Adenosine A2a blockade prevents synergy between mu-opiate and cannabinoid CB1 receptors and eliminates heroin-seeking behavior in addicted rats

Activating A1 adenosine receptor signaling boosts early pulmonary neutrophil recruitment in aged mice in response to Streptococcus pneumoniae infection

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a leading cause of pneumonia in older adults. Successful control of pneumococci requires robust pulmonary neutrophil influx early in infection. However, aging is associated with aberrant neutrophil recruitment and the mechanisms behind that are not understood. Here we explored how neutrophil recruitment following pneumococcal infection changes with age and the host pathways regulating this.

RESULTS

Following pneumococcal infection there was a significant delay in early neutrophil recruitment to the lungs of aged mice. Neutrophils from aged mice showed defects in trans-endothelial migration in vitro compared to young controls. To understand the pathways involved, we examined immune modulatory extracellular adenosine (EAD) signaling, that is activated upon cellular damage. Signaling through the lower affinity A2A and A2B adenosine receptors had no effect on neutrophil recruitment to infected lungs. In contrast, inhibition of the high affinity A1 receptor in young mice blunted neutrophil recruitment to the lungs following infection. A1 receptor inhibition decreased expression of CXCR2 on circulating neutrophils, which is required for trans-endothelial migration. Indeed, A1 receptor signaling on neutrophils was required for their ability to migrate across endothelial cells in response to infection. Aging was not associated with defects in EAD production or receptor expression on neutrophils. However, agonism of A1 receptor in aged mice rescued the early defect in neutrophil migration to the lungs and improved control of bacterial burden.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests age-driven defects in EAD damage signaling can be targeted to rescue the delay in pulmonary neutrophil migration in response to bacterial pneumonia.

Endogenous μ-opioid-Neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor synergy silences chronic postoperative pain in mice

Tissue injury creates a delicate balance between latent pain sensitization (LS) and compensatory endogenous analgesia. Inhibitory G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) interactions that oppose LS, including μ-opioid receptor (MOR) or neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor (Y1R) activity, persist in the spinal cord dorsal horn (DH) for months, even after the resolution of normal pain thresholds. Here, we demonstrate that following recovery from surgical incision, a potent endogenous analgesic synergy between MOR and Y1R activity persists within DH interneurons to reduce the intensity and duration of latent postoperative hypersensitivity and ongoing pain. Failure of such endogenous GPCR signaling to maintain LS in remission may underlie the transition from acute to chronic pain states.

Corticotropin releasing factor and drug seeking in substance use disorders: Preclinical evidence and translational limitations

The neuropeptide, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), has been an enigmatic target for the development of medications aimed at treating stress-related disorders. Despite a large body of evidence from preclinical studies in rodents demonstrating that CRF receptor antagonists prevent stressor-induced drug seeking, medications targeting the CRF-R1 have failed in clinical trials. Here, we provide an overview of the abundant findings from preclinical rodent studies suggesting that CRF signaling is involved in stressor-induced relapse. The scientific literature that has defined the receptors, mechanisms and neurocircuits through which CRF contributes to stressor-induced reinstatement of drug seeking following self-administration and conditioned place preference in rodents is reviewed. Evidence that CRF signaling is recruited with repeated drug use in a manner that heightens susceptibility to stressor-induced drug seeking in rodents is presented. Factors that may determine the influence of CRF signaling in substance use disorders, including developmental windows, biological sex, and genetics are examined. Finally, we discuss the translational failure of medications targeting CRF signaling as interventions for substance use disorders and other stress-related conditions. We conclude that new perspectives and research directions are needed to unravel the mysterious role of CRF in substance use disorders.

Binding Characterization of Agonists and Antagonists by MCCS: A Case Study from Adenosine A2A Receptor

Characterizing the structural basis of ligand recognition of adenosine A_2A receptor (AA_2AR) will facilitate its rational design and development of small molecules with high affinity and selectivity, as well as optimal therapeutic effects for pain, cancers, drug abuse disorders, etc. In the present work, we applied our reported algorithm, molecular complex characterizing system (MCCS), to characterize the binding features of AA_2AR based on its reported 3D structures of protein-ligand complexes. First, we compared the binding score to the reported experimental binding affinities of each compound. Then, we calculated an output example of residue energy contribution using MCCS and compared the results with data obtained from MM/GBSA. The consistency in results indicated that MCCS is a powerful, fast, and accurate method. Sequentially, using a receptor-ligand data set of 57 crystallized structures of AA_2ARs, we characterized the binding features of the binding pockets in AA_2AR, summarized the key residues that distinguish antagonist from agonist, produced heatmaps of residue energy contribution for clustering various statuses of AA_2ARs, explored the selectivity between AA_2AR and AA_1AR, etc. All the information provided new insights into the protein features of AA_2AR and will facilitate its rational drug design.

Repeated morphine exposure activates synaptogenesis and other neuroplasticity-related gene networks in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex of male and female rats

BACKGROUND

Opioid abuse is a chronic disorder likely involving stable neuroplastic modifications. While a number of molecules contributing to these changes have been identified, the broader spectrum of genes and gene networks that are affected by repeated opioid administration remain understudied.

METHODS

We employed Next-Generation RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) followed by quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation to investigate changes in gene expression and their regulation in adult male and female rats' dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) after a regimen of daily injection of morphine (5.0 mg/kg; 10 days). Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to analyze affected molecular pathways, gene networks, and associated regulatory factors. A complementary behavioral study evaluated the effects of the same morphine injection regimen on locomotor activity, pain sensitivity, and somatic withdrawal signs.

RESULTS

Behaviorally, repeated morphine injection induced locomotor hyperactivity and hyperalgesia in both sexes. 90 % of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in morphine-treated rats were upregulated in both males and females, with a 35 % overlap between sexes. A substantial number of DEGs play roles in synaptic signaling and neuroplasticity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed enrichment of H3 acetylation, a transcriptionally activating chromatin mark. Although broadly similar, some differences were revealed in the gene ontology networks enriched in females and males.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results cohere with findings from previous studies based on a priori gene selection. Our results also reveal novel genes and molecular pathways that are upregulated by repeated morphine exposure, with some common to males and females and others that are sex-specific.

Adenosine A2AReceptors in Substance Use Disorders: A Focus on Cocaine

Several psychoactive drugs can evoke substance use disorders (SUD) in humans and animals, and these include psychostimulants, opioids, cannabinoids (CB), nicotine, and alcohol. The etiology, mechanistic processes, and the therapeutic options to deal with SUD are not well understood. The common feature of all abused drugs is that they increase dopamine (DA) neurotransmission within the mesocorticolimbic circuitry of the brain followed by the activation of DA receptors. D₂ receptors were proposed as important molecular targets for SUD. The findings showed that D₂ receptors formed heteromeric complexes with other GPCRs, which forced the addiction research area in new directions. In this review, we updated the view on the brain D₂ receptor complexes with adenosine (A)2A receptors (A_2AR) and discussed the role of A_2AR in different aspects of addiction phenotypes in laboratory animal procedures that permit the highly complex syndrome of human drug addiction. We presented the current knowledge on the neurochemical in vivo and ex vivo mechanisms related to cocaine use disorder (CUD) and discussed future research directions for A_2AR heteromeric complexes in SUD.

Computational Systems Pharmacology-Target Mapping for Fentanyl-Laced Cocaine Overdose

The United States of America is fighting against one of its worst-ever drug crises. Over 900 people a week die from opioid- or heroin-related overdoses, while millions more suffer from opioid prescription addiction. Recently, drug overdoses caused by fentanyl-laced cocaine specifically are on the rise. Due to drug synergy and an increase in side effects, polydrug addiction can cause more risk than addiction to a single drug. In the present work, we systematically analyzed the overdose and addiction mechanism of cocaine and fentanyl. First, we applied our established chemogenomics knowledgebase and machine-learning-based methods to map out the potential and known proteins, transporters, and metabolic enzymes and the potential therapeutic target(s) for cocaine and fentanyl. Sequentially, we looked into the detail of (1) the addiction to cocaine and fentanyl by binding to the dopamine transporter and the μ opioid receptor (DAT and μOR, respectively), (2) the potential drug-drug interaction of cocaine and fentanyl via p-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux, (3) the metabolism of cocaine and fentanyl in CYP3A4, and (4) the physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for two drugs and their drug-drug interaction at the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) level. Finally, we looked into the detail of JWH133, an agonist of cannabinoid 2-receptor (CB2) with potential as a therapy for cocaine and fentanyl overdose. All these results provide a better understanding of fentanyl and cocaine polydrug addiction and future drug abuse prevention.

Indirect Medium Spiny Neurons in the Dorsomedial Striatum Regulate Ethanol-Containing Conditioned Reward Seeking

Adenosine 2A receptor (A_2AR)-containing indirect medium spiny neurons (iMSNs) in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) contribute to reward-seeking behaviors. However, those roles for ethanol-seeking behaviors remain unknown. To investigate ethanol-seeking behaviors, we used an ethanol-containing reward (10% ethanol and 10% sucrose solution; 10E10S). Upon conditioning with 10E10S, mice that initially only preferred 10% sucrose, not 10E10S, showed a stronger preference for 10E10S. Then, we investigated whether the manipulation of the DMS-external globus pallidus (GPe) iMSNs circuit alters the ethanol-containing reward (10E10S) seeking behaviors using the combination of pharmacologic and optogenetic approaches. DMS A_2AR activation dampened operant conditioning-induced ethanol-containing reward, whereas A_2AR antagonist abolished the effects of the A_2AR agonist and restored ethanol-containing reward-seeking. Moreover, pre-ethanol exposure potentiated the A_2AR-dependent reward-seeking. Interestingly, mice exhibiting ethanol-containing reward-seeking showed the reduction of the DMS iMSNs activity, suggesting that disinhibiting iMSNs decreases reward-seeking behaviors. In addition, we found that A_2AR activation reversed iMSNs neural activity in the DMS. Similarly, optogenetic stimulation of the DMS-GPe iMSNs reduced ethanol-containing reward-seeking, whereas optogenetic inhibition of the DMS-GPe iMSNs reversed this change. Together, our study demonstrates that DMS A_2AR and iMSNs regulate ethanol-containing reward-seeking behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our findings highlight the mechanisms of how operant conditioning develops the preference of ethanol-containing conditioned reward. Mice exhibiting ethanol-containing reward-seeking showed a reduction of the indirect medium spiny neuronal activity in the dorsomedial striatum. Pharmacological activation of adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) or optogenetic activation of indirect medium spiny neurons dampened operant conditioned ethanol-containing reward-seeking, whereas inhibiting this neuronal activity restored ethanol-containing reward-seeking. Furthermore, repeated intermittent ethanol exposure potentiated A_2AR-dependent reward-seeking. Therefore, our finding suggests that A_2AR-containing indirect medium spiny neuronal activation reduces ethanol-containing reward-seeking, which may provide a potential therapeutic target for alcohol use disorder.

Adenosine role in brain functions: Pathophysiological influence on Parkinson's disease and other brain disorders

Although adenosine plays a key role in multiple motor, affective, and cognitive processes, it has received less attention in the neuroscience field compared to other neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine). In this review, we highlight the role of adenosine in behavior as well as its interaction with other neurotransmitters, such as dopamine. We also discuss brain disorders impacted by alterations to adenosine, and how targeting adenosine can ameliorate Parkinson's disease motor symptoms. We also discuss the role of caffeine (as an adenosine antagonist) on cognition as well as a neuroprotective agent against Parkinson's disease (PD).

The Role of Adenosine Receptors in Psychostimulant Addiction

Adenosine receptors (AR) are a family of G-protein coupled receptors, comprised of four members, named A1, A2A, A2B, and A3 receptors, found widely distributed in almost all human body tissues and organs. To date, they are known to participate in a large variety of physiopathological responses, which include vasodilation, pain, and inflammation. In particular, in the central nervous system (CNS), adenosine acts as a neuromodulator, exerting different functions depending on the type of AR and consequent cellular signaling involved. In terms of molecular pathways and second messengers involved, A1 and A3 receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase (AC), through Gi/o proteins, while A2A and A2B receptors stimulate it through Gs proteins. In the CNS, A1 receptors are widely distributed in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum, A2A receptors are localized mainly in the striatum and olfactory bulb, while A2B and A3 receptors are found at low levels of expression. In addition, AR are able to form heteromers, both among themselves (e.g., A1/A2A), as well as with other subtypes (e.g., A2A/D2), opening a whole range of possibilities in the field of the pharmacology of AR. Nowadays, we know that adenosine, by acting on adenosine A1 and A2A receptors, is known to antagonistically modulate dopaminergic neurotransmission and therefore reward systems, being A1 receptors colocalized in heteromeric complexes with D1 receptors, and A2A receptors with D2 receptors. This review documents the present state of knowledge of the contribution of AR, particularly A1 and A2A, to psychostimulants-mediated effects, including locomotor activity, discrimination, seeking and reward, and discuss their therapeutic relevance to psychostimulant addiction. Studies presented in this review reinforce the potential of A1 agonists as an effective strategy to counteract psychostimulant-induced effects. Furthermore, different experimental data support the hypothesis that A2A/D2 heterodimers are partly responsible for the psychomotor and reinforcing effects of psychostimulant drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamine, and the stimulation of A2A receptor is proposed as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of drug addiction. The overall analysis of presented data provide evidence that excitatory modulation of A1 and A2A receptors constitute promising tools to counteract psychostimulants addiction.

Locomotor activity: A distinctive index in morphine self-administration in rats

Self-administration of addictive drugs is a widely used tool for studying behavioral, neurobiological, and genetic factors in addiction. However, how locomotor activity is affected during self-administration of addictive drugs has not been extensively studied. In our present study, we tested the locomotor activity levels during acquisition, extinction and reinstatement of morphine self-administration in rats. We found that compared with saline self-administration (SA), rats that trained with morphine SA had higher locomotor activity. Rats that successfully acquired SA also showed higher locomotor activity than rats that failed in acquiring SA. Moreover, locomotor activity was correlated with the number of drug infusions but not with the number of inactive pokes. We also tested the locomotor activity in the extinction and the morphine-primed reinstatement session. Interestingly, we found that in the first extinction session, although the number of active pokes did not change, the locomotor activity was significantly lower than in the last acquisition session, and this decrease can be maintained for at least six days. Finally, morphine priming enhanced the locomotor activity during the reinstatement test, regardless of if the active pokes were significantly increased or not. Our results clearly suggest that locomotor activity, which may reflect the pharmacological effects of morphine, is different from drug seeking behavior and is a distinctive index in drug self-administration.

Regulation of Chemokine Signal Integration by Activator of G-Protein Signaling 4 (AGS4)

Activator of G-protein signaling 4 (AGS4)/G-protein signaling modulator 3 (Gpsm3) contains three G-protein regulatory (GPR) motifs, each of which can bind Gαi-GDP free of Gβγ We previously demonstrated that the AGS4-Gαi interaction is regulated by seven transmembrane-spanning receptors (7-TMR), which may reflect direct coupling of the GPR-Gαi module to the receptor analogous to canonical Gαβγ heterotrimer. We have demonstrated that the AGS4-Gαi complex is regulated by chemokine receptors in an agonist-dependent manner that is receptor-proximal. As an initial approach to investigate the functional role(s) of this regulated interaction in vivo, we analyzed leukocytes, in which AGS4/Gpsm3 is predominantly expressed, from AGS4/Gpsm3-null mice. Loss of AGS4/Gpsm3 resulted in mild but significant neutropenia and leukocytosis. Dendritic cells, T lymphocytes, and neutrophils from AGS4/Gpsm3-null mice also exhibited significant defects in chemoattractant-directed chemotaxis and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. An in vivo peritonitis model revealed a dramatic reduction in the ability of AGS4/Gpsm3-null neutrophils to migrate to primary sites of inflammation. Taken together, these data suggest that AGS4/Gpsm3 is required for proper chemokine signal processing in leukocytes and provide further evidence for the importance of the GPR-Gαi module in the regulation of leukocyte function.

Adenosine Receptor Stimulation by Polydeoxyribonucleotide Improves Tissue Repair and Symptomology in Experimental Colitis

Activation of the adenosine receptor pathway has been demonstrated to be effective in improving tissue remodeling and blunting the inflammatory response. Active colitis is characterized by an intense inflammatory reaction resulting in extensive tissue damage. Symptomatic improvement requires both control of the inflammatory process and repair and remodeling of damaged tissues. We investigated the ability of an A2A receptor agonist, polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN), to restore tissue structural integrity in two experimental colitis models using male Sprague-Dawley rats. In the first model, colitis was induced with a single intra-colonic instillation of dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (DNBS), 25 mg diluted in 0.8 ml 50% ethanol. After 6 h, animals were randomized to receive either PDRN (8 mg/kg/i.p.), or PDRN + the A2A antagonist [3,7-dimethyl-1-propargylxanthine (DMPX); 10 mg/kg/i.p.], or vehicle (0.8 ml saline solution) daily. In the second model, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) was dissolved in drinking water at a concentration of 8%. Control animals received standard drinking water. After 24 h animals were randomized to receive PDRN or PDRN+DMPX as described above. Rats were sacrificed 7 days after receiving DNBS or 5 days after DSS. In both experimental models of colitis, PDRN ameliorated the clinical symptoms and weight loss associated with disease as well as promoted the histological repair of damaged tissues. Moreover, PDRN reduced expression of inflammatory cytokines, myeloperoxidase activity, and malondialdehyde. All these effects were abolished by the concomitant administration of the A2A antagonist DMPX. Our study suggests that PDRN may represent a promising treatment for improving tissue repair during inflammatory bowel diseases.

Effect of Pharmacological Modulation of the Endocannabinoid System on Opiate Withdrawal: A Review of the Preclinical Animal Literature

Over the years, animal studies have revealed a role for the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of multiple aspects of opiate addiction. The current review provides an overview of this literature in regards to opiate withdrawal. The opiate withdrawal syndrome, hypothesized to act as a negative reinforcer in mediating continued drug use, can be characterized by the emergence of spontaneous or precipitated aversive somatic and affective states following the termination of drug use. The behaviors measured to quantify somatic opiate withdrawal and the paradigms employed to assess affective opiate withdrawal (e.g., conditioned place aversion) in both acutely and chronically dependent animals are discussed in relation to the ability of the endocannabinoid system to modulate these behaviors. Additionally, the brain regions mediating somatic and affective opiate withdrawal are elucidated with respect to their modulation by the endocannabinoid system. Ultimately, a review of these findings reveals dissociations between the brain regions mediating somatic and affective opiate withdrawal, and the ability of cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor agonism/antagonism to interfere with opiate withdrawal within different brain sub regions.

Adenosine 2A receptors modulate reward behaviours for methamphetamine

Addiction to methamphetamine (METH) is a global health problem for which there are no approved pharmacotherapies. The adenosine 2A (A2 A ) receptor presents a potential therapeutic target for METH abuse due to its modulatory effects on striatal dopamine and glutamate transmission. Notably, A2 A receptor signalling has been implicated in the rewarding effects of alcohol, cocaine and opiates; yet, the role of this receptor in METH consumption and seeking is essentially unknown. Therefore, the current study used A2 A knockout (KO) mice to assess the role of A2 A in behaviours relevant to METH addiction. METH conditioned place preference was absent in A2 A KO mice compared with wild-type (WT) littermates. Repeated METH treatment produced locomotor sensitization in both genotypes; however, sensitization was attenuated in A2 A KO mice in a dose-related manner. METH intravenous self-administration was intact in A2 A KO mice over a range of doses and schedules of reinforcement. However, the motivation to self-administer was reduced in A2 A KO mice. Regression analysis further supported the observation that the motivation to self-administer METH was reduced in A2 A KO mice even when self-administration was similar to WT mice. Sucrose self-administration was also reduced in A2 A KO mice but only at higher schedules of reinforcement. Collectively, these data suggest that A2 A signalling is critically required to integrate rewarding and motivational properties of both METH and natural rewards.

Purinergic signaling and energy homeostasis in psychiatric disorders

Purinergic signaling regulates numerous vital biological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). The two principle purines, ATP and adenosine act as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Compared to other classical neurotransmitters, the role of purinergic signaling in psychiatric disorders is not well understood or appreciated. Because ATP exerts its main effect on energy homeostasis, neuronal function of ATP has been underestimated. Similarly, adenosine is primarily appreciated as a precursor of nucleotide synthesis during active cell growth and division. However, recent findings suggest that purinergic signaling may explain how neuronal activity is associated neuronal energy charge and energy homeostasis, especially in mental disorders. In this review, we provide an overview of the synaptic function of mitochondria and purines in neuromodulation, synaptic plasticity, and neuron-glia interactions. We summarize how mitochondrial and purinergic dysfunction contribute to mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depression, and addiction. Finally, we discuss future implications regarding the pharmacological targeting of mitochondrial and purinergic function for the treatment of psychiatric disorders.

Striatal adenosine-cannabinoid receptor interactions in rats over-expressing adenosine A2A receptors

Adenosine A2A receptors (A2 A Rs) and cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1 Rs) are highly expressed in the striatum, where they functionally interact and form A2A /CB1 heteroreceptor complexes. We investigated the effects of CB1 R stimulation in a transgenic rat strain over-expressing A2 A Rs under the control of the neural-specific enolase promoter (NSEA2A rats) and in age-matched wild-type (WT) animals. The effects of the CB1 R agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN) were significantly lower in NSEA2A rats than in WT animals, as demonstrated by i) electrophysiological recordings of synaptic transmission in corticostriatal slices; ii) the measurement of glutamate outflow from striatal synaptosomes and iii) in vivo experiments on locomotor activity. Moreover, while the effects of WIN were modulated by both A2 A R agonist (CGS 21680) and antagonists (ZM 241385, KW-6002 and SCH-442416) in WT animals, the A2 A R antagonists failed to influence WIN-mediated effects in NSEA2A rats. The present results demonstrate that in rats with genetic neuronal over-expression of A2 A Rs, the effects mediated by CB1 R activation in the striatum are significantly reduced, suggesting a change in the stoichiometry of A2A and CB1 receptors and providing a strategy to dissect the involvement of A2 A R forming or not forming heteromers in the modulation of striatal functions. These findings add additional evidence for the existence of an interaction between striatal A2 A Rs and CB1 Rs, playing a fundamental role in the regulation of striatal functions. We studied A2A -CB1 receptor interaction in transgenic rats over-expressing adenosine A2A receptors under the control of the neuron-specific enolase promoter (NSEA2A ). In these rats, we demonstrated a reduced effect of the CB1 receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 in the modulation of corticostriatal synaptic transmission and locomotor activity, while CB1 receptor expression level did not change with respect to WT rats. A reduction in the expression of A2A -CB1 receptor heteromers is postulated.

Mu opioid receptor modulation in the nucleus accumbens lowers voluntary wheel running in rats bred for high running motivation

The exact role of opioid receptor signaling in mediating voluntary wheel running is unclear. To provide additional understanding, female rats selectively bred for motivation of low (LVR) versus high voluntary running (HVR) behaviors were used. Aims of this study were 1) to identify intrinsic differences in nucleus accumbens (NAc) mRNA expression of opioid-related transcripts and 2) to determine if nightly wheel running is differently influenced by bilateral NAc injections of either the mu-opioid receptor agonist D-Ala2, NMe-Phe4, Glyo5-enkephalin (DAMGO) (0.25, 2.5 μg/side), or its antagonist, naltrexone (5, 10, 20 μg/side). In Experiment 1, intrinsic expression of Oprm1 and Pdyn mRNAs were higher in HVR compared to LVR. Thus, the data imply that line differences in opioidergic mRNA in the NAc could partially contribute to differences in wheel running behavior. In Experiment 2, a significant decrease in running distance was present in HVR rats treated with 2.5 μg DAMGO, or with 10 μg and 20 μg naltrexone between hours 0-1 of the dark cycle. Neither DAMGO nor naltrexone had a significant effect on running distance in LVR rats. Taken together, the data suggest that the high nightly voluntary running distance expressed by HVR rats is mediated by increased endogenous mu-opioid receptor signaling in the NAc, that is disturbed by either agonism or antagonism. In summary, our findings on NAc opioidergic mRNA expression and mu-opioid receptor modulations suggest HVR rats, compared to LVR rats, express higher running levels mediated by an increase in motivation driven, in part, by elevated NAc opioidergic signaling.

Presynaptic adenosine A2A receptors dampen cannabinoid CB1 receptor-mediated inhibition of corticostriatal glutamatergic transmission

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Both cannabinoid CB1 and adenosine A2A receptors (CB1 receptors and A2A receptors) control synaptic transmission at corticostriatal synapses, with great therapeutic importance for neurological and psychiatric disorders. A postsynaptic CB1 -A2A receptor interaction has already been elucidated, but the presynaptic A2A receptor-mediated control of presynaptic neuromodulation by CB1 receptors remains to be defined. Because the corticostriatal terminals provide the major input to the basal ganglia, understanding the interactive nature of converging neuromodulation on them will provide us with novel powerful tools to understand the physiology of corticostriatal synaptic transmission and interpret changes associated with pathological conditions.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Pharmacological manipulation of CB1 and A2A receptors was carried out in brain nerve terminals isolated from rats and mice, using flow synaptometry, immunoprecipitation, radioligand binding, ATP and glutamate release measurement. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made in horizontal corticostriatal slices.

KEY RESULTS

Flow synaptometry showed that A2A receptors were extensively co-localized with CB1 receptor-immunopositive corticostriatal terminals and A2A receptors co-immunoprecipitated CB1 receptors in these purified terminals. A2A receptor activation decreased CB1 receptor radioligand binding and decreased the CB1 receptor-mediated inhibition of high-K(+) -evoked glutamate release in corticostriatal terminals. Accordingly, A2A receptor activation prevented CB1 receptor-mediated paired-pulse facilitation and attenuated the CB1 receptor-mediated inhibition of synaptic transmission in glutamatergic synapses of corticostriatal slices.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Activation of presynaptic A2A receptors dampened CB1 receptor-mediated inhibition of corticostriatal terminals. This constitutes a thus far unrecognized mechanism to modulate the potent CB1 receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition, allowing frequency-dependent enhancement of synaptic efficacy at corticostriatal synapses.

Role of cues and contexts on drug-seeking behaviour

Environmental stimuli are powerful mediators of craving and relapse in substance-abuse disorders. This review examined how animal models have been used to investigate the cognitive mechanisms through which cues are able to affect drug-seeking behaviour. We address how animal models can describe the way drug-associated cues come to facilitate the development and persistence of drug taking, as well as how these cues are critical to the tendency to relapse that characterizes substance-abuse disorders. Drug-associated cues acquire properties of conditioned reinforcement, incentive motivation and discriminative control, which allow them to influence drug-seeking behaviour. Using these models, researchers have been able to investigate the pharmacology subserving the behavioural impact of environmental stimuli, some of which we highlight. Subsequently, we examine whether the impact of drug-associated stimuli can be attenuated via a process of extinction, and how this question is addressed in the laboratory. We discuss how preclinical research has been translated into behavioural therapies targeting substance abuse, as well as highlight potential developments to therapies that might produce more enduring changes in behaviour.

The effects of nucleus accumbens μ-opioid and adenosine 2A receptor stimulation and blockade on instrumental learning

Prior research has shown that glutamate and dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) core are critical for the learning of an instrumental response for food reinforcement. It has also been demonstrated that μ-opioid and adenosine A2A receptors within the NAcc impact feeding and motivational processes. In these experiments, we examined the potential roles of NAcc μ-opioid and A2A receptors on instrumental learning and performance. Sprague-Dawley rats were food restricted and trained to lever press following daily intra-accumbens injections of the A2A receptor agonist CGS 21680 (at 0.0, 6.0, or 24.0ng/side), the A2A antagonist pro-drug MSX-3 (at 0.0, 1.0, or 3.0μg/side), the μ-opioid agonist DAMGO (at 0.0, 0.025, or 0.025μg/side), or the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone (at 0.0, 2.0 or 20.0μg/side). After five days, rats continued training without drug injections until lever pressing rates stabilized, and were then tested with a final drug test to assess potential performance effects. Stimulation, but not inhibition, of NAcc adenosine A2A receptors depressed lever pressing during learning and performance tests, but did not impact lever pressing on non-drug days. Both μ-opioid receptor stimulation and blockade inhibited learning of the lever-press response, though only naltrexone treatment caused impairments in lever-pressing after the task had been learned. The effect of A2A receptor stimulation on learning and performance were consistent with known effects of adenosine on effort-related processes, whereas the pattern of lever presses, magazine approaches, and pellet consumption following opioid receptor manipulations suggested that their effects may have been driven by drug-induced shifts in the incentive value of the sugar reinforcer.

Synergistic regulation of glutamatergic transmission by serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors in prefrontal cortical neurons

The monoamine system in the prefrontal cortex has been implicated in various mental disorders and has been the major target of anxiolytics and antidepressants. Clinical studies show that serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) produce better therapeutic effects than single selective reuptake inhibitors, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we found that low dose SNRIs, by acting on 5-HT(1A) and α2-adrenergic receptors, synergistically reduced AMPA receptor (AMPAR)-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents and AMPAR surface expression in prefrontal cortex pyramidal neurons via a mechanism involving Rab5/dynamin-mediated endocytosis of AMPARs. The synergistic effect of SNRIs on AMPARs was blocked by inhibition of activator of G protein signaling 3, a G protein modulator that prevents reassociation of G(i) protein α subunit and prolongs the βγ-mediated signaling pathway. Moreover, the depression of AMPAR-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents by SNRIs required p38 kinase activity, which was increased by 5-HT(1A) and α2-adrenergic receptor co-activation in an activator of G protein signaling 3-dependent manner. These results have revealed a potential mechanism for the synergy between the serotonin and norepinephrine systems in the regulation of glutamatergic transmission in cortical neurons.

G-protein-coupled receptor heteromers as key players in the molecular architecture of the central nervous system

The overall architecture of the nervous system, especially the CNS, is remarkable. The anatomy of the nervous system is constituted not only by macroscopic and microscopy identifiable regions and neuronal cell types, but also by protein complexes whose identification and localization require sophisticated techniques. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute an example of proteins that are the key factors in the framework needed to sustain brain and nerve structure and function. The versatility underlying nervous system anatomy takes advantage of a recently discovered feature of GPCRs, the possibility to form heteromers that, placed at specific neuronal subsets and at specific locations (pre-, post-, or peri-synaptic), contribute to attain unique neural functions.

Disease-specific heteromerization of G-protein-coupled receptors that target drugs of abuse

Drugs of abuse such as morphine or marijuana exert their effects through the activation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the opioid and cannabinoid receptors, respectively. Moreover, interactions between either of these receptors have been shown to be involved in the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse. Recent advances in the field, using a variety of approaches, have demonstrated that many GPCRs, including opioid, cannabinoid, and dopamine receptors, can form associations between different receptor subtypes or with other GPCRs to form heteromeric complexes. The formation of these complexes, in turn, leads to the modulation of the properties of individual protomers. The development of tools that can selectively disrupt GPCR heteromers as well as monoclonal antibodies that can selectively block signaling by specific heteromer pairs has indicated that heteromers involving opioid, cannabinoid, or dopamine receptors may play a role in various disease states. In this review, we describe evidence for opioid, cannabinoid, and dopamine receptor heteromerization and the potential role of GPCR heteromers in pathophysiological conditions.

Activators of G protein signaling exhibit broad functionality and define a distinct core signaling triad

Activators of G protein signaling (AGS), initially discovered in the search for receptor-independent activators of G protein signaling, define a broad panel of biologic regulators that influence signal transfer from receptor to G-protein, guanine nucleotide binding and hydrolysis, G protein subunit interactions, and/or serve as alternative binding partners for Gα and Gβγ independently of the classic heterotrimeric Gαβγ. AGS proteins generally fall into three groups based upon their interaction with and regulation of G protein subunits: group I, guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEF); group II, guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors; and group III, entities that bind to Gβγ. Group I AGS proteins can engage all subclasses of G proteins, whereas group II AGS proteins primarily engage the Gi/Go/transducin family of G proteins. A fourth group of AGS proteins with selectivity for Gα16 may be defined by the Mitf-Tfe family of transcription factors. Groups I-III may act in concert, generating a core signaling triad analogous to the core triad for heterotrimeric G proteins (GEF + G proteins + effector). These two core triads may function independently of each other or actually cross-integrate for additional signal processing. AGS proteins have broad functional roles, and their discovery has advanced new concepts in signal processing, cell and tissue biology, receptor pharmacology, and system adaptation, providing unexpected platforms for therapeutic and diagnostic development.

Adenosine signaling in striatal circuits and alcohol use disorders

Adenosine signaling has been implicated in the pathophysiology of alcohol use disorders and other psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression. Numerous studies have indicated a role for A1 receptors (A1R) in acute ethanol-induced motor incoordination, while A2A receptors (A2AR) mainly regulate the rewarding effect of ethanol in mice. Recent findings have demonstrated that dampened A2AR-mediated signaling in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) promotes ethanol-seeking behaviors. Moreover, decreased A2AR function is associated with decreased CREB activity in the DMS, which enhances goal-oriented behaviors and contributes to excessive ethanol drinking in mice. Interestingly, caffeine, the most commonly used psychoactive substance, is known to inhibit both the A1R and A2AR. This dampened adenosine receptor function may mask some of the acute intoxicating effects of ethanol. Furthermore, based on the fact that A2AR activity plays a role in goal-directed behavior, caffeine may also promote ethanol-seeking behavior. The A2AR is enriched in the striatum and exclusively expressed in striatopallidal neurons, which may be responsible for the regulation of inhibitory behavioral control over drug rewarding processes through the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia circuit. Furthermore, the antagonistic interactions between adenosine and dopamine receptors in the striatum also play an integral role in alcoholism and addiction-related disorders. This review focuses on regulation of adenosine signaling in striatal circuits and the possible implication of caffeine in goal-directed behaviors and addiction.

Role of endogenous opioid peptides in the infarct size-limiting effect of adaptation to chronic continuous hypoxia

AIMS

The objective of this study was to examine the involvement of endogenous opioid peptides and opioid receptor (OR) subtypes in the cardioprotective effect of adaptation to chronic hypoxia in rats.

MAIN METHODS

Rats were exposed to continuous normobaric hypoxia (CNH; 12% oxygen) for 3 weeks. Myocardial ischemia was induced by 20-min coronary artery occlusion followed by 3-h reperfusion in anesthetized open-chest animals. Various OR antagonists were administered to rats prior to ischemia. The size of myocardial infarction and the incidence of ischemic ventricular arrhythmias were assessed. Myocardial and plasma concentrations of opioid peptides (met-enkephalin, β-endorphin, and endomorphins) were determined.

KEY FINDINGS

Adaptation to CNH significantly increased myocardial and plasma concentrations of opioids, potentiated their further elevation by ischemia/reperfusion, and reduced myocardial infarct size, but it did not affect the incidence of ischemic arrhythmias. The infarct size-limiting effect of CNH was abolished by OR antagonists naltrexone (non-selective), naloxone methiodide (non-selective peripherally acting), TIPP[ψ] (δ-OR), naltriben (δ2-OR), or CTAP (μ-OR), while BNTX (δ1-OR) and nor-binaltorphimine (κ-OR) had no effect.

SIGNIFICANCE

The results suggest that the infarct size-limiting effect afforded by adaptation to CNH is mediated by activation of peripheral δ2- and μ-ORs by elevated levels of endogenous opioid peptides.

Translocation of activator of G-protein signaling 3 to the Golgi apparatus in response to receptor activation and its effect on the trans-Golgi network

Group II activators of G-protein signaling play diverse functional roles through their interaction with Gαi, Gαt, and Gαo via a G-protein regulatory (GPR) motif that serves as a docking site for Gα-GDP. We recently reported the regulation of the AGS3-Gαi signaling module by a cell surface, seven-transmembrane receptor. Upon receptor activation, AGS3 reversibly dissociates from the cell cortex, suggesting that it may function as a signal transducer with downstream signaling implications, and this question is addressed in the current report. In HEK-293 and COS-7 cells expressing the α2A/D-AR and Gαi3, receptor activation resulted in the translocation of endogenous AGS3 and AGS3-GFP from the cell cortex to a juxtanuclear region, where it co-localized with markers of the Golgi apparatus (GA). The agonist-induced translocation of AGS3 was reversed by the α2-AR antagonist rauwolscine. The TPR domain of AGS3 was required for agonist-induced translocation of AGS3 from the cell cortex to the GA, and the translocation was blocked by pertussis toxin pretreatment or by the phospholipase Cβ inhibitor U73122. Agonist-induced translocation of AGS3 to the GA altered the functional organization and protein sorting at the trans-Golgi network. The regulated movement of AGS3 between the cell cortex and the GA offers unexpected mechanisms for modulating protein secretion and/or endosome recycling events at the trans-Golgi network.

Adenosine transporter ENT1 regulates the acquisition of goal-directed behavior and ethanol drinking through A2A receptor in the dorsomedial striatum

Adenosine signaling has been implicated in the pathophysiology of many psychiatric disorders including alcoholism. Striatal adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR) play an essential role in both ethanol drinking and the shift from goal-directed action to habitual behavior. However, direct evidence for a role of striatal A2AR signaling in ethanol drinking and habit development has not been established. In the present study, we found that decreased A2AR-mediated CREB activity in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) enhanced initial behavioral acquisition of goal-directed behaviors and the vulnerability to progress to excessive ethanol drinking during operant conditioning in mice lacking ethanol-sensitive adenosine transporter ENT1 (ENT1(-/-)). Using mice expressing β-galactosidase (lacZ) under the control of seven repeated CRE sites in both genotypes (CRE-lacZ/ENT1(+/+) mice and CRE-lacZ/ENT1(-/-) mice) and the dominant-negative form of CREB, we found that reduced CREB activity in the DMS was causally associated with decreased A2AR signaling and increased goal-directed ethanol drinking. Finally, we have demonstrated that the A2AR antagonist ZM241385 dampened protein kinase A activity-mediated signaling in the DMS and promoted excessive ethanol drinking in ENT1(+/+) mice, but not in ENT1(-/-) mice. Our results indicate that A2AR-mediated CREB signaling in the DMS is a key determinant in enhancing the development of goal-directed ethanol drinking in mice.

Regulation of the G-protein regulatory-Gαi signaling complex by nonreceptor guanine nucleotide exchange factors

Group II activators of G-protein signaling (AGS) serve as binding partners for Gα(i/o/t) via one or more G-protein regulatory (GPR) motifs. GPR-Gα signaling modules may be differentially regulated by cell surface receptors or by different nonreceptor guanine nucleotide exchange factors. We determined the effect of the nonreceptor guanine nucleotide exchange factors AGS1, GIV/Girdin, and Ric-8A on the interaction of two distinct GPR proteins, AGS3 and AGS4, with Gα(il) in the intact cell by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. AGS3-Rluc-Gα(i1)-YFP and AGS4-Rluc-Gα(i1)-YFP BRET were regulated by Ric-8A but not by Gα-interacting vesicle-associated protein (GIV) or AGS1. The Ric-8A regulation was biphasic and dependent upon the amount of Ric-8A and Gα(i1)-YFP. The inhibitory regulation of GPR-Gα(i1) BRET by Ric-8A was blocked by pertussis toxin. The enhancement of GPR-Gα(i1) BRET observed with Ric-8A was further augmented by pertussis toxin treatment. The regulation of GPR-Gα(i) interaction by Ric-8A was not altered by RGS4. AGS3-Rluc-Gα(i1)-YFP and AGS4-Rluc-G-Gα(i1)-YFP BRET were observed in both pellet and supernatant subcellular fractions and were regulated by Ric-8A in both fractions. The regulation of the GPR-Gα(i1) complex by Ric-8A, as well as the ability of Ric-8A to restore Gα expression in Ric8A(-/-) mouse embryonic stem cells, involved two helical domains at the carboxyl terminus of Ric-8A. These data indicate a dynamic interaction between GPR proteins, Gα(i1) and Ric-8A, in the cell that influences subcellular localization of the three proteins and regulates complex formation.

Opiate-induced changes in brain adenosine levels and narcotic drug responses

We have very little information about the metabolomic changes that mediate neurobehavioral responses, including addiction. It was possible that opioid-induced metabolomic changes in brain could mediate some of the pharmacodynamic effects of opioids. To investigate this, opiate-induced brain metabolomic responses were profiled using a semi-targeted method in C57BL/6 and 129Sv1 mice, which exhibit extreme differences in their tendency to become opiate dependent. Escalating morphine doses (10-40 mg/kg) administered over a 4-day period selectively induced a twofold decrease (p<0.00005) in adenosine abundance in the brainstem of C57BL/6 mice, which exhibited symptoms of narcotic drug dependence; but did not decrease adenosine abundance in 129Sv1 mice, which do not exhibit symptoms of dependence. Based on this finding, the effect of adenosine on dependence was investigated in genetically engineered mice with alterations in adenosine tone in the brain and in pharmacologic experiments. Morphine withdrawal behaviors were significantly diminished (p<0.0004) in genetically engineered mice with reduced adenosine tone in the brainstem, and by treatment with an adenosine receptor(1) (A(1)) agonist (2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine, 0.5mg/kg) or an A(2a) receptor (A(2a)) antagonist (SCH 58261, 1mg/kg). These results indicate that adenosine homeostasis plays a crucial role in narcotic drug responses. Opiate-induced changes in brain adenosine levels may explain many important neurobehavioral features associated with opiate addiction and withdrawal.

mGlu5 Receptor Functional Interactions and Addiction

The idea of “receptor mosaics” is that proteins may form complex and dynamic networks with respect to time and composition. These have the potential to markedly expand the diversity and specificity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) signaling, particularly in neural cells, where a few key receptors have been implicated in many neurological and psychiatric disorders, including addiction. Metabotropic glutamate type 5 receptors (mGlu5) can form complexes with other GPCRs, including adenosine A_2A and dopamine D₂ receptors. mGlu5-containing complexes have been reported in the striatum, a brain region critical for mediating the rewarding and incentive motivational properties of drugs of abuse. mGlu5-containing complexes and/or downstream interactions between divergent receptors may play roles in addiction–relevant behaviors. Interactions between mGlu5 receptors and other GPCRs can regulate the rewarding and conditioned effects of drugs as well as drug-seeking behaviors. mGlu5 complexes may influence striatal function, including GABAergic output of striatopallidal neurons and glutamatergic input from corticostriatal afferents. Given their discrete localization, mGlu5-[non-mGlu5] receptor interactions and/or mGlu5-containing complexes may minimize off-target effects and thus provide a novel avenue for drug discovery. The therapeutic targeting of receptor–receptor functional interactions and/or receptor mosaics in a tissue specific or temporal manner (for example, a sub-population of receptors in a “pathological state”) might reduce detrimental side effects that may otherwise impair vital brain functions.

Adenosine A(2A)-cannabinoid CB(1) receptor interaction: an integrative mechanism in striatal glutamatergic neurotransmission

The striatum is a subcortical area involved in sensorimotor, cognitive and emotional processes. Adenosine A(2A) receptors (A(2A)Rs) are highly expressed in the striatum, and their ability to establish functional and molecular interactions with many other receptors attributes to a pivotal role in the modulation and integration of striatal neurotransmission. This review will focus on the interaction between A(2A)Rs and cannabinoid CB(1) receptors (CB(1)Rs), taking it as a paradigmatic example of synaptic integration. Indeed, A(2A)Rs can exert an opposite (permissive vs. inhibitory) influence on CB1-dependent synaptic effect. These apparently irreconcilable functions could depend on a different role of pre- vs. postsynaptic A(2A)Rs, on their interaction with other receptors (namely adenosine A(1), metabotropic glutamate 5 and dopamine D2 receptors), and on whether A(2A)Rs form or not heteromers with CB(1)Rs. Besides providing a good example of the intricate pattern of events taking place in striatal synapses, the A(2A)/CB(1)R interaction proves very informative to understand the physiology of the basal ganglia and the mechanisms of related diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Brain Integration.

Effects of A₂A adenosine receptor blockade or stimulation on alcohol intake in alcohol-preferring rats

RATIONALE

A(2A) adenosine receptors (A(2A)ARs) have been proposed to be involved in drug addiction; however, preclinical studies about the effects of A(2A)AR ligands on alcohol consumption have provided inconsistent results.

OBJECTIVES

The present study evaluated the effect of intraperitoneal injections of the A(2A)AR antagonist ANR 94, and the A(2A)AR agonists CGS 21680 and VT 7 on voluntary drinking and operant self-administration of 10% ethanol in Marchigian Sardinian alcohol-preferring (msP) rats.

RESULTS

Voluntary ethanol drinking was increased by ANR 94 in acute and subchronic experiments, while it was reduced by A(2A)AR agonists. The effect of CGS 21680 was abolished by a low dose of ANR 94, confirming its mediation by A(2A)ARs. Ethanol self-administration was reduced by CGS 21680 and VT 7, while ANR 94 slightly but significantly increased it. Blood alcohol levels were not modified by A(2A)AR agonists, indicating that their effect is not related to ethanol pharmacokinetics. The effect of VT 7 on ethanol drinking was behaviourally selective; ethanol and food intake were reduced, but water intake was increased, and total fluid intake was not different from that of controls. Moreover, VT 7 did not affect locomotor activity. CGS 21680 (0.1 mg/kg) did not modify total fluid intake, but 0.2 and 0.3 mg/kg reduced total fluid intake and locomotor activity.

CONCLUSION

These results provide evidence that A(2A)AR agonists reduce ethanol consumption in msP rats, which represent an animal model of alcohol abuse related to stress, anxiety and depression. A(2A)ARs may represent a potential target for treatment of alcohol abuse.

Reinforcing and neurochemical effects of cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonists, but not cocaine, are altered by an adenosine A2A receptor antagonist

Several recent studies suggest functional and molecular interactions between striatal adenosine A(2A) and cannabinoid CB(1) receptors. Here, we demonstrate that A(2A) receptors selectively modulate reinforcing effects of cannabinoids. We studied effects of A(2A) receptor blockade on the reinforcing effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the endogenous CB(1) receptor ligand anandamide under a fixed-ratio schedule of intravenous drug injection in squirrel monkeys. A low dose of the selective adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist MSX-3 (1 mg/kg) caused downward shifts of THC and anandamide dose-response curves. In contrast, a higher dose of MSX-3 (3 mg/kg) shifted THC and anandamide dose-response curves to the left. MSX-3 did not modify cocaine or food pellet self-administration. Also, MSX-3 neither promoted reinstatement of extinguished drug-seeking behavior nor altered reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior by non-contingent priming injections of THC. Finally, using in vivo microdialysis in freely-moving rats, a behaviorally active dose of MSX-3 significantly counteracted THC-induced, but not cocaine-induced, increases in extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens shell. The significant and selective results obtained with the lower dose of MSX-3 suggest that adenosine A(2A) antagonists acting preferentially at presynaptic A(2A) receptors might selectively reduce reinforcing effects of cannabinoids that lead to their abuse. However, the appearance of potentiating rather than suppressing effects on cannabinoid reinforcement at the higher dose of MSX-3 would likely preclude the use of such a compound as a medication for cannabis abuse. Adenosine A(2A) antagonists with more selectivity for presynaptic versus postsynaptic receptors could be potential medications for treatment of cannabis abuse.

Heteromerization of G protein-coupled receptors: relevance to neurological disorders and neurotherapeutics

Because G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are numerous, widely expressed and involved in major physiological responses, they represent a relevant therapeutic target for drug discovery, particularly regarding pharmacological treatments of neurological disorders. Among the biological phenomena regulating receptor function, GPCR heteromerization is an important emerging area of interest and investigation. There is increasing evidence showing that heteromerization contributes to the pharmacological heterogeneity of GPCRs by modulating receptor ontogeny, activation and recycling. Although in many cases the physiological relevance of receptor heteromerization has not been fully established, the unique pharmacological and functional properties of heteromers are likely to lead to new strategies in clinical medicine. This review describes the main GPCR heteromers and their implications for major neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and addiction. A better understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying drug interactions related to the targeting of receptor heteromers could provide more specific and efficient therapeutic agents for the treatment of brain diseases.

[Cannabis withdrawal syndrome in patients with cannabis dependence only, and in patients with cannabis and opioid dependence]

BACKGROUND

The cannabis withdrawal syndrome occurs after cannabis cessation in more than 50% of dependent smokers. But although opioid-dependent patients are more frequently cannabis users and cannabis-dependent than the general population, the frequency and phenomenology of cannabis withdrawal symptoms in this specific population is unknown. Our hypothesis was that cannabis-dependent patients with current opioid dependence would experience the same withdrawal syndrome after cannabis cessation.

OBJECTIVE

To describe cannabis withdrawal symptoms in cannabis-only dependent patients and in cannabis-dependent patients with current opioid dependence.

METHODS

Using retrospective interviews, we evaluated the number and duration of six cannabis withdrawal symptoms in two groups: 56 cannabis-dependent patients without and 43 cannabis dependent patients with current opioid dependence. Cannabis and opioid dependence diagnoses were defined with DSM IV criteria using the MINI structured interview.

RESULTS

The two groups were not different in terms of age of onset of cannabis use, and number of cannabis joints smoked at the time of the cannabis cessation attempt. The frequency of a cannabis withdrawal syndrome (defined as at least two different symptoms) did not differ in the two groups (65%). Neither was the proportion of subjects with the following symptoms: appetite or weight loss (30.8%), irritability (45.1%), anxiety (56%), aggression (36.3%) and restlessness (45.1%). Patients with cannabis dependence and current opioid dependence were more likely to report sleep disturbances (79.1 vs. 53.6%, chi(2)=6.91, P=0.007). The median duration of this cannabis withdrawal syndrome was 20 days post-cessation.

CONCLUSION

This is, to our knowledge, the first study describing cannabis withdrawal syndrome in cannabis-dependent patients with current opioid dependence. These patients experience a cannabis withdrawal syndrome as often as cannabis-only dependent subjects, but describe more frequently sleep disturbances. This high rate of sleep disturbances may cause relapse to cannabis use.

Implication of the purinergic system in alcohol use disorders

In the central nervous system, adenosine and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) play an important role in regulating neuronal activity as well as controlling other neurotransmitter systems, such as, GABA, glutamate, and dopamine. Ethanol increases extracellular adenosine levels that regulate the ataxic and hypnotic/sedative effects of ethanol. Interestingly, ethanol is known to increase adenosine levels by inhibiting an ethanol-sensitive adenosine transporter, equilibrative nucleoside transporter type 1 (ENT1). Ethanol is also known to inhibit ATP-specific P2X receptors, which might result in such similar effects as those caused by an increase in adenosine. Adenosine and ATP exert their functions through P1 (metabotropic) and P2 (P2X-ionotropic and P2Y-metabotropic) receptors, respectively. Purinergic signaling in cortex-striatum-ventral tegmental area (VTA) has been implicated in regulating cortical glutamate signaling as well as VTA dopaminergic signaling, which regulates the motivational effect of ethanol. Moreover, several nucleoside transporters and receptors have been identified in astrocytes, which regulate not only adenosine-ATP neurotransmission, but also homeostasis of major inhibitory-excitatory neurotransmission (i.e., GABA or glutamate) through neuron-glial interactions. This review will present novel findings on the implications of adenosine and ATP neurotransmission in alcohol use disorders.

Regulation of the AGS3·G{alpha}i signaling complex by a seven-transmembrane span receptor

G-protein signaling modulators (GPSM) play diverse functional roles through their interaction with G-protein subunits. AGS3 (GPSM1) contains four G-protein regulatory motifs (GPR) that directly bind Gα(i) free of Gβγ providing an unusual scaffold for the "G-switch" and signaling complexes, but the mechanism by which signals track into this scaffold are not well understood. We report the regulation of the AGS3·Gα(i) signaling module by a cell surface, seven-transmembrane receptor. AGS3 and Gα(i1) tagged with Renilla luciferase or yellow fluorescent protein expressed in mammalian cells exhibited saturable, specific bioluminescence resonance energy transfer indicating complex formation in the cell. Activation of α(2)-adrenergic receptors or μ-opioid receptors reduced AGS3-RLuc·Gα(i1)-YFP energy transfer by over 30%. The agonist-mediated effects were inhibited by pertussis toxin and co-expression of RGS4, but were not altered by Gβγ sequestration with the carboxyl terminus of GRK2. Gα(i)-dependent and agonist-sensitive bioluminescence resonance energy transfer was also observed between AGS3 and cell-surface receptors typically coupled to Gα(i) and/or Gα(o) indicating that AGS3 is part of a larger signaling complex. Upon receptor activation, AGS3 reversibly dissociates from this complex at the cell cortex. Receptor coupling to both Gαβγ and GPR-Gα(i) offer additional flexibility for systems to respond and adapt to challenges and orchestrate complex behaviors.

Tuning and fine-tuning of synapses with adenosine

The ‘omnipresence’ of adenosine in all nervous system cells (neurons and glia) together with the intensive release of adenosine following insults, makes adenosine as a sort of ‘maestro’ of synapses leading to the homeostatic coordination of brain function. Besides direct actions of adenosine on the neurosecretory mechanisms, where adenosine operates to tune neurotransmitter release, receptor-receptor interactions as well as interplays between adenosine receptors and transporters occur as part of the adenosine’s attempt to fine tuning synaptic transmission. This review will focus on the different ways adenosine can use to trigger or brake the action of several neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Adenosine receptors cross talk with other G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), with ionotropic receptors and with receptor kinases. Most of these interactions occur through A2A receptors, which in spite their low density in some brain areas, such as the hippocampus, may function as metamodulators. Tonic adenosine A2A receptor activity is a required step to allow synaptic actions of neurotrophic factors, namely upon synaptic transmission at both pre- and post-synaptic level as well as upon synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival. The implications of these interactions in normal brain functioning and in neurologic and psychiatric dysfunction will be discussed.

Neonatal morphine exposure alters E-NTPDase activity and gene expression pattern in spinal cord and cerebral cortex of rats

The neonate opioid system has been frequently investigated, and studies have shown that exposure to drugs in early life can have implications for nervous system development. It has been proposed that adenosine is involved in opioid antinociception, and ATP is involved in central and peripheral mechanisms of nociception. Extracellular nucleotides can be hydrolyzed by E-NTPDases and ecto-5'nucleotidase, which present the functions of removing ATP and generating adenosine. In this study, we evaluated ATP, ADP, and AMP hydrolysis in synaptosomes from spinal cord and cerebral cortex of rats at postnatal day 16 after repeated morphine exposure in early life (postnatal day 8 to 14). Additionally, we evaluated E-NTPDase (1, 2 and 3) and ecto-5'nucleotidase gene expression by semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis. We observed an increase in ATP hydrolysis in the cerebral cortex, and a decrease in ADP hydrolysis in spinal cord. Expression levels of E-NTPDase 1 decreased in cerebral cortex and increased in spinal cord. Our findings highlight the importance of the purinergic system in young rats submitted to repeated morphine exposure by showing that in the neonatal period such exposure is capable of affecting the control system for nucleotide levels, which can promote changes in modulation or transmission of painful stimuli.

Receptor-regulated interaction of activator of G-protein signaling-4 and Galphai

Activator of G-protein signaling-4 (AGS4), via its three G-protein regulatory motifs, is well positioned to modulate G-protein signal processing by virtue of its ability to bind Galpha(i)-GDP subunits free of Gbetagamma. Apart from initial observations on the biochemical activity of the G-protein regulatory motifs of AGS4, very little is known about the nature of the AGS4-G-protein interaction, how this interaction is regulated, or where the interaction takes place. As an initial approach to these questions, we evaluated the interaction of AGS4 with Galpha(i1) in living cells using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). AGS4 and Galpha(i1) reciprocally tagged with either Renilla luciferase (RLuc) or yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) demonstrated saturable, specific BRET signals. BRET signals observed between AGS4-RLuc and Galpha(i1)-YFP were reduced by G-protein-coupled receptor activation, and this agonist-induced reduction in BRET was blocked by pertussis toxin. In addition, specific BRET signals were observed for AGS4-RLuc and alpha(2)-adrenergic receptor-Venus, which were Galpha(i)-dependent and reduced by agonist, indicating that AGS4-Galpha(i) complexes are receptor-proximal. These data suggest that AGS4-Galpha(i) complexes directly couple to a G-protein-coupled receptor and may serve as substrates for agonist-induced G-protein activation.

Distribution of activator of G-protein signaling 3 within the aggresomal pathway: role of specific residues in the tetratricopeptide repeat domain and differential regulation by the AGS3 binding partners Gi(alpha) and mammalian inscuteable

AGS3, a receptor-independent activator of G-protein signaling, is involved in unexpected functional diversity for G-protein signaling systems. AGS3 has seven tetratricopeptide (TPR) motifs upstream of four G-protein regulatory (GPR) motifs that serve as docking sites for Gialpha-GDP. The positioning of AGS3 within the cell and the intramolecular dynamics between different domains of the proteins are likely key determinants of their ability to influence G-protein signaling. We report that AGS3 enters into the aggresome pathway and that distribution of the protein is regulated by the AGS3 binding partners Gialpha and mammalian Inscuteable (mInsc). Gialpha rescues AGS3 from the aggresome, whereas mInsc augments the aggresome-like distribution of AGS3. The distribution of AGS3 to the aggresome is dependent upon the TPR domain, and it is accelerated by disruption of the TPR organizational structure or introduction of a nonsynonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism. These data present AGS3, G-proteins, and mInsc as candidate proteins involved in regulating cellular stress associated with protein-processing pathologies.