Venezuelan encephalitis emergence mediated by a phylogenetically predicted viral mutation

[Comparative analysis of the taxonomic classification criteria for a number of groups of pathogenic DNA and RNA viruses based on genomic data]

The basis for criteria of the taxonomic classification of DNA and RNA viruses based on data of the genomic sequencing are viewed in this review. The genomic sequences of viruses, which have genome represented by double-stranded DNA (orthopoxviruses as example), positive-sense single-stranded RNA (alphaviruses and flaviviruses as example), non-segmented negative-sense single-stranded RNA (filoviruses as example), segmented negative-sense single-stranded RNA (arenaviruses and phleboviruses as example) are analyzed. The levels of genetic variability that determine the assignment of compared viruses to taxa of various orders are established for each group of viruses.

Phagocyte-expressed glycosaminoglycans promote capture of alphaviruses from the blood circulation in a host species-specific manner

The magnitude and duration of vertebrate viremia are critical determinants of arbovirus transmission, geographic spread, and disease severity-yet, mechanisms determining arbovirus viremia levels are poorly defined. Previous studies have drawn associations between in vitro virion-glycosaminoglycan (GAG) interactions and in vivo clearance kinetics of virions from blood circulation. From these observations, it is commonly hypothesized that GAG-binding virions are rapidly removed from circulation due to ubiquitous expression of GAGs by vascular endothelial cells, thereby limiting viremia. Using an in vivo model for viremia, we compared the vascular clearance of low and enhanced GAG-binding viral variants of chikungunya, eastern- (EEEV), and Venezuelan- (VEEV) equine encephalitis viruses. We find GAG-binding virions are more quickly removed from circulation than their non-GAG-binding variant; however individual clearance kinetics vary between GAG-binding viruses, from swift (VEEV) to slow removal from circulation (EEEV). Remarkably, we find phagocytes are required for efficient vascular clearance of some enhanced GAG-binding virions. Moreover, transient depletion of vascular heparan sulfate impedes vascular clearance of only some GAG-binding viral variants and in a phagocyte-dependent manner, implying phagocytes can mediate vascular GAG-virion interactions. Finally, in direct contrast to mice, we find enhanced GAG-binding EEEV is resistant to vascular clearance in avian hosts, suggesting the existence of species-specificity in virion-GAG interactions. In summary, these data support a role for GAG-mediated clearance of some viral particles from the blood circulation, illuminate the potential of blood-contacting phagocytes as a site for GAG-virion binding, and suggest a role for species-specific GAG structures in arbovirus ecology.

Defining the Cynomolgus Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Animal Model for Aerosolized Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis: Importance of Challenge Dose and Viral Subtype

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) outbreaks occur sporadically. Additionally, VEEV has a history of development as a biothreat agent. Yet, no FDA-approved vaccine or therapeutic exists for VEEV disease. The sporadic outbreaks present a challenge for testing medical countermeasures (MCMs) in humans; therefore, well-defined animal models are needed for FDA Animal Rule licensure. The cynomolgus macaque (CM) model has been studied extensively at high challenge doses of the VEEV Trinidad donkey strain (>1.0 × 108 plaque-forming units [PFU]), doses that are too high to be a representative human dose. Based on viremia of two subtypes of VEEV, IC, and IAB, we found the CM infectious dose fifty (ID50) to be low, 12 PFU, and 6.7 PFU, respectively. Additionally, we characterized the pattern of three clinical parameters (viremia, temperature, and lymphopenia) across a range of doses to identify a challenge dose producing consistent signs of infection. Based on these studies, we propose a shift to using a lower challenge dose of 1.0 × 103 PFU in the aerosol CM model of VEEV disease. At this dose, NHPs had the highest viremia, demonstrated a fever response, and had a measurable reduction in complete lymphocyte counts-biomarkers that can demonstrate MCM efficacy.

Everglades virus: an underrecognized disease-causing subtype of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus endemic to Florida, USA

Everglades virus (EVEV) is subtype II of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) complex (Togaviridae: Alphavirus), endemic to Florida, USA. EVEV belongs to a clade that includes both enzootic and epizootic/epidemic VEEV subtypes. Like other enzootic VEEV subtypes, muroid rodents are important vertebrate hosts for EVEV and certain mosquitoes are important vectors. The hispid cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus and cotton mouse Peromyscus gossypinus are important EVEV hosts, based on natural infection (virus isolation and high seropositivity), host competence (experimental infections), and frequency of contact with the vector. The mosquito Culex (Melanoconion) cecedei is the only confirmed vector of EVEV based upon high natural infection rates, efficient vector competence, and frequent feeding upon muroid rodents. Human disease attributed to EVEV is considered rare. However, cases of meningitis and encephalitis are recorded from multiple sites, separated by 250 km or more. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that EVEV is evolving, possibly due to changes in the mammal community. Mutations in the EVEV genome are of concern, given that epidemic strains of VEEV (subtypes IAB and IC) are derived from enzootic subtype ID, the closest genetic relative of EVEV. Should epizootic mutations arise in EVEV, the abundance of Aedes taeniorhynchus and other epizootic VEEV vectors in southern Florida provides a conducive environment for widespread transmission. Other factors that will likely influence the distribution and frequency of EVEV transmission include the establishment of Culex panocossa in Florida, Everglades restoration, mammal community decline due to the Burmese python, land use alteration by humans, and climate change.

The origin and continuing adaptive evolution of chikungunya virus

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is the responsible agent of chikungunya fever, a debilitating arthritic disease in humans. CHIKV is endemic in Africa and Asia, although transmission cycles are considerably different on these continents. Before 2004, CHIKV had received little attention, since it was only known to cause localised outbreaks in a limited region with no fatalities. However, the recent global reemergence of CHIKV has caused serious global health problems and shown its potential to become a significant viral threat in the future. Unexpectedly, the reemergence is more rapid and is geographically more extensive, especially due to increased intensity of global travel systems or failure to contain mosquito populations. Another important factor is the successful adaptation of CHIKV to a new vector, the Aedes albopictus mosquito. Ae. albopictus survives in both temperate and tropical climates, thus facilitating CHIKV expansion to non-endemic regions. The continuous spread and transmission of CHIKV pose challenges for the development of effective vaccines and specific antiviral therapies. In this review, we discuss the biology and origin of CHIKV in Africa as well as its subsequent expansion to other parts of the world. We also review the transmission cycle of CHIKV and its continuing adaptation to its mosquito vectors and vertebrate hosts. More-complete understanding of the continuous evolution of CHIKV may help in predicting the emergence of CHIKV strains with possibly greater transmission efficiency in the future.

A high-throughput screening assay to identify inhibitory antibodies targeting alphavirus release

BACKGROUND

Several studies have demonstrated neutralizing antibodies to be highly effective against alphavirus infection in animal models, both prophylactically and remedially. In most studies, neutralizing antibodies have been evaluated for their ability to block viral entry in vitro but recent evidence suggests that antibody inhibition through other mechanisms, including viral budding/release, significantly contributes to viral control in vivo for a number of alphaviruses.

RESULTS

We describe a BSL-2, cell-based, high-throughput screening system that specifically screens for inhibitors of alphavirus egress using chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Mayaro virus (MAYV) novel replication competent nano-luciferase (nLuc) reporter viruses. Screening of both polyclonal sera and memory B-cell clones from CHIKV immune individuals using the optimized assay detected several antibodies that display potent anti-budding activity.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe an "anti-budding assay" to specifically screen for inhibitors of viral egress using novel CHIKV and MAYV nLuc reporter viruses. This BSL-2 safe, high-throughput system can be utilized to explore neutralizing "anti-budding" antibodies to yield potent candidates for CHIKV and MAYV therapeutics and prophylaxis.

Comparison of Endemic and Epidemic Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Lineages in Culicoides sonorensis Midges

Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) primarily infects livestock and is transmitted by direct contact and vectored by Culicoides midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Endemic to Central and South America, specific VSV lineages spread northward out of endemic regions of Mexico and into the U.S. sporadically every five to ten years. In 2012, a monophyletic epidemic lineage 1.1 successfully spread northward into the U.S. In contrast, the closest endemic ancestor, lineage 1.2, remained circulating exclusively in endemic regions in Mexico. It is not clear what roles virus-animal interactions and/or virus-vector interactions play in the ability of specific viral lineages to escape endemic regions in Mexico and successfully cause outbreaks in the U.S., nor the genetic basis for such incursions. Whole-genome sequencing of epidemic VSV 1.1 and endemic VSV 1.2 revealed significant differences in just seven amino acids. Previous studies in swine showed that VSV 1.1 was more virulent than VSV 1.2. Here, we compared the efficiency of these two viral lineages to infect the vector Culicoides sonorensis (Wirth and Jones) and disseminate to salivary glands for subsequent transmission. Our results showed that midges orally infected with the epidemic VSV 1.1 lineage had significantly higher infection dissemination rates compared to those infected with the endemic VSV 1.2 lineage. Thus, in addition to affecting virus-animal interactions, as seen with higher virulence in pigs, small genetic changes may also affect virus-vector interactions, contributing to the ability of specific viral lineages to escape endemic regions via vector-borne transmission.

Neutralizing antibodies protect mice against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus aerosol challenge

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) remains a risk for epidemic emergence or use as an aerosolized bioweapon. To develop possible countermeasures, we isolated VEEV-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from mice and a human immunized with attenuated VEEV strains. Functional assays and epitope mapping established that potently inhibitory anti-VEEV mAbs bind distinct antigenic sites in the A or B domains of the E2 glycoprotein and block multiple steps in the viral replication cycle including attachment, fusion, and egress. A 3.2-Å cryo-electron microscopy reconstruction of VEEV virus-like particles bound by a human Fab suggests that antibody engagement of the B domain may result in cross-linking of neighboring spikes to prevent conformational requirements for viral fusion. Prophylaxis or postexposure therapy with these mAbs protected mice against lethal aerosol challenge with VEEV. Our study defines functional and structural mechanisms of mAb protection and suggests that multiple antigenic determinants on VEEV can be targeted for vaccine or antibody-based therapeutic development.

Attenuation of Getah Virus by a Single Amino Acid Substitution at Residue 253 of the E2 Protein that Might Be Part of a New Heparan Sulfate Binding Site on Alphaviruses

The emergence of new epidemic variants of alphaviruses poses a public health risk. It is associated with adaptive mutations that often cause increased pathogenicity. Getah virus (GETV), a neglected and re-emerging mosquito-borne alphavirus, poses threat to many domestic animals and probably even humans. At present, the underlying mechanisms of GETV pathogenesis are not well defined. We identified a residue in the E2 glycoprotein that is critical for viral adsorption to cultured cells and pathogenesis in vivo. Viruses containing an arginine instead of a lysine at residue 253 displayed enhanced infectivity in mammalian cells and diminished virulence in a mouse model of GETV disease. Experiments in cell culture show that heparan sulfate (HS) is a new attachment factor for GETV, and the exchange Lys253Arg improves virus attachment by enhancing binding to HS. The mutation also results in more effective binding to glycosaminoglycan (GAG), linked to low virulence due to rapid virus clearance from the circulation. Localization of residue 253 in the three-dimensional structure of the spike revealed several other basic residues in E2 and E1 in close vicinity that might constitute an HS-binding site different from sites previously identified in other alphaviruses. Overall, our study reveals that HS acts as the attachment factor of GETV and provides convincing evidence for an HS-binding determinant at residue 253 in the E2 glycoprotein of GETV, which contributes to infectivity and virulence. IMPORTANCE Due to decades of inadequate monitoring and lack of vaccines and specific treatment, a large number of people have been infected with alphaviruses. GETV is a re-emerging alphavirus that has the potential to infect humans. This specificity of the GETV disease, particularly its propensity for chronic musculoskeletal manifestations, underscores the need to identify the genetic determinants that govern GETV virulence in the host. Using a mouse model, we show that a single amino acid substitution at residue 253 in the E2 glycoprotein causes attenuation of the virus. Residue 253 might be part of a binding site for HS, a ubiquitous attachment factor on the cell surface. The substitution of Lys by Arg improves cell attachment of the virus in vitro and virus clearance from the blood in vivo by enhancing binding to HS. In summary, we have identified HS as a new attachment factor for GETV and the corresponding binding site in the E2 protein for the first time. Our research potentially improved understanding of the pathogenic mechanism of GETV and provided a potential target for the development of new attenuated vaccines and antiviral drugs.

Emerging chikungunya virus variants at the E1-E1 inter-glycoprotein spike interface impact virus attachment and Inflammation

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging arthropod-borne alphavirus and a serious threat to human health. Therefore, efforts toward elucidating how this virus causes disease and the molecular mechanisms underlying steps of the viral replication cycle are crucial. Using an in vivo transmission system that allows intra-host evolution, we identified an emerging CHIKV variant carrying a mutation in the E1 glycoprotein (V156A) in the serum of mice and saliva of mosquitoes. E1 V156A has since emerged in humans during an outbreak in Brazil, co-occurring with a second mutation, E1 K211T, suggesting an important role for these residues in CHIKV biology. Given the emergence of these variants, we hypothesized that they function to promote CHIKV infectivity and subsequent disease. Here, we show that E1 V156A and E1 K211T modulate virus attachment and fusion and impact binding to heparin, a homolog of heparan sulfate, a key entry factor on host cells. These variants also exhibit differential neutralization by anti-glycoprotein monoclonal antibodies, suggesting structural impacts on the particle that may be responsible for altered interactions at the host membrane. Finally, E1 V156A and E1 K211T exhibit increased titers in an adult arthritic mouse model and induce increased foot-swelling at the site of injection. Taken together, this work has revealed new roles for E1 where discrete regions of the glycoprotein are able to modulate cell attachment and swelling within the host. IMPORTANCE Alphaviruses represent a growing threat to human health worldwide. The re-emerging alphavirus chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has rapidly spread to new geographic regions in the last several decades, causing overwhelming outbreaks of disease, yet there are no approved vaccines or therapeutics. The CHIKV glycoproteins are key determinants of CHIKV adaptation and virulence. In this study, we identify and characterize the emerging E1 glycoprotein variants, V156A and K211T, that have since emerged in nature. We demonstrate that E1 V156A and K211T function in virus attachment to cells, a role that until now has been only attributed to specific residues of the CHIKV E2 glycoprotein. We also demonstrate E1 V156A and K211T to increase foot-swelling of the ipsilateral foot in mice infected with these variants. Observing that these variants and other pathogenic variants occur at the E1-E1 inter-spike interface, we highlight this structurally important region as critical for multiple steps during CHIKV infection. Together, these studies further defines the function of E1 in CHIKV infection and can inform the development of therapeutic or preventative strategies.

Reviewing Antiviral Research Against Viruses Causing Human Diseases - A Structure Guided Approach

The littlest of all the pathogens, viruses have continuously been the foremost strange microorganisms to consider. Viral Infections can cause extreme sicknesses as archived by the HIV/AIDS widespread or the later Ebola or Zika episodes. Apprehensive framework distortions are too regularly watched results of numerous viral contaminations. Besides, numerous infections are oncoviruses, which can trigger different sorts of cancer. Nearly every year a modern infection species rises debilitating the world populace with an annihilating episode. Subsequently, the need of creating antivirals to combat such rising infections. In any case, from the innovation of to begin with antiviral medicate Idoxuridine in 1962 to the revelation of Baloxavir marboxil (Xofluza) that was FDA-approved in 2018, the hone of creating antivirals has changed significantly. In this article, different auxiliary science strategies have been described that can be referral for therapeutics innovation.

Population bottlenecks and founder effects: implications for mosquito-borne arboviral emergence

Transmission of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) involves infection and replication in both arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts. Nearly all arboviruses are RNA viruses with high mutation frequencies, which leaves them vulnerable to genetic drift and fitness losses owing to population bottlenecks during vector infection, dissemination from the midgut to the salivary glands and transmission to the vertebrate host. However, despite these bottlenecks, they seem to avoid fitness declines that can result from Muller's ratchet. In addition, founder effects that occur during the geographic introductions of human-amplified arboviruses, including chikungunya virus and Zika virus, can affect epidemic and endemic circulation, as well as virulence. In this Review, we discuss the role of genetic drift following population bottlenecks and founder effects in arboviral evolution and spread, and the emergence of human disease.

Cross-scale dynamics and the evolutionary emergence of infectious diseases

When emerging pathogens encounter new host species for which they are poorly adapted, they must evolve to escape extinction. Pathogens experience selection on traits at multiple scales, including replication rates within host individuals and transmissibility between hosts. We analyze a stochastic model linking pathogen growth and competition within individuals to transmission between individuals. Our analysis reveals a new factor, the cross-scale reproductive number of a mutant virion, that quantifies how quickly mutant strains increase in frequency when they initially appear in the infected host population. This cross-scale reproductive number combines with viral mutation rates, single-strain reproductive numbers, and transmission bottleneck width to determine the likelihood of evolutionary emergence, and whether evolution occurs swiftly or gradually within chains of transmission. We find that wider transmission bottlenecks facilitate emergence of pathogens with short-term infections, but hinder emergence of pathogens exhibiting cross-scale selective conflict and long-term infections. Our results provide a framework to advance the integration of laboratory, clinical, and field data in the context of evolutionary theory, laying the foundation for a new generation of evidence-based risk assessment of emergence threats.

Emerging Pandemic Diseases: How We Got to COVID-19

Infectious diseases prevalent in humans and animals are caused by pathogens that once emerged from other animal hosts. In addition to these established infections, new infectious diseases periodically emerge. In extreme cases they may cause pandemics such as COVID-19; in other cases, dead-end infections or smaller epidemics result. Established diseases may also re-emerge, for example by extending geographically or by becoming more transmissible or more pathogenic. Disease emergence reflects dynamic balances and imbalances, within complex globally distributed ecosystems comprising humans, animals, pathogens, and the environment. Understanding these variables is a necessary step in controlling future devastating disease emergences.

Rationally Attenuated Vaccines for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Protect Against Epidemic Strains with a Single Dose

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a re-emerging virus of human, agriculture, and bioweapon threat importance. No FDA-approved treatment is available to combat Venezuelan equine encephalitis in humans, prompting the need to create a vaccine that is safe, efficacious, and cannot be replicated in the mosquito vector. Here we describe the use of a serotype ID VEEV (ZPC-738) vaccine with an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) to alter gene expression patterns. This ZPC/IRES vaccine was genetically engineered in two ways based on the position of the IRES insertion to create a vaccine that is safe and efficacious. After a single dose, both versions of the ZPC/IRES vaccine elicited neutralizing antibody responses in mice and non-human primates after a single dose, with more robust responses produced by version 2. Further, all mice and primates were protected from viremia following VEEV challenge. These vaccines were also safer in neonatal mice than the current investigational new drug vaccine, TC-83. These results show that IRES-based attenuation of alphavirus genomes consistently produce promising vaccine candidates, with VEEV/IRES version 2 showing promise for further development.

An amino acid change in nsP4 of chikungunya virus confers fitness advantage in human cell lines rather than in Aedes albopictus

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has caused large-scale epidemics of fever, rash and arthritis since 2004. This unprecedented re-emergence has been associated with mutations in genes encoding structural envelope proteins, providing increased fitness in the secondary vector Aedes albopictus. In the 2008-2013 CHIKV outbreaks across Southeast Asia, an R82S mutation in non-structural protein 4 (nsP4) emerged early in Malaysia or Singapore and quickly became predominant. To determine whether this nsP4-R82S mutation provides a selective advantage in host cells, which may have contributed to the epidemic, the fitness of infectious clone-derived CHIKV with wild-type nsP4-82R and mutant nsP4-82S were compared in Ae. albopictus and human cell lines. Viral infectivity, dissemination and transmission in Ae. albopictus were not affected by the mutation when the two variants were tested separately. In competition, the nsP4-82R variant showed an advantage over nsP4-82S in dissemination to the salivary glands, but only in late infection (10 days). In human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) and embryonic kidney (HEK-293T) cell lines coinfected at a 1 : 1 ratio, wild-type nsP4-82R virus was rapidly outcompeted by nsP4-82S virus as early as one passage (3 days). In conclusion, the nsP4-R82S mutation provides a greater selective advantage in human cells than in Ae. albopictus, which may explain its apparent natural selection during CHIKV spread in Southeast Asia. This is an unusual example of a naturally occurring mutation in a non-structural protein, which may have facilitated epidemic transmission of CHIKV.

Patterns, Drivers, and Challenges of Vector-Borne Disease Emergence

Vector-borne diseases are emerging at an increasing rate and comprise a disproportionate share of all emerging infectious diseases. Yet, the key ecological and evolutionary dimensions of vector-borne disease that facilitate their emergence have not been thoroughly explored. This study reviews and synthesizes the existing literature to explore global patterns of emerging vector-borne zoonotic diseases (VBZDs) under changing global conditions. We find that the vast majority of emerging VBZDs are transmitted by ticks (Ixodidae) and mosquitoes (Culicidae) and the pathogens transmitted are dominated by Rickettsiaceae bacteria and RNA viruses (Flaviviridae, Bunyaviridae, and Togaviridae). The most common potential driver of these emerging zoonoses is land use change, but for many diseases, the driver is unknown, revealing a critical research gap. While most reported VBZDs are emerging in the northern latitudes, after correcting for sampling bias, Africa is clearly a region with the greatest share of emerging VBZD. We highlight critical gaps in our understanding of VBZD emergence and emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary research and consideration of deeper evolutionary processes to improve our capacity for anticipating where and how such diseases have and will continue to emerge.

"Submergence" of Western equine encephalitis virus: Evidence of positive selection argues against genetic drift and fitness reductions

Understanding the circumstances under which arboviruses emerge is critical for the development of targeted control and prevention strategies. This is highlighted by the emergence of chikungunya and Zika viruses in the New World. However, to comprehensively understand the ways in which viruses emerge and persist, factors influencing reductions in virus activity must also be understood. Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV), which declined during the late 20th century in apparent enzootic circulation as well as equine and human disease incidence, provides a unique case study on how reductions in virus activity can be understood by studying evolutionary trends and mechanisms. Previously, we showed using phylogenetics that during this period of decline, six amino acid residues appeared to be positively selected. To assess more directly the effect of these mutations, we utilized reverse genetics and competition fitness assays in the enzootic host and vector (house sparrows and Culex tarsalis mosquitoes). We observed that the mutations contemporary with reductions in WEEV circulation and disease that were non-conserved with respect to amino acid properties had a positive effect on enzootic fitness. We also assessed the effects of these mutations on virulence in the Syrian-Golden hamster model in relation to a general trend of increased virulence in older isolates. However, no change effect on virulence was observed based on these mutations. Thus, while WEEV apparently underwent positive selection for infection of enzootic hosts, residues associated with mammalian virulence were likely eliminated from the population by genetic drift or negative selection. These findings suggest that ecologic factors rather than fitness for natural transmission likely caused decreased levels of enzootic WEEV circulation during the late 20th century.

GloPID-R report on chikungunya, o'nyong-nyong and Mayaro virus, part 5: Entomological aspects

The GloPID-R (Global Research Collaboration for Infectious Disease Preparedness) chikungunya (CHIKV), o'nyong-nyong (ONNV) and Mayaro virus (MAYV) Working Group has been established to investigate natural history, epidemiology and clinical aspects of infection by these viruses. Here, we present a report dedicated to entomological aspects of CHIKV, ONNV and MAYV. Recent global expansion of chikungunya virus has been possible because CHIKV established a transmission cycle in urban settings using anthropophilic vectors such as Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. MAYV and ONNV have a more limited geographic distribution, being confined to Africa (ONNV) and central-southern America (MAYV). ONNV is probably maintained through an enzootic cycle that has not been characterized yet, with Anopheles species as main vectors and humans as amplification hosts during epidemics. MAYV is transmitted by Haemagogus species in an enzootic cycle using non-human primates as the main amplification and maintenance hosts, and humans becoming sporadically infected when venturing in or nearby forest habitats. Here, we focused on the transmission cycle and natural vectors that sustain circulation of these viruses in their respective locations. The knowledge of the natural ecology of transmission and the capacity of different vectors to transmit these viruses is crucial to understand CHIKV emergence, and to assess the risk that MAYV and ONNV will expand on wide scale using anthropophilic mosquito species not normally considered primary vectors. Finally, the experts identified knowledge gaps and provided adapted recommendations, in order to address future entomological investigations in the right direction.

Approach to Strain Selection and the Propagation of Viral Stocks for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Vaccine Efficacy Testing under the Animal Rule

Licensure of a vaccine to protect against aerosolized Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) requires use of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Animal Rule to assess vaccine efficacy as human studies are not feasible or ethical. An approach to selecting VEEV challenge strains for use under the Animal Rule was developed, taking into account Department of Defense (DOD) vaccine requirements, FDA Animal Rule guidelines, strain availability, and lessons learned from the generation of filovirus challenge agents within the Filovirus Animal Nonclinical Group (FANG). Initial down-selection to VEEV IAB and IC epizootic varieties was based on the DOD objective for vaccine protection in a bioterrorism event. The subsequent down-selection of VEEV IAB and IC isolates was based on isolate availability, origin, virulence, culture and animal passage history, known disease progression in animal models, relevancy to human disease, and ability to generate sufficient challenge material. Methods for the propagation of viral stocks (use of uncloned (wild-type), plaque-cloned, versus cDNA-cloned virus) to minimize variability in the potency of the resulting challenge materials were also reviewed. The presented processes for VEEV strain selection and the propagation of viral stocks may serve as a template for animal model development product testing under the Animal Rule to other viral vaccine programs. This manuscript is based on the culmination of work presented at the “Alphavirus Workshop” organized and hosted by the Joint Vaccine Acquisition Program (JVAP) on 15 December 2014 at Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA.

Vector Competence of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) for Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Serotype 2 Strains from Canada and Florida

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), an Orbivirus transmitted by Culicoides spp. vectors, is represented by seven serotypes and numerous strains worldwide. While studies comparing vector competence between serotypes exist, studies between viral strains are lacking. In this study, we examined the rates of infection, dissemination, and transmission of two strains of EHDV-2 orally fed to the known vector, Culicoides sonorensis Wirth & Jones. Culicoides sonorensis cohorts were fed an infectious blood meal containing EHDV-2 strains from either Alberta, Canada (Can-Alberta) or Florida (5.5 log₁₀ PFUe/mL) and tested for the vector’s susceptibility to infection and dissemination. In addition, transmission rates of the virus were assessed and compared using capillary tube and honey card methods. Our results show that the Florida strain had higher infection and dissemination rates than the Can-Alberta strain in spite of the Florida strain having significantly lower viral titers in C. sonorensis bodies, legs, and saliva than the Can-Alberta strain. Overall transmission rates were not significantly different between the two strains but varied significantly between the methods used. These findings suggest that the consequences of EHDV infection in C. sonorensis vary between virus strains and have huge implications in future vector competence studies involving Culicoides species and Orbiviruses.

Evolutionary and ecological insights into the emergence of arthropod-borne viruses

The emergence of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) is of global concern as they can rapidly spread across countries and to new continents as the recent examples of chikungunya virus and Zika virus have demonstrated. Whereas the global movement patterns of emerging arboviruses are comparatively well studied, there is little knowledge on initial emergence processes that enable sylvatic (enzootic) viruses to leave their natural amplification cycle and infect humans or livestock, often also involving infection of anthropophilic vector species. Emerging arboviruses almost exclusively originate in highly biodiverse ecosystems of tropical countries. Changes in host population diversity and density can affect pathogen transmission patterns and are likely to influence arbovirus emergence processes. This review focuses on concepts from disease ecology, explaining the interplay between biodiversity and pathogen emergence.

Low-fidelity Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus polymerase mutants to improve live-attenuated vaccine safety and efficacy

During RNA virus replication, there is the potential to incorporate mutations that affect virulence or pathogenesis. For live-attenuated vaccines, this has implications for stability, as replication may result in mutations that either restore the wild-type phenotype via reversion or compensate for the attenuating mutations by increasing virulence (pseudoreversion). Recent studies have demonstrated that altering the mutation rate of an RNA virus is an effective attenuation tool. To validate the safety of low-fidelity mutations to increase vaccine attenuation, several mutations in the RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (RdRp) were tested in the live-attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine strain, TC-83. Next generation sequencing after passage in the presence of mutagens revealed a mutant containing three mutations in the RdRp, TC-83 3x, to have decreased replication fidelity, while a second mutant, TC-83 4x displayed no change in fidelity, but shared many phenotypic characteristics with TC-83 3x. Both mutants exhibited increased, albeit inconsistent attenuation in an infant mouse model, as well as increased immunogenicity and complete protection against lethal challenge of an adult murine model compared with the parent TC-83. During serial passaging in a highly permissive model, the mutants increased in virulence but remained less virulent than the parent TC-83. These results suggest that the incorporation of low-fidelity mutations into the RdRp of live-attenuated vaccines for RNA viruses can confer increased immunogenicity whilst showing some evidence of increased attenuation. However, while in theory such constructs may result in more effective vaccines, the instability of the vaccine phenotype decreases the likelihood of this being an effective vaccine strategy.

Mosquito bottlenecks alter viral mutant swarm in a tissue and time-dependent manner with contraction and expansion of variant positions and diversity

Viral diversity is theorized to play a significant role during virus infections, particularly for arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) that must infect both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. To determine how viral diversity influences mosquito infection and dissemination Culex taeniopus mosquitoes were infected with the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus endemic strain 68U201. Bodies and legs/wings of the mosquitoes were collected individually and subjected to multi-parallel sequencing. Virus sequence diversity was calculated for each tissue. Greater diversity was seen in mosquitoes with successful dissemination versus those with no dissemination. Diversity across time revealed that bottlenecks influence diversity following dissemination to the legs/wings, but levels of diversity are restored by Day 12 post-dissemination. Specific minority variants were repeatedly identified across the mosquito cohort, some in nearly every tissue and time point, suggesting that certain variants are important in mosquito infection and dissemination. This study demonstrates that the interaction between the mosquito and the virus results in changes in diversity and the mutational spectrum and may be essential for successful transition of the bottlenecks associated with arbovirus infection.

Cryptic etiopathological conditions of equine nervous system with special emphasis on viral diseases

The importance of horse (Equus caballus) to equine practitioners and researchers cannot be ignored. An unevenly distributed population of equids harbors numerous diseases, which can affect horses of any age and breed. Among these, the affections of nervous system are potent reason for death and euthanasia in equids. Many episodes associated with the emergence of equine encephalitic conditions have also pose a threat to human population as well, which signifies their pathogenic zoonotic potential. Intensification of most of the arboviruses is associated with sophisticated interaction between vectors and hosts, which supports their transmission. The alphaviruses, bunyaviruses, and flaviviruses are the major implicated groups of viruses involved with equines/humans epizootic/epidemic. In recent years, many outbreaks of deadly zoonotic diseases such as Nipah virus, Hendra virus, and Japanese encephalitis in many parts of the globe addresses their alarming significance. The equine encephalitic viruses differ in their global distribution, transmission and main vector species involved, as discussed in this article. The current review summarizes the status, pathogenesis, pathology, and impact of equine neuro-invasive conditions of viral origin. A greater understanding of these aspects might be able to provide development of advances in neuro-protective strategies in equine population.

Evolution and spread of Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphavirus in the Americas

Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) complex alphaviruses are important re-emerging arboviruses that cause life-threatening disease in equids during epizootics as well as spillover human infections. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of VEE complex alphaviruses by sequencing the genomes of 94 strains and performing phylogenetic analyses of 130 isolates using complete open reading frames for the nonstructural and structural polyproteins. Our analyses confirmed purifying selection as a major mechanism influencing the evolution of these viruses as well as a confounding factor in molecular clock dating of ancestors. Times to most recent common ancestors (tMRCAs) could be robustly estimated only for the more recently diverged subtypes; the tMRCA of the ID/IAB/IC/II and IE clades of VEE virus (VEEV) were estimated at ca. 149–973 years ago. Evolution of the IE subtype has been characterized by a significant evolutionary shift from the rest of the VEEV complex, with an increase in structural protein substitutions that are unique to this group, possibly reflecting adaptation to its unique enzootic mosquito vector Culex (Melanoconion) taeniopus. Our inferred tree topologies suggest that VEEV is maintained primarily in situ, with only occasional spread to neighboring countries, probably reflecting the limited mobility of rodent hosts and mosquito vectors.

The Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) complex comprises a broadly distributed group of alphaviruses in the Americas that have the potential to emerge and cause severe disease. Historically, VEE complex viruses have caused recurring outbreaks of human and equine encephalitis in Central and South America as well as Mexico, with at least one outbreak resulting in movement of the virus to the southern United States. We present the most comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of complete genomic sequences of the most prominent member of the VEE complex, VEE virus (VEEV). We were able to identify the major forces influencing VEEV evolution, and using the inferred phylogenies we determined that VEEV evolves in geographically segregated lineages with enzootic transmission between rodents and mosquitoes apparently limiting its spread.

Evolutionary ecology of virus emergence

The cross-species transmission of viruses into new host populations, termed virus emergence, is a significant issue in public health, agriculture, wildlife management, and related fields. Virus emergence requires overlap between host populations, alterations in virus genetics to permit infection of new hosts, and adaptation to novel hosts such that between-host transmission is sustainable, all of which are the purview of the fields of ecology and evolution. A firm understanding of the ecology of viruses and how they evolve is required for understanding how and why viruses emerge. In this paper, I address the evolutionary mechanisms of virus emergence and how they relate to virus ecology. I argue that, while virus acquisition of the ability to infect new hosts is not difficult, limited evolutionary trajectories to sustained virus between-host transmission and the combined effects of mutational meltdown, bottlenecking, demographic stochasticity, density dependence, and genetic erosion in ecological sinks limit most emergence events to dead-end spillover infections. Despite the relative rarity of pandemic emerging viruses, the potential of viruses to search evolutionary space and find means to spread epidemically and the consequences of pandemic viruses that do emerge necessitate sustained attention to virus research, surveillance, prophylaxis, and treatment.

Benign Rabbit Caliciviruses Exhibit Evolutionary Dynamics Similar to Those of Their Virulent Relatives

Two closely related caliciviruses cocirculate in Australia: rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and rabbit calicivirus Australia 1 (RCV-A1). RCV-A1 causes benign enteric infections in the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Australia and New Zealand, while its close relative RHDV causes a highly pathogenic infection of the liver in the same host. The comparison of these viruses provides important information on the nature and trajectory of virulence evolution, particularly as highly virulent strains of RHDV may have evolved from nonpathogenic ancestors such as RCV-A1. To determine the evolution of RCV-A1 we sequenced the full-length genomes of 44 RCV-A1 samples isolated from healthy rabbits and compared key evolutionary parameters to those of its virulent relative, RHDV. Despite their marked differences in pathogenicity and tissue tropism, RCV-A1 and RHDV have evolved in a very similar manner. Both viruses have evolved at broadly similar rates, suggesting that their dynamics are largely shaped by high background mutation rates, and both exhibit occasional recombination and an evolutionary environment dominated by purifying selection. In addition, our comparative analysis revealed that there have been multiple changes in both virulence and tissue tropism in the evolutionary history of these and related viruses. Finally, these new genomic data suggest that either RCV-A1 was introduced into Australia after the introduction of myxoma virus as a biocontrol agent in 1950 or there was drastic reduction of the rabbit population, and hence of RCV-A1 genetic diversity, perhaps coincident with the emergence of myxoma virus.

IMPORTANCE

The comparison of closely related viruses that differ profoundly in propensity to cause disease in their hosts offers a powerful opportunity to reveal the causes of changes in virulence and to study how such changes alter the evolutionary dynamics of these pathogens. Here we describe such a novel comparison involving two closely related RNA viruses that cocirculate in Australia, the highly virulent rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and the nonpathogenic rabbit calicivirus Australia 1 (RCV-A1). Both viruses infect the European rabbit, but they differ in virulence, tissue tropism, and mechanisms of transmission. Surprisingly, and despite these fundamental differences, RCV-A1 and RHDV have evolved at very similar (high) rates and with strong purifying selection. Furthermore, candidate key mutations were identified that may play a role in virulence and/or tissue tropism and therefore warrant further investigation.

Importance of mosquito "quasispecies" in selecting an epidemic arthropod-borne virus

Most arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), perpetuated by alternation between a vertebrate host and an insect vector, are likely to emerge through minor genetic changes enabling the virus to adapt to new hosts. In the past decade, chikungunya virus (CHIKV; Alphavirus, Togaviridae) has emerged on La Réunion Island following the selection of a unique substitution in the CHIKV E1 envelope glycoprotein (E1-A226V) of an East-Central-South African (ECSA) genotype conferring a higher transmission rate by the mosquito Aedes albopictus. Assumed to have occurred independently on at least four separate occasions, this evolutionary convergence was suspected to be responsible for CHIKV worldwide expansion. However, assumptions on CHIKV emergence were mainly based on viral genetic changes and the role of the mosquito population quasispecies remained unexplored. Here we show that the nature of the vector population is pivotal in selecting the epidemic CHIKV. We demonstrate using microsatellites mosquito genotyping that Ae. albopictus populations are genetically differentiated, contributing to explain their differential ability to select the E1-226V mutation. Aedes albopictus, newly introduced in Congo coinciding with the first CHIKV outbreak, was not able to select the substitution E1-A226V nor to preferentially transmit a CHIKV clone harboring the E1-226V as did Ae. albopictus from La Réunion.

Characterization of Genetic Variability of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Viruses

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus that has caused large outbreaks of severe illness in both horses and humans. New approaches are needed to rapidly infer the origin of a newly discovered VEEV strain, estimate its equine amplification and resultant epidemic potential, and predict human virulence phenotype. We performed whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis of all available VEE antigenic complex genomes, verified that a SNP-based phylogeny accurately captured the features of a phylogenetic tree based on multiple sequence alignment, and developed a high resolution genome-wide SNP microarray. We used the microarray to analyze a broad panel of VEEV isolates, found excellent concordance between array- and sequence-based SNP calls, genotyped unsequenced isolates, and placed them on a phylogeny with sequenced genomes. The microarray successfully genotyped VEEV directly from tissue samples of an infected mouse, bypassing the need for viral isolation, culture and genomic sequencing. Finally, we identified genomic variants associated with serotypes and host species, revealing a complex relationship between genotype and phenotype.

Incomplete Protection against Dengue Virus Type 2 Re-infection in Peru

Background

Nearly half of the world’s population is at risk for dengue, yet no licensed vaccine or anti-viral drug is currently available. Dengue is caused by any of four dengue virus serotypes (DENV-1 through DENV-4), and infection by a DENV serotype is assumed to provide life-long protection against re-infection by that serotype. We investigated the validity of this fundamental assumption during a large dengue epidemic caused by DENV-2 in Iquitos, Peru, in 2010–2011, 15 years after the first outbreak of DENV-2 in the region.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We estimated the age-dependent prevalence of serotype-specific DENV antibodies from longitudinal cohort studies conducted between 1993 and 2010. During the 2010–2011 epidemic, active dengue cases were identified through active community- and clinic-based febrile surveillance studies, and acute inapparent DENV infections were identified through contact tracing studies. Based on the age-specific prevalence of DENV-2 neutralizing antibodies, the age distribution of DENV-2 cases was markedly older than expected. Homologous protection was estimated at 35.1% (95% confidence interval: 0%–65.2%). At the individual level, pre-existing DENV-2 antibodies were associated with an incomplete reduction in the frequency of symptoms. Among dengue cases, 43% (26/66) exhibited elevated DENV-2 neutralizing antibody titers for years prior to infection, compared with 76% (13/17) of inapparent infections (age-adjusted odds ratio: 4.2; 95% confidence interval: 1.1–17.7).

Conclusions/Significance

Our data indicate that protection from homologous DENV re-infection may be incomplete in some circumstances, which provides context for the limited vaccine efficacy against DENV-2 in recent trials. Further studies are warranted to confirm this phenomenon and to evaluate the potential role of incomplete homologous protection in DENV transmission dynamics.

Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral illness that imposes a tremendous public health burden on tropical and sub-tropical regions. An estimated 390 million infections occur globally each year, and up to 4 billion people are at risk. Dengue is caused by four dengue virus (DENV) serotypes (DENV-1 to DENV-4). Infection with any DENV can lead to a range of disease outcomes, from mild febrile illness to severe, hemorrhagic manifestations and death. Infection by one serotype has been assume to provide complete and lifelong protection against re-infection by the same serotype, and to our knowledge, instances of re-infection by the same serotype have not been rigorously documented. However, few long-term studies have been conducted in such a way that re-infection by the same serotype could be observed, if it did in fact occur. Our study provides evidence that re-infection may occur in certain circumstances. We draw from data collected during a 2010–2011 DENV-2 epidemic in northeastern Peru, 15 years after the initial DENV-2 outbreak in the region. This finding has significant implications for our understanding of dengue epidemiology and for dengue vaccine formulation, which may need to consider multiple genotypes of each serotype. Data from other long-term dengue epidemiology studies should be analyzed to determine if homologous re-infection is a more widespread phenomenon.

Virulence determinants of New World alphaviruses and broad-acting therapeutic strategies

ABSTRACT 

New World alphaviruses of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) are endemic in North and South America, and infect humans and equine through mosquitoes. In addition, these viruses are highly infectious when aerosolized, making them potential biowarfare and bioterrorism agents. Currently, no approved vaccines or drugs are available for prevention and treatment. Extensive studies have been carried out to understand molecular mechanisms of virulence among New World alphaviruses. This review will focus on virus-encoded, interferon antagonizing proteins which play major role in determination of virulence of New World alphaviruses. Understanding of molecular mechanism of these proteins will shed light on development of broad-acting antivirals against New World alphaviruses.

Species-specific transmission of novel picornaviruses in lemurs

The roles of host genetics versus exposure and contact frequency in driving cross-species transmission remain the subject of debate. Here, we used a multitaxon lemur collection at the Saint Louis Zoo in the United States as a model to gain insight into viral transmission in a setting of high interspecies contact. Lemurs are a diverse and understudied group of primates that are highly endangered. The speciation of lemurs, which are endemic to the island of Madagascar, occurred in geographic isolation apart from that of continental African primates. Although evidence of endogenized viruses in lemur genomes exists, no exogenous viruses of lemurs have been described to date. Here we identified two novel picornaviruses in fecal specimens of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata). We found that the viruses were transmitted in a species-specific manner (lesavirus 1 was detected only in ring-tailed lemurs, while lesavirus 2 was detected only in black-and-white ruffed lemurs). Longitudinal sampling over a 1-year interval demonstrated ongoing infection in the collection. This was supported by evidence of viral clearance in some animals and new infections in previously uninfected animals, including a set of newly born triplets that acquired the infection. While the two virus strains were found to be cocirculating in a mixed-species exhibit of ring-tailed lemurs, black-and-white ruffed lemurs, and black lemurs, there was no evidence of cross-species transmission. This suggests that despite high-intensity contact, host species barriers can prevent cross-species transmissions of these viruses.

IMPORTANCE

Up to 75% of emerging infectious diseases in humans today are the result of zoonotic transmission. However, a challenge in understanding transmission dynamics has been the limited models of cross-species transmission. Zoos provide a unique opportunity to explore parameters defining viral transmission. We demonstrated that ongoing virus transmission in a mixed lemur species exhibit was species specific. This suggests that despite high contact intensity, host species barriers contribute to protection from cross-species transmission of these viruses. While the combinations of species might differ, most zoological parks worldwide commonly feature mixed-species exhibits. Collectively, this report demonstrates a widely applicable approach toward understanding infectious disease transmission.

Evolutionary genetics and vector adaptation of recombinant viruses of the western equine encephalitis antigenic complex provides new insights into alphavirus diversity and host switching

Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV), Highlands J virus (HJV), and Fort Morgan virus (FMV) are the sole representatives of the WEE antigenic complex of the genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae, that are endemic to North America. All three viruses have their ancestry in a recombination event involving eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) and a Sindbis (SIN)-like virus that gave rise to a chimeric alphavirus that subsequently diversified into the present-day WEEV, HJV, and FMV. Here, we present a comparative analysis of the genetic, ecological, and evolutionary relationships among these recombinant-origin viruses, including the description of a nsP4 polymerase mutation in FMV that allows it to circumvent the host range barrier to Asian tiger mosquito cells, a vector species that is normally refractory to infection. Notably, we also provide evidence that the recombination event that gave rise to these three WEEV antigenic complex viruses may have occurred in North America.

Eilat virus host range restriction is present at multiple levels of the virus life cycle

Most alphaviruses are mosquito-borne and exhibit a broad host range, infecting many different vertebrates, including birds, rodents, equids, humans, and nonhuman primates. This ability of most alphaviruses to infect arthropods and vertebrates is essential for their maintenance in nature. Recently, a new alphavirus, Eilat virus (EILV), was described, and in contrast to all other mosquito-borne viruses, it is unable to replicate in vertebrate cell lines. Investigations into the nature of its host range restriction showed the inability of genomic EILV RNA to replicate in vertebrate cells. Here, we investigated whether the EILV host range restriction is present at the entry level and further explored the viral factors responsible for the lack of genomic RNA replication. Utilizing Sindbis virus (SINV) and EILV chimeras, we show that the EILV vertebrate host range restriction is also manifested at the entry level. Furthermore, the EILV RNA replication restriction is independent of the 3' untranslated genome region (UTR). Complementation experiments with SINV suggested that RNA replication is restricted by the inability of the EILV nonstructural proteins to form functional replicative complexes. These data demonstrate that the EILV host range restriction is multigenic, involving at least one gene from both nonstructural protein (nsP) and structural protein (sP) open reading frames (ORFs). As EILV groups phylogenetically within the mosquito-borne virus clade of pathogenic alphaviruses, our findings have important evolutionary implications for arboviruses.

IMPORTANCE

Our work explores the nature of host range restriction of the first "mosquito-only alphavirus," EILV. EILV is related to pathogenic mosquito-borne viruses (Eastern equine encephalitis virus [EEEV], Western equine encephalitis virus [WEEV], Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus [VEEV], and Chikungunya virus [CHIKV]) that cause severe disease in humans. Our data demonstrate that EILV is restricted both at entry and genomic RNA replication levels in vertebrate cells. These findings have important implications for arbovirus evolution and will help elucidate the viral factors responsible for the broad host range of pathogenic mosquito-borne alphaviruses, facilitate vaccine development, and inform potential strategies to reduce/prevent alphavirus transmission.

The evolution and genetics of virus host shifts

Emerging viral diseases are often the product of a host shift, where a pathogen jumps from its original host into a novel species. Phylogenetic studies show that host shifts are a frequent event in the evolution of most pathogens, but why pathogens successfully jump between some host species but not others is only just becoming clear. The susceptibility of potential new hosts can vary enormously, with close relatives of the natural host typically being the most susceptible. Often, pathogens must adapt to successfully infect a novel host, for example by evolving to use different cell surface receptors, to escape the immune response, or to ensure they are transmitted by the new host. In viruses there are often limited molecular solutions to achieve this, and the same sequence changes are often seen each time a virus infects a particular host. These changes may come at a cost to other aspects of the pathogen's fitness, and this may sometimes prevent host shifts from occurring. Here we examine how these evolutionary factors affect patterns of host shifts and disease emergence.

Viral biocontrol: grand experiments in disease emergence and evolution

Although viral emergence is commonly associated with cross-species transmission, the processes and determinants of viral evolution in a novel host environment are poorly understood. We address key questions in virus emergence and evolution using data generated from two unique natural experiments: the deliberate release of myxoma virus (MYXV) and rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) as biological control (biocontrol) agents against the European rabbit in Australia, and which have been of enormous benefit to Australia's ecosystem and agricultural industries. Notably, although virulence evolution in MYXV and RHDV followed different trajectories, a strongly parallel evolutionary process was observed in Australia and Europe. These biocontrol agents were also characterized by a lack of transmission to nontarget host species, suggesting that there are major barriers to successful emergence.

Multi-peaked adaptive landscape for chikungunya virus evolution predicts continued fitness optimization in Aedes albopictus mosquitoes

Host species-specific fitness landscapes largely determine the outcome of host switching during pathogen emergence. Using chikungunya virus (CHIKV) to study adaptation to a mosquito vector, we evaluated mutations associated with recently evolved sub-lineages. Multiple Aedes albopictus-adaptive fitness peaks became available after CHIKV acquired an initial adaptive (E1-A226V) substitution, permitting rapid lineage diversification observed in nature. All second-step mutations involved replacements by glutamine or glutamic acid of E2 glycoprotein amino acids in the acid-sensitive region, providing a framework to anticipate additional A. albopictus-adaptive mutations. The combination of second-step adaptive mutations into a single, ‘super-adaptive’ fitness peak also predicted the future emergence of CHIKV strains with even greater transmission efficiency in some current regions of endemic circulation, followed by their likely global spread.

The ability of a pathogen to adapt to new hosts affects its ability to spread in new environments. Here, Tsetsarkin et al.analysed mutations that enabled the chikungunya virus to adapt to a mosquito vector and predict that specific mutations will result in greater transmission efficiency.

Genetic and evolutionary characterization of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus isolates from Argentina

Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) are emerging pathogens of medical and veterinary importance circulating in America. Argentina is a country free from epizootic VEEV activity, with circulation of enzootic strains belonging to Rio Negro virus (RNV; VEEV subtype VI) and Pixuna virus (PIXV, VEEV subtype IV). In this work, we aim to report the sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of all Argentinean VEE viruses, including 7 strains previously isolated from mosquitoes in 1980, 5 sequences obtained from rodents in 1991 and 11 sequences amplified from mosquitoes between 2003 and 2005. Two genomic regions, corresponding to the non-structural protein 4 (nsP4) and the protein E3/E2 (PE2) genes were analyzed, but only 8 samples could be amplified in the last one (longer and more variable fragment of 702 bp). For both genomic fragments, phylogenetic trees showed the absence of lineages within RNV group, and a close genetic relationship between Argentinean strains and the prototype strain BeAr35645 for PIXV clade. The analysis of nsP4 gene opens the possibility to propose a possible geographic clustering of strains within PIXV group (Argentina and Brazil). Coalescent analysis performed on RNV sequences suggested a common ancestor of 58.3 years (with a 95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval of 16.4-345.7) prior to 1991 and inferred a substitution rate of 9.8×10(-5)substitutions/site/year, slightly lower than other enzootic VEE viruses. These results provide, for the first time, information about genetic features and variability of all VEEVs detected in Argentina, creating a database that will be useful for future detections in our country. This is particularly important for RNV, which has indigenous circulation.

Chikungunya virus adaptation to a mosquito vector correlates with only few point mutations in the viral envelope glycoprotein

Like most arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a RNA virus maintained in nature in an alternating cycle of replication between invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. It has been assumed that host alternation restricts arbovirus genome evolution and imposes fitness trade-offs. Despite their slower rates of evolution, arboviruses still have the capacity to produce variants capable to exploit new environments. To test whether the evolution of the newly emerged epidemic variant of CHIKV (E1-226V) is constrained by host alternation, the virus was alternately-passaged in hamster-derived BHK-21 cells and Aedes aegypti-derived Aag-2 cells. It was also serially-passaged in BHK-21 or Aag-2 cells to promote adaptation to one cell type and presumably, fitness cost in the bypassed cell type. After 30 passages, obtained CHIKV strains were genetically and phenotypically characterized using in vitro and in vivo systems. Serially- and alternately-passaged strains can be distinguished by amino-acid substitutions in the E2 glycoprotein, responsible for receptor binding. Two substitutions at positions E2-64 and E2-208 only lower the dissemination of the variant E1-226V in Ae. aegypti. These amino-acid changes in the E2 glycoprotein might affect viral infectivity by altering the interaction between CHIKV E1-226V and the cellular receptor on the midgut epithelial cells in Ae. aegypti but not in Aedesalbopictus.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) in Argentina: serological evidence of human infection

Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) are responsible for human diseases in the Americas, producing severe or mild illness with symptoms indistinguishable from dengue and other arboviral diseases. For this reason, many cases remain without certain diagnosis. Seroprevalence studies for VEEV subtypes IAB, ID, IF (Mosso das Pedras virus; MDPV), IV (Pixuna virus; PIXV) and VI (Rio Negro virus; RNV) were conducted in persons from Northern provinces of Argentina: Salta, Chaco and Corrientes, using plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). RNV was detected in all studied provinces. Chaco presented the highest prevalence of this virus (14.1%). Antibodies against VEEV IAB and -for the first time- against MDPV and PIXV were also detected in Chaco province. In Corrientes, seroprevalence against RNV was 1.3% in the pediatric population, indicating recent infections. In Salta, this was the first investigation of VEEV members, and antibodies against RNV and PIXV were detected. These results provide evidence of circulation of many VEE viruses in Northern Argentina, showing that surveillance of these infectious agents should be intensified.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) are responsible for human diseases in the Americas. They produce severe or mild illnesses with symptoms indistinguishable from dengue and other arboviral diseases; for this reason, many cases remain undiagnosed. We detected neutralizing antibodies (NTAbs) against VEEV IAB, VEEV ID, MDPV (VEEV subtype IF), PIXV (VEEV subtype IV) and RNV (VEEV subtype VI) in human serum samples of Northern provinces of Argentina. Chaco province showed presence of NTAbs against VEEV IAB, MDPV, PIXV and RNV. In Corrientes province, we detected NTAbs against RNV in a pediatric population. NTAbs against PIXV and RNV were also detected in Salta province. These findings demonstrated the circulation of many VEEV strains in Northern Argentina and underscore the need for surveillance of dengue like illness in this region.

Vaccines against diseases transmitted from animals to humans: a one health paradigm

This review focuses on the immunization of animals as a means of preventing human diseases (zoonoses). Three frameworks for the use of vaccines in this context are described, and examples are provided of successes and failures. Framework I vaccines are used for protection of humans and economically valuable animals, where neither plays a role in the transmission cycle. The benefit of collaborations between animal health and human health industries and regulators in developing such products is discussed, and one example (West Nile vaccine) of a single product developed for use in animals and humans is described. Framework II vaccines are indicated for domesticated animals as a means of preventing disease in both animals and humans. The agents of concern are transmitted directly or indirectly (e.g. via arthropod vectors) from animals to humans. A number of examples of the use of Framework II vaccines are provided, e.g. against brucellosis, Escherichia coli O157, rabies, Rift Valley fever, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and Hendra virus. Framework III vaccines are used to immunize wild animals as a means of preventing transmission of disease agents to humans and domesticated animals. Examples are reservoir-targeted, oral bait rabies, Mycobacterium bovis and Lyme disease vaccines. Given the speed and lost cost of veterinary vaccine development, some interventions based on the immunization of animals could lead to rapid and relatively inexpensive advances in public health. Opportunities for vaccine-based approaches to preventing zoonotic and emerging diseases that integrate veterinary and human medicine (the One Health paradigm) are emphasized.

Eastern equine encephalitis in Latin America

BACKGROUND

The eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) viruses are pathogens that infect humans and horses in the Americas. Outbreaks of neurologic disease in humans and horses were reported in Panama from May through early August 2010.

METHODS

We performed antibody assays and tests to detect viral RNA and isolate the viruses in serum samples from hospitalized patients. Additional cases were identified with enhanced surveillance.

RESULTS

A total of 19 patients were hospitalized for encephalitis. Among them, 7 had confirmed EEE, 3 had VEE, and 1 was infected with both viruses; 3 patients died, 1 of whom had confirmed VEE. The clinical findings for patients with EEE included brain lesions, seizures that evolved to status epilepticus, and neurologic sequelae. An additional 99 suspected or probable cases of alphavirus infection were detected during active surveillance. In total, 13 cases were confirmed as EEE, along with 11 cases of VEE and 1 case of dual infection. A total of 50 cases in horses were confirmed as EEE and 8 as VEE; mixed etiologic factors were associated with 11 cases in horses. Phylogenetic analyses of isolates from 2 cases of equine infection with the EEE virus and 1 case of human infection with the VEE virus indicated that the viruses were of enzootic lineages previously identified in Panama rather than new introductions.

CONCLUSIONS

Cases of EEE in humans in Latin America may be the result of ecologic changes that increased human contact with enzootic transmission cycles, genetic changes in EEE viral strains that resulted in increased human virulence, or an altered host range. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, Panama.).

IRES-driven expression of the capsid protein of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus TC-83 vaccine strain increases its attenuation and safety

The live-attenuated TC-83 strain is the only licensed veterinary vaccine available to protect equids against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and to protect humans indirectly by preventing equine amplification. However, TC-83 is reactogenic due to its reliance on only two attenuating point mutations and has infected mosquitoes following equine vaccination. To increase its stability and safety, a recombinant TC-83 was previously engineered by placing the expression of the viral structural proteins under the control of the Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), which drives translation inefficiently in insect cells. However, this vaccine candidate was poorly immunogenic. Here we describe a second generation of the recombinant TC-83 in which the subgenomic promoter is maintained and only the capsid protein gene is translated from the IRES. This VEEV/IRES/C vaccine candidate did not infect mosquitoes, was stable in its attenuation phenotype after serial murine passages, and was more attenuated in newborn mice but still as protective as TC-83 against VEEV challenge. Thus, by using the IRES to modulate TC-83 capsid protein expression, we generated a vaccine candidate that combines efficient immunogenicity and efficacy with lower virulence and a reduced potential for spread in nature.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is transmitted by mosquitoes and widely distributed in Central and South America, causing regular outbreaks in horses and humans. Often misdiagnosed as dengue, VEEV infection in humans can lead to lifelong neurological sequelae and is fatal in up to >80% of equine cases, representing a significant socio-economic burden and constant public health threats for developing countries of Latin America. The only available vaccine, the live-attenuated TC-83 strain, is restricted to veterinary use due to its high reactogenicity in humans and risk for reversion to virulence, which could initiate an epidemic. By using an attenuation approach that allows the modulation of the virus capsid protein expression, we generated a new version of TC-83 that is more attenuated but still induces a protective immune response in mice. Additionally, this new vaccine cannot infect mosquitoes, which prevents the risk of spreading in nature. The attenuation approach we describe can be applied to a lot of other alphaviruses to develop vaccines against diseases regularly emerging and threatening developing countries.