starch metabolism on cell wall composition and suggest a link between carbohydrate availability, cell wall pectin and penetration resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Engelsdorf
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Cornelia Will
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jörg Hofmann
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christine Schmitt
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Brian B Merritt
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Leonie Rieger
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marc S Frenger
- Universität Bonn, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Botany, Department of Ecophysiology, Kirschallee 1, Bonn, Germany
| | - André Marschall
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
- Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg-Simon Ohm, Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Rochus B Franke
- Universität Bonn, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Botany, Department of Ecophysiology, Kirschallee 1, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sivakumar Pattathil
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Lars M Voll
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
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Finnegan T, Steenkamp PA, Piater LA, Dubery IA. The Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Metabolome Signature in Arabidopsis thaliana Reveals Dynamic Reprogramming of Phytoalexin and Phytoanticipin Pathways. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163572. [PMID: 27656890 PMCID: PMC5033345 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), as MAMP molecules, trigger the activation of signal transduction pathways involved in defence. Currently, plant metabolomics is providing new dimensions into understanding the intracellular adaptive responses to external stimuli. The effect of LPS on the metabolomes of Arabidopsis thaliana cells and leaf tissue was investigated over a 24 h period. Cellular metabolites and those secreted into the medium were extracted with methanol and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was used for quantitative and qualitative analyses. Multivariate statistical data analyses were used to extract interpretable information from the generated multidimensional LC-MS data. The results show that LPS perception triggered differential changes in the metabolomes of cells and leaves, leading to variation in the biosynthesis of specialised secondary metabolites. Time-dependent changes in metabolite profiles were observed and biomarkers associated with the LPS-induced response were tentatively identified. These include the phytohormones salicylic acid and jasmonic acid, and also the associated methyl esters and sugar conjugates. The induced defensive state resulted in increases in indole-and other glucosinolates, indole derivatives, camalexin as well as cinnamic acid derivatives and other phenylpropanoids. These annotated metabolites indicate dynamic reprogramming of metabolic pathways that are functionally related towards creating an enhanced defensive capacity. The results reveal new insights into the mode of action of LPS as an activator of plant innate immunity, broadens knowledge about the defence metabolite pathways involved in Arabidopsis responses to LPS, and identifies specialised metabolites of functional importance that can be employed to enhance immunity against pathogen infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarryn Finnegan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
| | - Paul A. Steenkamp
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
- CSIR- Biosciences, Natural Products and Agroprocessing Group, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Lizelle A. Piater
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
| | - Ian A. Dubery
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
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6
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Onkokesung N, Reichelt M, van Doorn A, Schuurink RC, Dicke M. Differential Costs of Two Distinct Resistance Mechanisms Induced by Different Herbivore Species in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 170:891-906. [PMID: 26603653 PMCID: PMC4734589 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.01780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plants respond to herbivory with the induction of resistance, mediated by distinct phytohormonal signaling pathways and their interactions. Phloem feeders are known to induce plant resistance via the salicylic acid pathway, whereas biting-chewing herbivores induce plant resistance mainly via the jasmonate pathway. Here, we show that a specialist caterpillar (biting-chewing herbivore) and a specialist aphid (phloem feeder) differentially induce resistance against Pieris brassicae caterpillars in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants. Caterpillar feeding induces resistance through the jasmonate signaling pathway that is associated with the induction of kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside, whereas aphid feeding induces resistance via a novel mechanism involving sinapoyl malate. The role of sinapoyl malate is confirmed through the use of a mutant compromised in the biosynthesis of this compound. Caterpillar-induced resistance is associated with a lower cost in terms of plant growth reduction than aphid-induced resistance. A strong constitutive resistance against P. brassicae caterpillars in combination with a strong growth attenuation in plants of a transfer DNA (T-DNA) insertion mutant of WRKY70 (wrky70) suggest that the WRKY70 transcription factor, a regulator of downstream responses mediated by jasmonate-salicylic acid signaling cross talk, is involved in the negative regulation of caterpillar resistance and in the tradeoff between growth and defense. In conclusion, different mechanisms of herbivore-induced resistance come with different costs, and a functional WRKY70 transcription factor is required for the induction of low-cost resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawaporn Onkokesung
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands (N.O., M.D.);Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany (M.R.);Keygene, 6708OW, Wageningen, The Netherlands (A.v.D.); andPlant Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (A.v.D., R.C.S.)
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands (N.O., M.D.);Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany (M.R.);Keygene, 6708OW, Wageningen, The Netherlands (A.v.D.); andPlant Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (A.v.D., R.C.S.)
| | - Arjen van Doorn
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands (N.O., M.D.);Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany (M.R.);Keygene, 6708OW, Wageningen, The Netherlands (A.v.D.); andPlant Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (A.v.D., R.C.S.)
| | - Robert C Schuurink
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands (N.O., M.D.);Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany (M.R.);Keygene, 6708OW, Wageningen, The Netherlands (A.v.D.); andPlant Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (A.v.D., R.C.S.)
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands (N.O., M.D.);Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany (M.R.);Keygene, 6708OW, Wageningen, The Netherlands (A.v.D.); andPlant Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (A.v.D., R.C.S.)
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7
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Müller TM, Böttcher C, Morbitzer R, Götz CC, Lehmann J, Lahaye T, Glawischnig E. TRANSCRIPTION ACTIVATOR-LIKE EFFECTOR NUCLEASE-Mediated Generation and Metabolic Analysis of Camalexin-Deficient cyp71a12 cyp71a13 Double Knockout Lines. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 168:849-58. [PMID: 25953104 PMCID: PMC4741344 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.00481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), a number of defense-related metabolites are synthesized via indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN), including camalexin and indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICOOH) derivatives. Cytochrome P450 71A13 (CYP71A13) is a key enzyme for camalexin biosynthesis and catalyzes the conversion of indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx) to IAN. The CYP71A13 gene is located in tandem with its close homolog CYP71A12, also encoding an IAOx dehydratase. However, for CYP71A12, indole-3-carbaldehyde and cyanide were identified as major reaction products. To clarify CYP71A12 function in vivo and to better understand IAN metabolism, we generated two cyp71a12 cyp71a13 double knockout mutant lines. CYP71A12-specific transcription activator-like effector nucleases were introduced into the cyp71a13 background, and very efficient somatic mutagenesis was achieved. We observed stable transmission of the cyp71a12 mutation to the following generations, which is a major challenge for targeted mutagenesis in Arabidopsis. In contrast to cyp71a13 plants, in which camalexin accumulation is partially reduced, double mutants synthesized only traces of camalexin, demonstrating that CYP71A12 contributes to camalexin biosynthesis in leaf tissue. A major role of CYP71A12 was identified for the inducible biosynthesis of ICOOH. Specifically, the ICOOH methyl ester was reduced to 12% of the wild-type level in AgNO3-challenged cyp71a12 leaves. In contrast, indole-3-carbaldehyde derivatives apparently are synthesized via alternative pathways, such as the degradation of indole glucosinolates. Based on these results, we present a model for this surprisingly complex metabolic network with multiple IAN sources and channeling of IAOx-derived IAN into camalexin biosynthesis. In conclusion, transcription activator-like effector nuclease-mediated mutation is a powerful tool for functional analysis of tandem genes in secondary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa M Müller
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Christoph Böttcher
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Robert Morbitzer
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Cornelia C Götz
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Johannes Lehmann
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Thomas Lahaye
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
| | - Erich Glawischnig
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (T.M.M., C.C.G., J.L., E.G.);Julius Kühn-Institut, Institut für Ökologische Chemie, Pflanzenanalytik, und Vorratsschutz, 14195 Berlin, Germany (C.B.); andCenter for Plant Molecular Biology-General Genetics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany (R.M., T.L.)
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8
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Differential gene expression and metabolomic analyses of Brachypodium distachyon infected by deoxynivalenol producing and non-producing strains of Fusarium graminearum. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:629. [PMID: 25063396 PMCID: PMC4124148 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) caused primarily by Fusarium graminearum (Fg) is one of the major diseases of small-grain cereals including bread wheat. This disease both reduces yields and causes quality losses due to the production of deoxynivalenol (DON), the major type B trichothecene mycotoxin. DON has been described as a virulence factor enabling efficient colonization of spikes by the fungus in wheat, but its precise role during the infection process is still elusive. Brachypodium distachyon (Bd) is a model cereal species which has been shown to be susceptible to FHB. Here, a functional genomics approach was performed in order to characterize the responses of Bd to Fg infection using a global transcriptional and metabolomic profiling of B. distachyon plants infected by two strains of F. graminearum: a wild-type strain producing DON (Fgdon+) and a mutant strain impaired in the production of the mycotoxin (Fgdon-). RESULTS Histological analysis of the interaction of the Bd21 ecotype with both Fg strains showed extensive fungal tissue colonization with the Fgdon+ strain while the florets infected with the Fgdon- strain exhibited a reduced hyphal extension and cell death on palea and lemma tissues. Fungal biomass was reduced in spikes inoculated with the Fgdon- strain as compared with the wild-type strain. The transcriptional analysis showed that jasmonate and ethylene-signalling pathways are induced upon infection, together with genes encoding putative detoxification and transport proteins, antioxidant functions as well as secondary metabolite pathways. In particular, our metabolite profiling analysis showed that tryptophan-derived metabolites, tryptamine, serotonin, coumaroyl-serotonin and feruloyl-serotonin, are more induced upon infection by the Fgdon+ strain than by the Fgdon- strain. Serotonin was shown to exhibit a slight direct antimicrobial effect against Fg. CONCLUSION Our results show that Bd exhibits defense hallmarks similar to those already identified in cereal crops. While the fungus uses DON as a virulence factor, the host plant preferentially induces detoxification and the phenylpropanoid and phenolamide pathways as resistance mechanisms. Together with its amenability in laboratory conditions, this makes Bd a very good model to study cereal resistance mechanisms towards the major disease FHB.
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9
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Böttcher C, Chapman A, Fellermeier F, Choudhary M, Scheel D, Glawischnig E. The Biosynthetic Pathway of Indole-3-Carbaldehyde and Indole-3-Carboxylic Acid Derivatives in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 165:841-853. [PMID: 24728709 PMCID: PMC4044862 DOI: 10.1104/pp.114.235630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Indolic secondary metabolites play an important role in pathogen defense in cruciferous plants. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), in addition to the characteristic phytoalexin camalexin, derivatives of indole-3-carbaldehyde (ICHO) and indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICOOH) are synthesized from tryptophan via the intermediates indole-3-acetaldoxime and indole-3-acetonitrile. Based on feeding experiments combined with nontargeted metabolite profiling, their composition in nontreated and silver nitrate (AgNO3)-treated leaf tissue was comprehensively analyzed. As major derivatives, glucose conjugates of 5-hydroxyindole-3-carbaldehyde, ICOOH, and 6-hydroxyindole-3-carboxylic acid were identified. Quantification of ICHO and ICOOH derivative pools after glucosidase treatment revealed that, in response to AgNO3 treatment, their total accumulation level was similar to that of camalexin. ARABIDOPSIS ALDEHYDE OXIDASE1 (AAO1), initially discussed to be involved in the biosynthesis of indole-3-acetic acid, and Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 71B6 were found to be transcriptionally coexpressed with camalexin biosynthetic genes. CYP71B6 was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and shown to efficiently convert indole-3-acetonitrile into ICHO and ICOOH, thereby releasing cyanide. To evaluate the role of both enzymes in the biosynthesis of ICHO and ICOOH derivatives, knockout and overexpression lines for CYP71B6 and AAO1 were established and analyzed for indolic metabolites. The observed metabolic phenotypes suggest that AAO1 functions in the oxidation of ICHO to ICOOH in both nontreated and AgNO3-treated leaves, whereas CYP71B6 is relevant for ICOOH derivative biosynthesis specifically after induction. In summary, a model for the biosynthesis of ICHO and ICOOH derivatives is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Böttcher
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
| | - Alexandra Chapman
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
| | - Franziska Fellermeier
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
| | - Manisha Choudhary
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
| | - Dierk Scheel
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
| | - Erich Glawischnig
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany (C.B., D.S.); andLehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, 85354 Freising, Germany (A.C., F.F., M.C., E.G.)
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The effects of glucosinolates and their breakdown products on necrotrophic fungi. PLoS One 2013; 8:e70771. [PMID: 23940639 PMCID: PMC3733641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucosinolates are a diverse class of S- and N-containing secondary metabolites that play a variety of roles in plant defense. In this study, we used Arabidopsis thaliana mutants that contain different amounts of glucosinolates and glucosinolate-breakdown products to study the effects of these phytochemicals on phytopathogenic fungi. We compared the fungus Botrytis cinerea, which infects a variety of hosts, with the Brassicaceae-specific fungus Alternaria brassicicola. B. cinerea isolates showed variable composition-dependent sensitivity to glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products, while A. brassicicola was more strongly affected by aliphatic glucosinolates and isothiocyanates as decomposition products. We also found that B. cinerea stimulates the accumulation of glucosinolates to a greater extent than A. brassicicola. In our work with A. brassicicola, we found that the type of glucosinolate-breakdown product is more important than the type of glucosinolate from which that product was derived, as demonstrated by the sensitivity of the Ler background and the sensitivity gained in Col-0 plants expressing epithiospecifier protein both of which accumulate simple nitrile and epithionitriles, but not isothiocyanates. Furthermore, in vivo, hydrolysis products of indole glucosinolates were found to be involved in defense against B. cinerea, but not in the host response to A. brassicicola. We suggest that the Brassicaceae-specialist A. brassicicola has adapted to the presence of indolic glucosinolates and can cope with their hydrolysis products. In contrast, some isolates of the generalist B. cinerea are more sensitive to these phytochemicals.
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Buxdorf K, Yaffe H, Barda O, Levy M. The effects of glucosinolates and their breakdown products on necrotrophic fungi. PLoS One 2013. [PMID: 23940639 DOI: 10.1371/journalpone0070771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucosinolates are a diverse class of S- and N-containing secondary metabolites that play a variety of roles in plant defense. In this study, we used Arabidopsis thaliana mutants that contain different amounts of glucosinolates and glucosinolate-breakdown products to study the effects of these phytochemicals on phytopathogenic fungi. We compared the fungus Botrytis cinerea, which infects a variety of hosts, with the Brassicaceae-specific fungus Alternaria brassicicola. B. cinerea isolates showed variable composition-dependent sensitivity to glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products, while A. brassicicola was more strongly affected by aliphatic glucosinolates and isothiocyanates as decomposition products. We also found that B. cinerea stimulates the accumulation of glucosinolates to a greater extent than A. brassicicola. In our work with A. brassicicola, we found that the type of glucosinolate-breakdown product is more important than the type of glucosinolate from which that product was derived, as demonstrated by the sensitivity of the Ler background and the sensitivity gained in Col-0 plants expressing epithiospecifier protein both of which accumulate simple nitrile and epithionitriles, but not isothiocyanates. Furthermore, in vivo, hydrolysis products of indole glucosinolates were found to be involved in defense against B. cinerea, but not in the host response to A. brassicicola. We suggest that the Brassicaceae-specialist A. brassicicola has adapted to the presence of indolic glucosinolates and can cope with their hydrolysis products. In contrast, some isolates of the generalist B. cinerea are more sensitive to these phytochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kobi Buxdorf
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
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van de Mortel JE, de Vos RC, Dekkers E, Pineda A, Guillod L, Bouwmeester K, van Loon JJ, Dicke M, Raaijmakers JM. Metabolic and transcriptomic changes induced in Arabidopsis by the rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens SS101. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 160:2173-88. [PMID: 23073694 PMCID: PMC3510139 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.207324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Systemic resistance induced in plants by nonpathogenic rhizobacteria is typically effective against multiple pathogens. Here, we show that root-colonizing Pseudomonas fluorescens strain SS101 (Pf.SS101) enhanced resistance in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) against several bacterial pathogens, including Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) and the insect pest Spodoptera exigua. Transcriptomic analysis and bioassays with specific Arabidopsis mutants revealed that, unlike many other rhizobacteria, the Pf.SS101-induced resistance response to Pst is dependent on salicylic acid signaling and not on jasmonic acid and ethylene signaling. Genome-wide transcriptomic and untargeted metabolomic analyses showed that in roots and leaves of Arabidopsis plants treated with Pf.SS101, approximately 1,910 genes and 50 metabolites were differentially regulated relative to untreated plants. Integration of both sets of "omics" data pointed to a prominent role of camalexin and glucosinolates in the Pf.SS101-induced resistance response. Subsequent bioassays with seven Arabidopsis mutants (myb51, cyp79B2cyp79B3, cyp81F2, pen2, cyp71A12, cyp71A13, and myb28myb29) disrupted in the biosynthesis pathways for these plant secondary metabolites showed that camalexin and glucosinolates are indeed required for the induction of Pst resistance by Pf.SS101. Also for the insect S. exigua, the indolic glucosinolates appeared to play a role in the Pf.SS101-induced resistance response. This study provides, to our knowledge for the first time, insight into the substantial biochemical and temporal transcriptional changes in Arabidopsis associated with the salicylic acid-dependent resistance response induced by specific rhizobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith E. van de Mortel
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Ric C.H. de Vos
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Ester Dekkers
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Ana Pineda
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Leandre Guillod
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Klaas Bouwmeester
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Joop J.A. van Loon
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
| | - Jos M. Raaijmakers
- Laboratory of Phytopathology (J.E.v.d.M., E.D., L.G., K.B., J.M.R.) and Laboratory of Entomology (A.P., J.J.A.v.L., M.D.), Wageningen University, and Plant Research International (R.C.H.d.V.), 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Metabolomics Centre, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V.); and Centre for BioSystems Genomics, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands (R.C.H.d.V., K.B.)
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Yan J, Sun LR, Zhou ZY, Chen YC, Zhang WM, Dai HF, Tan JW. Homoisoflavonoids from the medicinal plant Portulaca oleracea. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2012; 80:37-41. [PMID: 22683318 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Four homoisoflavonoids named portulacanones A-D, identified as 2'-hydroxy- 5,7-dimethoxy-3-benzyl-chroman-4-one, 2'-hydroxy-5,6,7-trimethoxy-3-benzyl-chroman-4-one, 5,2'-dihydroxy-6,7-dimethoxy-3-benzyl-chroman-4-one, and 5,2'-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-3-benzylidene-chroman-4-one, were isolated from aerial parts of the plant Portulaca oleracea along with nine other known metabolites. Their structures were established on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses. Portulacanones A-D is the first group of homoisoflavonoids so far reported from the family Portulacaceae. They represent a rare subclass of homoisoflavonoids in nature with a structural feature of a single hydroxyl group substituted at C-2' rather than at C-4' in ring B of the skeleton. Three homoisoflavonoids and the known compound 2,2'-dihydroxy-4',6'-dimethoxychalcone selectively showed in vitro cytotoxic activities towards four human cancer cell lines. Especially 2,2'-dihydroxy-4',6'-dimethoxychalcone showed cytotoxic activity against cell line SGC-7901 with an IC₅₀ value of 1.6 μg/ml, which was more potent than the reference compound mitomycin C (IC₅₀ 13.0 μg/ml).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yan
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
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14
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Wang MY, Liu XT, Chen Y, Xu XJ, Yu B, Zhang SQ, Li Q, He ZH. Arabidopsis acetyl-amido synthetase GH3.5 involvement in camalexin biosynthesis through conjugation of indole-3-carboxylic acid and cysteine and upregulation of camalexin biosynthesis genes. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2012; 54:471-85. [PMID: 22624950 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2012.01131.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Camalexin (3-thiazol-2'-yl-indole) is the major phytoalexin found in Arabidopsis thaliana. Several key intermediates and corresponding enzymes have been identified in camalexin biosynthesis through mutant screening and biochemical experiments. Camalexin is formed when indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN) is catalyzed by the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP71A13. Here, we demonstrate that the Arabidopsis GH3.5 protein, a multifunctional acetyl-amido synthetase, is involved in camalexin biosynthesis via conjugating indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA) and cysteine (Cys) and regulating camalexin biosynthesis genes. Camalexin levels were increased in the activation-tagged mutant gh3.5-1D in both Col-0 and cyp71A13-2 mutant backgrounds after pathogen infection. The recombinant GH3.5 protein catalyzed the conjugation of ICA and Cys to form a possible intermediate indole-3-acyl-cysteinate (ICA(Cys)) in vitro. In support of the in vitro reaction, feeding with ICA and Cys increased camalexin levels in Col-0 and gh3.5-1D. Dihydrocamalexic acid (DHCA), the precursor of camalexin and the substrate for PAD3, was accumulated in gh3.5-1D/pad3-1, suggesting that ICA(Cys) could be an additional precursor of DHCA for camalexin biosynthesis. Furthermore, expression of the major camalexin biosynthesis genes CYP79B2, CYP71A12, CYP71A13 and PAD3 was strongly induced in gh3.5-1D. Our study suggests that GH3.5 is involved in camalexin biosynthesis through direct catalyzation of the formation of ICA(Cys), and upregulation of the major biosynthetic pathway genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mu-Yang Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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15
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Bednarek P, Piślewska-Bednarek M, Ver Loren van Themaat E, Maddula RK, Svatoš A, Schulze-Lefert P. Conservation and clade-specific diversification of pathogen-inducible tryptophan and indole glucosinolate metabolism in Arabidopsis thaliana relatives. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 192:713-26. [PMID: 21793828 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03824.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
• A hallmark of the innate immune system of plants is the biosynthesis of low-molecular-weight compounds referred to as secondary metabolites. Tryptophan-derived branch pathways contribute to the capacity for chemical defense against microbes in Arabidopsis thaliana. • Here, we investigated phylogenetic patterns of this metabolic pathway in relatives of A. thaliana following inoculation with filamentous fungal pathogens that employ contrasting infection strategies. • The study revealed unexpected phylogenetic conservation of the pathogen-induced indole glucosinolate (IG) metabolic pathway, including a metabolic shift of IG biosynthesis to 4-methoxyindol-3-ylmethylglucosinolate and IG metabolization. By contrast, indole-3-carboxylic acid and camalexin biosyntheses are clade-specific innovations within this metabolic framework. A Capsella rubella accession was found to be devoid of any IG metabolites and to lack orthologs of two A. thaliana genes needed for 4-methoxyindol-3-ylmethylglucosinolate biosynthesis or hydrolysis. However, C. rubella was found to retain the capacity to deposit callose after treatment with the bacterial flagellin-derived epitope flg22 and pre-invasive resistance against a nonadapted powdery mildew fungus. • We conclude that pathogen-inducible IG metabolism in the Brassicaceae is evolutionarily ancient, while other tryptophan-derived branch pathways represent relatively recent manifestations of a plant-pathogen arms race. Moreover, at least one Brassicaceae lineage appears to have evolved IG-independent defense signaling and/or output pathway(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Bednarek
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Köln, Germany.
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16
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Clay NK. Chemical diversity on display in the plant innate immune systems of closely-related species. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 192:566-569. [PMID: 22007882 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03921.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole K Clay
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
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Bak S, Beisson F, Bishop G, Hamberger B, Höfer R, Paquette S, Werck-Reichhart D. Cytochromes p450. THE ARABIDOPSIS BOOK 2011; 9:e0144. [PMID: 22303269 PMCID: PMC3268508 DOI: 10.1199/tab.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
There are 244 cytochrome P450 genes (and 28 pseudogenes) in the Arabidopsis genome. P450s thus form one of the largest gene families in plants. Contrary to what was initially thought, this family diversification results in very limited functional redundancy and seems to mirror the complexity of plant metabolism. P450s sometimes share less than 20% identity and catalyze extremely diverse reactions leading to the precursors of structural macromolecules such as lignin, cutin, suberin and sporopollenin, or are involved in biosynthesis or catabolism of all hormone and signaling molecules, of pigments, odorants, flavors, antioxidants, allelochemicals and defense compounds, and in the metabolism of xenobiotics. The mechanisms of gene duplication and diversification are getting better understood and together with co-expression data provide leads to functional characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Bak
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Fred Beisson
- Department of Plant Biology and Environmental Microbiology, CEA/CNRS/Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 6191 Cadarache, F-13108 Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France
| | - Gerard Bishop
- Division of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ
| | - Björn Hamberger
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - René Höfer
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, CNRS UPR 2357, University of Strasbourg, 28 rue Goethe, F-67083 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Suzanne Paquette
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Biological Structure, HSB G-514, Box 357420, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-9420
| | - Danièle Werck-Reichhart
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, CNRS UPR 2357, University of Strasbourg, 28 rue Goethe, F-67083 Strasbourg Cedex, France
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Ward JL, Forcat S, Beckmann M, Bennett M, Miller SJ, Baker JM, Hawkins ND, Vermeer CP, Lu C, Lin W, Truman WM, Beale MH, Draper J, Mansfield JW, Grant M. The metabolic transition during disease following infection of Arabidopsis thaliana by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 63:443-57. [PMID: 20497374 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2010.04254.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The outcome of bacterial infection in plants is determined by the ability of the pathogen to successfully occupy the apoplastic space and deliver a constellation of effectors that collectively suppress basal and effector-triggered immune responses. In this study, we examined the metabolic changes associated with establishment of disease using analytical techniques that interrogated a range of chemistries. We demonstrated clear differences in the metabolome of Arabidopsis thaliana leaves infected with virulent Pseudomonas syringae within 8 h of infection. In addition to confirmation of changes in phenolic and indolic compounds, we identified rapid alterations in the abundance of amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds, specific classes of glucosinolates, disaccharides, and molecules that influence the prevalence of reactive oxygen species. Our data illustrate that, superimposed on defence suppression, pathogens reconfigure host metabolism to provide the sustenance required to support exponentially growing populations of apoplastically localized bacteria. We performed a detailed baseline study reporting the metabolic dynamics associated with bacterial infection. Moreover, we have integrated these data with the results of transcriptome profiling to distinguish metabolomic pathways that are transcriptionally activated from those that are post-transcriptionally regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane L Ward
- National Centre for Plant and Microbial Metabolomics, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, AL5 2JQ, UKDivision of Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UKInstitute of Biological Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Penglais Campus, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, UKSchool of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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Forcat S, Bennett M, Grant M, Mansfield JW. Rapid linkage of indole carboxylic acid to the plant cell wall identified as a component of basal defence in Arabidopsis against hrp mutant bacteria. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:870-876. [PMID: 20359727 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Changes occurring to plant cell walls were examined following inoculation of Arabidopsis leaves with pathogenic and non-pathogenic (hrpA mutant) strains of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. We have targeted low molecular weight, cross-linked phenolic and indolic compounds that were released from wall preparations by alkaline hydrolysis at 70 degrees C and in a microwave bomb. Significantly higher concentrations of syringaldehyde, p hydroxybenzaldehyde and indole carboxylic acid were recovered from cell walls isolated from leaves 24h after challenge with the hrpA mutant compared with wild-type DC3000. Time course experiments showed that the accumulation of indole carboxylic acid and the other group of differentiating metabolites had occurred within 12h of inoculation. The callose synthase deficient mutant pmr4-1 was more resistant than wild-type Columbia plants to P. syringae pv. tomato. Restricted bacterial multiplication was associated with increased accumulation of indole carboxylic acid on the plant cell wall. In the absence of callose deposition in the pmr 4-1 mutant, indolic derivatives may serve as a structural scaffold for wall modifications following bacterial challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Forcat
- Division of Biology, Imperial College London, London, UK
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20
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Morant M, Ekstrøm C, Ulvskov P, Kristensen C, Rudemo M, Olsen CE, Hansen J, Jørgensen K, Jørgensen B, Møller BL, Bak S. Metabolomic, transcriptional, hormonal, and signaling cross-talk in superroot2. MOLECULAR PLANT 2010; 3:192-211. [PMID: 20008451 PMCID: PMC2807926 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssp098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Auxin homeostasis is pivotal for normal plant growth and development. The superroot2 (sur2) mutant was initially isolated in a forward genetic screen for auxin overproducers, and SUR2 was suggested to control auxin conjugation and thereby regulate auxin homeostasis. However, the phenotype was not uniform and could not be described as a pure high auxin phenotype, indicating that knockout of CYP83B1 has multiple effects. Subsequently, SUR2 was identified as CYP83B1, a cytochrome P450 positioned at the metabolic branch point between auxin and indole glucosinolate metabolism. To investigate concomitant global alterations triggered by knockout of CYP83B1 and the countermeasures chosen by the mutant to cope with hormonal and metabolic imbalances, 10-day-old mutant seedlings were characterized with respect to their transcriptome and metabolome profiles. Here, we report a global analysis of the sur2 mutant by the use of a combined transcriptomic and metabolomic approach revealing pronounced effects on several metabolic grids including the intersection between secondary metabolism, cell wall turnover, hormone metabolism, and stress responses. Metabolic and transcriptional cross-talks in sur2 were found to be regulated by complex interactions between both positively and negatively acting transcription factors. The complex phenotype of sur2 may thus not only be assigned to elevated levels of auxin, but also to ethylene and abscisic acid responses as well as drought responses in the absence of a water deficiency. The delicate balance between these signals explains why minute changes in growth conditions may result in the non-uniform phenotype. The large phenotypic variation observed between and within the different surveys may be reconciled by the complex and intricate hormonal balances in sur2 seedlings decoded in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Morant
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claus Ekstrøm
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Ulvskov
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Mats Rudemo
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carl Erik Olsen
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jørgen Hansen
- Evolva A/S, Bülowsvej 25, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kirsten Jørgensen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bodil Jørgensen
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Birger Lindberg Møller
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Bak
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VKR research centre ‘Pro-Active Plants’, Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Applied Bioinformatics at LIFE, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail , fax +45 353 33333, tel. +45 353 33346
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Mansfield JW. From bacterial avirulence genes to effector functions via the hrp delivery system: an overview of 25 years of progress in our understanding of plant innate immunity. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2009; 10:721-34. [PMID: 19849780 PMCID: PMC6640528 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2009.00576.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cloning the first avirulence (avr) gene has led not only to a deeper understanding of gene-for-gene interactions in plant disease, but also to fundamental insights into the suppression of basal defences against microbial attack. This article (focusing on Pseudomonas syringae) charts the development of ideas and research progress over the 25 years following the breakthrough achieved by Staskawicz and coworkers. Advances in gene cloning technology underpinned the identification of both avr and hrp genes, the latter being required for the activation of the defensive hypersensitive reaction (HR) and pathogenicity. The delivery of Avr proteins through the type III secretion machinery encoded by hrp gene clusters was demonstrated, and the activity of the proteins inside plant cells as elicitors of the HR was confirmed. Key roles for avr genes in pathogenic fitness have now been established. The rebranding of Avr proteins as effectors, proteins that suppress the HR and cell wall-based defences, has led to the ongoing search for their targets, and is generating new insights into the co-ordination of plant resistance against diverse microbes. Bioinformatics-led analysis of effector gene distribution in genomes has provided a remarkable view of the interchange of effectors and also their functional domains, as the arms race of attack and defence drives the evolution of microbial pathogenicity. The application of our accrued knowledge for the development of disease control strategies is considered.
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Simoh S, Quintana N, Kim HK, Choi YH, Verpoorte R. Metabolic changes in Agrobacterium tumefaciens-infected Brassica rapa. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 166:1005-14. [PMID: 19346030 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2008.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Agrobacterium has the ability to transfer its genetic material, T-DNA, into the plant genome. The unique interaction between the bacterium and its host plant has been well studied at the transcriptome, but not at the metabolic level. For a better understanding of this interaction it is necessary to investigate the metabolic changes of the host plant upon infection with Agrobacterium tumefaciens. This study investigated the metabolic response of Brassica rapa to infection with disarmed and tumor-inducing strains of A. tumefaciens using (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with multivariate data analysis. The partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) of two varieties of B. rapa showed that there was a clear differentiation in the metabolite profiles of B. rapa leaves infected with the disarmed strain LBA4404 and with tumor-inducing octopine and nopaline strains, particularly in the flavonoid, phenylpropanoid, sugar and free amino/organic acid contents. However, individual PLS-DA of each type of infection suggests that, in general, some flavonoids and phenylpropanoids were suppressed as a consequence of these infections. The results obtained in this study indicate that the disarmed strain LBA4404 and tumor-inducing strains have different effects on the metabolite profile of B. rapa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanimah Simoh
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Section Metabolomics, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, P.O. Box 9502, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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Böttcher C, Westphal L, Schmotz C, Prade E, Scheel D, Glawischnig E. The multifunctional enzyme CYP71B15 (PHYTOALEXIN DEFICIENT3) converts cysteine-indole-3-acetonitrile to camalexin in the indole-3-acetonitrile metabolic network of Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT CELL 2009; 21:1830-45. [PMID: 19567706 PMCID: PMC2714930 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.109.066670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Accumulation of camalexin, the characteristic phytoalexin of Arabidopsis thaliana, is induced by a great variety of plant pathogens. It is derived from Trp, which is converted to indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN) by successive action of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP79B2/B3 and CYP71A13. Extracts from wild-type plants and camalexin biosynthetic mutants, treated with silver nitrate or inoculated with Phytophthora infestans, were comprehensively analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. This metabolomics approach was combined with precursor feeding experiments to characterize the IAN metabolic network and to identify novel biosynthetic intermediates and metabolites of camalexin. Indole-3-carbaldehyde and indole-3-carboxylic acid derivatives were shown to originate from IAN. IAN conjugates with glutathione, gamma-glutamylcysteine, and cysteine [Cys(IAN)] accumulated in challenged phytoalexin deficient3 (pad3) mutants. Cys(IAN) rescued the camalexin-deficient phenotype of cyp79b2 cyp79b3 and was itself converted to dihydrocamalexic acid (DHCA), the known substrate of CYP71B15 (PAD3), by microsomes isolated from silver nitrate-treated Arabidopsis leaves. Surprisingly, yeast-expressed CYP71B15 also catalyzed thiazoline ring closure, DHCA formation, and cyanide release with Cys(IAN) as substrate. In conclusion, in the camalexin biosynthetic pathway, IAN is derivatized to the intermediate Cys(IAN), which serves as substrate of the multifunctional cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP71B15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Böttcher
- Department of Stress, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany
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Kwon C, Bednarek P, Schulze-Lefert P. Secretory pathways in plant immune responses. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 147:1575-83. [PMID: 18678749 PMCID: PMC2492620 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.121566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2008] [Accepted: 06/10/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chian Kwon
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max-Planck Institut für Züchtungsforschung, D-50829 Cologne, Germany
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25
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Pedras MSC, Zheng QA, Gadagi RS, Rimmer SR. Phytoalexins and polar metabolites from the oilseeds canola and rapeseed: differential metabolic responses to the biotroph Albugo candida and to abiotic stress. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2008; 69:894-910. [PMID: 18039546 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2007] [Revised: 10/01/2007] [Accepted: 10/15/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The metabolites produced in leaves of the oilseeds canola and rapeseed (Brassica rapa L.) inoculated with either different races of the biotroph Albugo candida or sprayed with CuCl(2) were determined. This investigation established consistent phytoalexin (spirobrassinin, cyclobrassinin, and rutalexin) and phytoanticipin (indolyl-3-acetonitrile, arvelexin, caulilexin C, and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin) production in canola and rapeseed in response to both biotic and abiotic elicitation. In addition, a wide number of polar metabolites were isolated from infected leaves, including six new phenylpropanoids and two new flavonoids. The extractable chemical components of zoosporangia of A. candida and the anti-oomycete activity of phytoalexins were determined as well. Overall, the results suggest that during the initial stage of the interaction, leaves of B. rapa have a similar response to virulent and avirulent races of A. candida, with respect to the accumulation of chemical defenses. After this stage, despite the higher phytoalexin concentration, the "compatible" races could overcome the plant defense system for further infection, but growth of the "incompatible" races was inhibited. Since results of bioassays showed that cyclobrassinin and brassilexin were more inhibitory to A. candida than rutalexin, the apparent redirection of the phytoalexin pathway towards rutalexin, avoiding cyclobrassinin and brassilexin accumulation might be caused by the pathogen. Alternatively, A. candida might be able to detoxify both cyclobrassinin and brassilexin, similar to necrotrophic plant pathogens. Overall, the correlation between phytoalexin production in infected or stressed leaves and the outcome of the plant-pathogen interaction suggested that A. candida was able to elude the plant defense mechanisms by, for example, redirecting the phytoalexin biosynthetic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Soledade C Pedras
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5C9.
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26
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Abstract
Camalexin (3-thiazol-2'-yl-indole) is the characteristic phytoalexin of Arabidopsis thaliana, which is induced by a great variety of plant pathogens. While particular pathogens, as well as a human tumour cell line, were growth inhibited by camalexin, some fungi show resistance due to active degradation. Camalexin originates from tryptophan and its biosynthesis involves the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP79B2 and CYP71B15 (PAD3). Camalexin induction is a complex process, for which triggering by reactive oxygen species (ROS), salicylic acid signalling, and the glutathione status are important. Targets of the signalling cascade are the tryptophan and camalexin biosynthetic genes, which are strongly transcriptionally upregulated at the sites of pathogen infection. The important knowledge on camalexin, which is reviewed in this paper, will help to establish camalexin as a model for the investigation of the significance of phytoalexins in response pathogen challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich Glawischnig
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, Am Hochanger 8, 85350 Freising, Germany.
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Hückelhoven R. Cell wall-associated mechanisms of disease resistance and susceptibility. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2007; 45:101-27. [PMID: 17352660 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.45.062806.094325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The plant cuticle and cell wall separate microbial pathogens from the products of plant metabolism. While microbial pathogens try to breach these barriers for colonization, plants respond to attempted penetration by a battery of wall-associated defense reactions. Successful pathogens circumvent or suppress plant nonself recognition and basal defense during penetration and during microbial reproduction. Additionally, accommodation of fungal infection structures within intact cells requires host reprogramming. Recent data highlight that both early plant defense to fungal penetration and host reprogramming for susceptibility can function at the host cell periphery. Genetic evidence has also widened our understanding of how fungal pathogens are restricted during penetration at the plant cell wall. This review summarizes the current view of how plants monitor and model their cell periphery during interaction with microbial invaders.
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Bellés JM, Garro R, Pallás V, Fayos J, Rodrigo I, Conejero V. Accumulation of gentisic acid as associated with systemic infections but not with the hypersensitive response in plant-pathogen interactions. PLANTA 2006; 223:500-11. [PMID: 16331468 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-005-0109-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In the present work we have studied the accumulation of gentisic acid (2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, a metabolic derivative of salicylic acid, SA) in the plant-pathogen systems, Cucumis sativus and Gynura aurantiaca, infected with either prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) or the exocortis viroid (CEVd), respectively. Both pathogens produced systemic infections and accumulated large amounts of the intermediary signal molecule gentisic acid as ascertained by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) coupled on line with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The compound was found mostly in a conjugated (beta-glucoside) form. Gentisic acid has also been found to accumulate (although at lower levels) in cucumber inoculated with low doses of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, producing a nonnecrotic reaction. In contrast, when cucumber was inoculated with high doses of this pathogen, a hypersensitive reaction occurred, but no gentisic-acid signal was induced. This is consistent with our results supporting the idea that gentisic-acid signaling may be restricted to nonnecrotizing reactions of the host plant (Bellés et al. in Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 12:227-235, 1999). In cucumber and Gynura plants, the activity of gentisic acid as inducing signal was different to that of SA, thus confirming the data found for tomato. Exogenously supplied gentisic acid was able to induce peroxidase activity in both Gynura and cucumber plants in a similar way as SA or pathogens. However, gentisic-acid treatments strongly induced polyphenol oxidase activity in cucumber, whereas pathogen infection or SA treatment resulted in a lower induction of this enzyme. Nevertheless, gentisic acid did not induce other defensive proteins which are induced by SA in these plants. This indicates that gentisic acid could act as an additional signal to SA for the activation of plant defenses in cucumber and Gynura plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Bellés
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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Fayos J, Bellés JM, López-Gresa MP, Primo J, Conejero V. Induction of gentisic acid 5-O-beta-D-xylopyranoside in tomato and cucumber plants infected by different pathogens. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2006; 67:142-8. [PMID: 16321412 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2005] [Revised: 10/11/2005] [Accepted: 10/12/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Tomato plants infected with the citrus exocortis viroid exhibited strongly elevated levels of a compound identified as 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (gentisic acid, GA) 5-O-beta-D-xylopyranoside. The compound accumulated early in leaves expressing mild symptoms from both citrus exocortis viroid-infected tomato, and prunus necrotic ringspot virus-infected cucumber plants, and progressively accumulated concomitant with symptom development. The work presented here demonstrates that GA, mainly associated with systemic infections in compatible plant-pathogen interactions [Bellés, J.M., Garro, R., Fayos, J., Navarro, P., Primo, J., Conejero, V., 1999. Gentisic acid as a pathogen-inducible signal, additional to salicylic acid for activation of plant defenses in tomato. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 12, 227-235], is conjugated to xylose. Notably, this result contrasts with those previously found in other plant-pathogen interactions in which phenolics analogues of GA as benzoic or salicylic acids, are conjugated to glucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín Fayos
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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Hansen BG, Halkier BA. New insight into the biosynthesis and regulation of indole compounds in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANTA 2005; 221:603-6. [PMID: 15931500 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-005-1553-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2004] [Accepted: 03/22/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
In spite of their silent and sessile life, plants are dynamic organisms that have developed advanced defence strategies in their adaptation to the pressure of herbivores and pathogens. Natural plant products play an important role as chemical weapons in this warfare. Characteristic of cruciferous plants is the synthesis of nitrogen- and sulphur-rich compounds, such as glucosinolates (Mikkelsen et al. 2002) and indole alkaloids (Pedras et al. 2000). Glucosinolates are believed to be largely non-toxic, but upon tissue disruption, they are hydrolyzed by endogenous beta-thioglucosidases (myrosinases) (Rask et al. 2000) to primarily isothiocyanates and nitriles, which have many biological activities. These include not only important roles as repellents against herbivorous insects and microorganisms, but also as volatile attraction of specialized insects (Wittstock and Halkier 2002). For humans, these compounds serve as cancer-preventive agents, biopesticides, and flavor compounds (Talalay and Fahey 2001). Indole alkaloids are phytoalexins and production of specific alkaloids is usually limited to only a few species. Cruciferous plants include the model plant Arabidopsis, which produces the indole alkaloid camalexin. This review will focus on the central role of indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx) in the biosynthesis of indole glucosinolates, camalexin, and the phytohormone IAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjarne Gram Hansen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology, and Center of Molecular Plant Physiology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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D'Auria JC, Gershenzon J. The secondary metabolism of Arabidopsis thaliana: growing like a weed. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2005; 8:308-16. [PMID: 15860428 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2005.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Despite its small stature, short life-cycle and highly reduced genome, Arabidopsis thaliana has a complement of secondary metabolites that is every bit as numerous and diverse as those of other plant taxa. The list of secondary metabolites isolated from this model species has expanded more than five-fold in the past ten years, and many more substances are likely to be added in the near future. Among the classes of compounds recently discovered are coumarins, benzenoids and terpenoids. Many A. thaliana secondary metabolites appear to have internal roles within the plant instead of (or in addition to) mediating ecological interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C D'Auria
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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Bednarek P, Schneider B, Svatos A, Oldham NJ, Hahlbrock K. Structural complexity, differential response to infection, and tissue specificity of indolic and phenylpropanoid secondary metabolism in Arabidopsis roots. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 138:1058-70. [PMID: 15923335 PMCID: PMC1150420 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.057794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Levels of indolic and phenylpropanoid secondary metabolites in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaves undergo rapid and drastic changes during pathogen defense, yet little is known about this process in roots. Using Arabidopsis wild-type and mutant root cultures as an experimental system, and the root-pathogenic oomycete, Pythium sylvaticum, for infections, we analyzed the aromatic metabolite profiles in soluble extracts from uninfected and infected roots, as well as from the surrounding medium. A total of 16 indolic, one heterocyclic, and three phenylpropanoid compounds were structurally identified by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses. Most of the indolics increased strongly upon infection, whereas the three phenylpropanoids decreased. Concomitant increases in both indolic and phenylpropanoid biosynthetic mRNAs suggested that phenylpropanoids other than those examined here in "soluble extracts" were coinduced with the indolics. These and previous results indicate that roots differ greatly from leaves with regard to the nature and relative abundance of all major soluble phenylpropanoid constituents. For indolics, by contrast, our data reveal far-reaching similarities between roots and leaves and, beyond this comparative aspect, provide an insight into this highly diversified yet under-explored metabolic realm. The data point to metabolic interconnections among the compounds identified and suggest a partial revision of the previously proposed camalexin pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel Bednarek
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, D-50829 Cologne, Germany.
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33
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Xu Z, Escamilla-Treviño L, Zeng L, Lalgondar M, Bevan D, Winkel B, Mohamed A, Cheng CL, Shih MC, Poulton J, Esen A. Functional genomic analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana glycoside hydrolase family 1. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 55:343-67. [PMID: 15604686 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-004-0790-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In plants, Glycoside Hydrolase (GH) Family 1 beta -glycosidases are believed to play important roles in many diverse processes including chemical defense against herbivory, lignification, hydrolysis of cell wall-derived oligosaccharides during germination, and control of active phytohormone levels. Completion of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome sequencing project has enabled us, for the first time, to determine the total number of Family 1 members in a higher plant. Reiterative database searches revealed a multigene family of 48 members that includes eight probable pseudogenes. Manual reannotation and analysis of the entire family were undertaken to rectify existing misannotations and identify phylogenetic relationships among family members. Forty-seven members (designated BGLU1 through BGLU47 ) share a common evolutionary origin and were subdivided into approximately 10 subfamilies based on phylogenetic analysis and consideration of intron-exon organizations. The forty-eighth member of this family ( At3g06510; sfr2 ) is a beta -glucosidase-like gene that belongs to a distinct lineage. Information pertaining to expression patterns and potential functions of Arabidopsis GH Family 1 members is presented. To determine the biological function of all family members, we intend to investigate the substrate specificity of each mature hydrolase after its heterologous expression in the Pichia pastoris expression system. To test the validity of this approach, the BGLU44 -encoded hydrolase was expressed in P. pastoris and purified to homogeneity. When tested against a wide range of natural and synthetic substrates, this enzyme showed a preference for beta -mannosides including 1,4- beta -D-mannooligosaccharides, suggesting that it may be involved in A. thaliana in degradation of mannans, galactomannans, or glucogalactomannans. Supporting this notion, BGLU44 shared high sequence identity and similar gene organization with tomato endosperm beta -mannosidase and barley seed beta -glucosidase/ beta -mannosidase BGQ60.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Xu
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa 52242, USA
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Tan J, Bednarek P, Liu J, Schneider B, Svatos A, Hahlbrock K. Universally occurring phenylpropanoid and species-specific indolic metabolites in infected and uninfected Arabidopsis thaliana roots and leaves. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2004; 65:691-699. [PMID: 15016565 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2003.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2003] [Revised: 11/21/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A total of eleven alkali-released, aromatic compounds were identified by HPLC, MS and NMR analyses in cell wall extracts from Arabidopsis thaliana roots. Nine of them together constituted the three complete series of 4-hydroxy-, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy, and 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-substituted benzaldehydes, benzoic acids and cinnamic acids. The other two were indolic metabolites: indole-3-carboxylic acid and indole-3-carbaldehyde. Qualitatively similar, but quantitatively distinct profiles were obtained using cell-wall extracts from A. thaliana leaves. Several of these compounds, particularly indole-3-carboxylic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and all four aldehydes, increased considerably in concentration upon infection of roots with Pythium sylvaticum, as did at least some of them upon infection of leaves with Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato. Comparison of these results with analogous data on a variety of different plant species suggests a remarkable structural uniformity among the majority of constitutive as well as infection-induced, aromatic cell wall-bound compounds throughout the entire plant kingdom-in sharp contrast to the highly species-specific, chemically highly divers bouquets of soluble aromatic metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwen Tan
- Max-Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
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Wright CA, Beattie GA. Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato cells encounter inhibitory levels of water stress during the hypersensitive response of Arabidopsis thaliana. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:3269-74. [PMID: 14981249 PMCID: PMC365779 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0400461101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
During plant defense against bacterial pathogens, the hypersensitive response (HR) functions to restrict pathogen growth and spread. The mechanisms driving this growth restriction are poorly understood. We used a water stress-responsive transcriptional fusion to quantify the water potential sensed by individual Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 cells during infection of Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. A nonpathogenic DC3000 hrcC mutant defective in type III secretion, as well as the saprophyte Pseudomonas fluorescens A506, sensed water potentials of -0.3 to -0.4 MPa at 48 h postinfiltration (hpi). During pathogenesis, DC3000 sensed lower water potentials (-0.4 to -0.9 MPa), demonstrating that it can modify the intercellular environment, and these water potentials were associated with optimal DC3000 growth in culture. During the HR, DC3000 cells sensed water potentials (-1.6 to -2.2 MPa) that were low enough to prevent cell division in the majority of cells in culture. This water potential decrease occurred within only 4 hpi and was influenced by avirulence gene expression, with avrRpm1 expression associated with lower water potentials than avrRpt2 or avrB expression at 48 hpi. The population sizes of the DC3000 variants tested were significantly correlated with the apoplastic water potential at 48 hpi, with a decrease of -0.9 MPa associated with a 10-fold decrease in cells per gram of leaf. These results suggest that the apoplastic water potential is a determinant of endophytic bacterial population size, and water stress, resulting from high osmolarity or tissue desiccation, is at least one factor restricting bacterial growth during the HR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Wright
- Department of Plant Pathology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50014, USA
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Bednarek P, Winter J, Hamberger B, Oldham NJ, Schneider B, Tan J, Hahlbrock K. Induction of 3'-O-beta-D-ribofuranosyl adenosine during compatible, but not during incompatible, interactions of Arabidopsis thaliana or Lycopersicon esculentum with Pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato. PLANTA 2004; 218:668-672. [PMID: 14685856 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-003-1146-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2003] [Accepted: 09/30/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
All hitherto identified aromatic compounds accumulating in leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. upon infection with virulent or avirulent strains of Pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato ( Pst) were indolic metabolites. We now report the strong accumulation of a novel type of natural product, 3'-O-beta-D-ribofuranosyl adenosine (3'RA), exclusively during compatible interactions. In contrast to the various indolic metabolites, 3'RA was undetectable in incompatible interactions of A. thaliana leaves with an avirulent Pst strain, as well as in uninfected control leaves. A similar, strong induction of 3'RA was observed in compatible but, again, not in incompatible interactions of Pst with its natural host, Lycopersicon esculentum. The strength of the effect and its confinement to compatible interactions suggests that it may be applicable as a diagnostic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Bednarek
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, 50829 Köln, Germany
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Hahlbrock K, Bednarek P, Ciolkowski I, Hamberger B, Heise A, Liedgens H, Logemann E, Nürnberger T, Schmelzer E, Somssich IE, Tan J. Non-self recognition, transcriptional reprogramming, and secondary metabolite accumulation during plant/pathogen interactions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100 Suppl 2:14569-76. [PMID: 12704242 PMCID: PMC304120 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0831246100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Disease resistance of plants involves two distinct forms of chemical communication with the pathogen: recognition and defense. Both are essential components of a highly complex, multifaceted defense response, which begins with non-self recognition through the perception of pathogen-derived signal molecules and results in the production, inter alia, of antibiotically active compounds (phytoalexins) and cell wall-reinforcing material around the infection site. To elucidate the molecular details and the genomic basis of the underlying chains of events, we used two different experimental systems: suspension-cultured cells of Petroselinum crispum (parsley) and wild-type as well as mutant plants of Arabidopsis thaliana. Particular emphasis was placed on the structural and functional identification of signal and defense molecules, and on the mechanisms of signal perception, intracellular signal transduction and transcriptional reprogramming, including the structural and functional characterization of the responsible cis-acting gene promoter elements and transacting regulatory proteins. Comparing P. crispum and A. thaliana allows us to distinguish species-specific defense mechanisms from more universal responses, and furthermore provides general insights into the nature of the interactions. Despite the complexity of the pathogen defense response, it is experimentally tractable, and knowledge gained so far has opened up a new realm of gene technology-assisted strategies for resistance breeding of crop plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Hahlbrock
- Max-Planck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, D-50829 Köln, Germany.
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Ljun K, Hul AK, Kowalczyk M, Marchant A, Celenza J, Cohen JD, Sandberg G. Biosynthesis, conjugation, catabolism and homeostasis of indole-3-acetic acid in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 50:309-332. [PMID: 12175022 DOI: 10.1023/a:1016024017872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Ljun
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå
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Ljung K, Hull AK, Kowalczyk M, Marchant A, Celenza J, Cohen JD, Sandberg G. Biosynthesis, conjugation, catabolism and homeostasis of indole-3-acetic acid in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 49:249-272. [PMID: 12036253 DOI: 10.1023/a:1015298812300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Ljung
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå
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