1
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Izakson L, Yoo M, Hakim A, Krajbich I, Webb R, Levy DJ. Valuations of target items are drawn towards unavailable decoy items due to prior expectations. PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae232. [PMID: 38948017 PMCID: PMC11214102 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
When people make choices, the items they consider are often embedded in a context (of other items). How this context affects the valuation of the specific item is an important question. High-value context might make items appear less attractive because of contrast-the tendency to normalize perception of an object relative to its background-or more attractive because of assimilation-the tendency to group objects together. Alternatively, a high-value context might increase prior expectations about the item's value. Here, we investigated these possibilities. We examined how unavailable context items affect choices between two target items, as well as the willingness-to-pay for single targets. Participants viewed sets of three items for several seconds before the target(s) were highlighted. In both tasks, we found a significant assimilation-like effect where participants were more likely to choose or place a higher value on a target when it was surrounded by higher-value context. However, these context effects were only significant for participants' fastest choices. Using variants of a drift-diffusion model, we established that the unavailable context shifted participants' prior expectations towards the average values of the sets but had an inconclusive effect on their evaluations of the targets during the decision (i.e. drift rates). In summary, we find that people use context to inform their initial valuations. This can improve efficiency by allowing people to get a head start on their decision. However, it also means that the valuation of an item can change depending on the context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liz Izakson
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Minhee Yoo
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Adam Hakim
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Ian Krajbich
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Ryan Webb
- Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, 105 St George St., Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E6, Canada
| | - Dino J Levy
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- Coller School of Management, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
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2
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Mækelæ MJ, Kreis IV, Pfuhl G. Teleological reasoning bias is predicted by pupil dynamics: Evidence for the extensive integration account of bias in reasoning. Psychophysiology 2024; 61:e14532. [PMID: 38282116 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Teleological reasoning is the tendency for humans to see purpose and intentionality in natural phenomena when there is none. In this study, we assess three competing theories on how bias in reasoning arises by examining performance on a teleological reasoning task while measuring pupil size and response times. We replicate that humans (N = 45) are prone to accept false teleological explanations. Further, we show that errors on the teleological reasoning task are associated with slower response times, smaller baseline pupil size, and larger pupil dilations. The results are in line with the single-process extensive integration account and directly oppose predictions from dual-processing accounts. Lastly, by modeling responses with a drift-diffusion model, we find that larger baseline pupil size is associated with lower decision threshold and higher drift rate, whereas larger pupil dilations are associated with higher decision threshold and lower drift rate. The results highlight the role of neural gain and the Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine system in modulating evidence integration and bias in reasoning. Thus, teleological reasoning and susceptibility to bias likely arise due to extensive processing rather than through fast and effortless processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabel V Kreis
- Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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3
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Bavard S, Stuchlý E, Konovalov A, Gluth S. Humans can infer social preferences from decision speed alone. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002686. [PMID: 38900903 PMCID: PMC11189591 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans are known to be capable of inferring hidden preferences and beliefs of their conspecifics when observing their decisions. While observational learning based on choices has been explored extensively, the question of how response times (RT) impact our learning of others' social preferences has received little attention. Yet, while observing choices alone can inform us about the direction of preference, they reveal little about the strength of this preference. In contrast, RT provides a continuous measure of strength of preference with faster responses indicating stronger preferences and slower responses signaling hesitation or uncertainty. Here, we outline a preregistered orthogonal design to investigate the involvement of both choices and RT in learning and inferring other's social preferences. Participants observed other people's behavior in a social preferences task (Dictator Game), seeing either their choices, RT, both, or no information. By coupling behavioral analyses with computational modeling, we show that RT is predictive of social preferences and that observers were able to infer those preferences even when receiving only RT information. Based on these findings, we propose a novel observational reinforcement learning model that closely matches participants' inferences in all relevant conditions. In contrast to previous literature suggesting that, from a Bayesian perspective, people should be able to learn equally well from choices and RT, we show that observers' behavior substantially deviates from this prediction. Our study elucidates a hitherto unknown sophistication in human observational learning but also identifies important limitations to this ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Bavard
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Erik Stuchlý
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Arkady Konovalov
- Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Sebastian Gluth
- Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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4
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Russek EM, Moran R, Liu Y, Dolan RJ, Huys QJM. Heuristics in risky decision-making relate to preferential representation of information. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4269. [PMID: 38769095 PMCID: PMC11106265 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48547-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
When making choices, individuals differ from one another, as well as from normativity, in how they weigh different types of information. One explanation for this relates to idiosyncratic preferences in what information individuals represent when evaluating choice options. Here, we test this explanation with a simple risky-decision making task, combined with magnetoencephalography (MEG). We examine the relationship between individual differences in behavioral markers of information weighting and neural representation of stimuli pertinent to incorporating that information. We find that the extent to which individuals (N = 19) behaviorally weight probability versus reward information is related to how preferentially they neurally represent stimuli most informative for making probability and reward comparisons. These results are further validated in an additional behavioral experiment (N = 88) that measures stimulus representation as the latency of perceptual detection following priming. Overall, the results suggest that differences in the information individuals consider during choice relate to their risk-taking tendencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan M Russek
- Max Planck University College London Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.
- Departments of Computer Science and Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - Rani Moran
- Max Planck University College London Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- Department of Psychology, School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Yunzhe Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China
| | - Raymond J Dolan
- Max Planck University College London Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Quentin J M Huys
- Max Planck University College London Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- Camden and Islington NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
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5
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Gautheron F, Quinton JC, Smeding A. Conflict in moral and nonmoral decision making: an empirical study coupled with a computational model. Cogn Process 2024; 25:281-303. [PMID: 38451385 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-024-01178-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
While moral psychology research has extensively studied decision making using moral dilemmas, such high-conflict situations may not fully represent all moral decisions. Moreover, most studies on the effect of conflict have focused on nonmoral decisions, and it is unclear how it applies to the moral realm. The present mixed-method research investigates how conflict impacts moral compared to nonmoral decision making. In a preregistered empirical study ( N = 42 ), participants made moral and nonmoral decisions with varying levels of conflict while their mouse trajectories were recorded. Results indicate that moral decisions were more stable in the presence of conflict, while still seeking compromise. In addition, decisions were more affected when conflict got higher. Mouse-tracking data further indicate that some factors are impacting the decision process earlier than others, supporting the relevance of tracing methods to dig into finer-grained decision dynamics. We also present a computational model that aims to capture decision mechanisms and how conflict and morality influence decision making. The model uses dynamic neural fields coupled with sensorimotor control to map a continuous decision space. Two model versions were compared: one with greater perceptual weight for moral information, and another with earlier processing of moral versus nonmoral information. The simulated data more successfully reproduced empirical patterns for the second version, thus providing insights into the underlying decision processes for both moral and nonmoral decisions, in the presence of conflict or not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flora Gautheron
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, LIP/PC2S, 38000, Grenoble, France
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LJK, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | | | - Annique Smeding
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, LIP/PC2S, 38000, Grenoble, France.
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6
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Hu M, Chang R, Sui X, Gao M. Attention biases the process of risky decision-making: Evidence from eye-tracking. Psych J 2024; 13:157-165. [PMID: 38155408 PMCID: PMC10990817 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Attention determines what kind of option information is processed during risky choices owing to the limitation of visual attention. This paper reviews research on the relationship between higher-complexity risky decision-making and attention as illustrated by eye-tracking to explain the process of risky decision-making by the effect of attention. We demonstrate this process from three stages: the pre-phase guidance of options on attention, the process of attention being biased, and the impact of attention on final risk preference. We conclude that exogenous information can capture attention directly to salient options, thereby altering evidence accumulation. In particular, for multi-attribute risky decision-making, attentional advantages increase the weight of specific attributes, thus biasing risk preference in different directions. We highlight the significance of understanding how people use available information to weigh risks from an information-processing perspective via process data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengchen Hu
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center of Children and Adolescents Healthy Personality Assessment and CultivationLiaoning Normal UniversityDalianChina
| | - Ruosong Chang
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center of Children and Adolescents Healthy Personality Assessment and CultivationLiaoning Normal UniversityDalianChina
| | - Xue Sui
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center of Children and Adolescents Healthy Personality Assessment and CultivationLiaoning Normal UniversityDalianChina
| | - Min Gao
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center of Children and Adolescents Healthy Personality Assessment and CultivationLiaoning Normal UniversityDalianChina
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7
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Frank CC, Abiodun SJ, Seaman KL. Boundary Conditions for the Positive Skew Bias. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2024; 37:e2372. [PMID: 38646661 PMCID: PMC11026052 DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Gambles that involve a large but unlikely gain coupled with a small but likely loss-like a lottery ticket-are known as positively-skewed. There is evidence that people tend to prefer these positively skewed choices, leading to what is called a positive-skew bias. In this study, we attempt to better understand under what conditions people are more drawn toward positively skewed, relative to symmetric, gambles. Based on the animal literature, there is reason to believe that preference for skewed gambles is dependent on the strength of the skew, with a greater preference for more strongly skewed options. In two online studies (Study 1: N = 209; Study 2: N = 210), healthy participants across the lifespan (ages 22-85) made a series of choices between a positively skewed risky gamble and either a certain outcome (Study 1) or risky symmetric gamble (Study 2). Logistic regression analyses revealed that people were more likely to choose moderately- and strongly skewed gambles over certain outcomes, with the exception of when there were large potential losses (Study 1). However, a stronger skewness did not increase preference for positively skewed gambles over symmetric gambles, findings which also may depend on the valence of the expected outcome (Study 2). Taken together, these results suggest that there may be a greater preference for more strongly positively skewed gambles but it 1) is dependent on what other gamble is presented and 2) is most prevalent for positive expected values. Additionally, contrary to previous findings, we did not find strong evidence of an age-related increase in positive skew bias in either study. However, exploratory analyses revealed that decision making strategy and cognitive abilities may play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kendra L Seaman
- Center for Vital Longevity and Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas
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8
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Oppenheim GM, Nozari N. Similarity-induced interference or facilitation in language production reflects representation, not selection. Cognition 2024; 245:105720. [PMID: 38266353 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Researchers have long interpreted the presence or absence of semantic interference in picture naming latencies as confirming or refuting theoretical claims regarding competitive lexical selection. But inconsistent empirical results challenge any mechanistic interpretation. A behavioral experiment first verified an apparent boundary condition in a blocked picture naming task: when orthogonally manipulating association type, taxonomic associations consistently elicit interference, while thematic associations do not. A plausible representational difference is that thematic feature activations depend more on supporting contexts. Simulations show that context-sensitivity emerges from the distributional statistics that are often used to measure thematic associations: residual semantic activation facilitates the retrieval of words that share semantic features, counteracting learning-based interference, and training a production model with greater sequential cooccurrence for thematically related words causes it to acquire stronger residual activation for thematic features. Modulating residual activation, either directly or through training, allows the model to capture gradient values of interference and facilitation, and in every simulation competitive and noncompetitive selection algorithms produce qualitatively equivalent results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary M Oppenheim
- Department of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, Wales, UK; Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, USA.
| | - Nazbanou Nozari
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Cognitive Science Program, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
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9
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Yoon YR, Woolley K. The Interactive Effect of Incentive Salience and Prosocial Motivation on Prosocial Behavior. Psychol Sci 2024; 35:390-404. [PMID: 38477861 DOI: 10.1177/09567976241234560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Charities often use incentives to increase prosocial action. However, charities sometimes downplay these incentives in their messaging (pilot study), possibly to avoid demotivating donors. We challenge this strategy, examining whether increasing the salience of incentives for prosocial action can in fact motivate charitable behavior. Three controlled experiments (N = 2,203 adults) and a field study with an alumni-donation campaign (N = 22,468 adults) found that more (vs. less) salient incentives are more effective at increasing prosocial behavior when prosocial motivation is low (vs. high). This is because more (vs. less) salient incentives increase relative consideration of self-interest (vs. other-regarding) benefits, which is a stronger driver of behavior at low (vs. high) levels of prosocial motivation. By identifying that prosocial motivation moderates the effect of incentive salience on charitable behavior, and by detailing the underlying mechanism, we advance theory and practice on incentive salience, motivation, and charitable giving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Rin Yoon
- SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University
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10
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Zhu JQ, Sundh J, Spicer J, Chater N, Sanborn AN. The autocorrelated Bayesian sampler: A rational process for probability judgments, estimates, confidence intervals, choices, confidence judgments, and response times. Psychol Rev 2024; 131:456-493. [PMID: 37289507 PMCID: PMC11115360 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Normative models of decision-making that optimally transform noisy (sensory) information into categorical decisions qualitatively mismatch human behavior. Indeed, leading computational models have only achieved high empirical corroboration by adding task-specific assumptions that deviate from normative principles. In response, we offer a Bayesian approach that implicitly produces a posterior distribution of possible answers (hypotheses) in response to sensory information. But we assume that the brain has no direct access to this posterior, but can only sample hypotheses according to their posterior probabilities. Accordingly, we argue that the primary problem of normative concern in decision-making is integrating stochastic hypotheses, rather than stochastic sensory information, to make categorical decisions. This implies that human response variability arises mainly from posterior sampling rather than sensory noise. Because human hypothesis generation is serially correlated, hypothesis samples will be autocorrelated. Guided by this new problem formulation, we develop a new process, the Autocorrelated Bayesian Sampler (ABS), which grounds autocorrelated hypothesis generation in a sophisticated sampling algorithm. The ABS provides a single mechanism that qualitatively explains many empirical effects of probability judgments, estimates, confidence intervals, choice, confidence judgments, response times, and their relationships. Our analysis demonstrates the unifying power of a perspective shift in the exploration of normative models. It also exemplifies the proposal that the "Bayesian brain" operates using samples not probabilities, and that variability in human behavior may primarily reflect computational rather than sensory noise. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jake Spicer
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick
| | - Nick Chater
- Warwick Business School, University of Warwick
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11
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Colas JT, O’Doherty JP, Grafton ST. Active reinforcement learning versus action bias and hysteresis: control with a mixture of experts and nonexperts. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011950. [PMID: 38552190 PMCID: PMC10980507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Active reinforcement learning enables dynamic prediction and control, where one should not only maximize rewards but also minimize costs such as of inference, decisions, actions, and time. For an embodied agent such as a human, decisions are also shaped by physical aspects of actions. Beyond the effects of reward outcomes on learning processes, to what extent can modeling of behavior in a reinforcement-learning task be complicated by other sources of variance in sequential action choices? What of the effects of action bias (for actions per se) and action hysteresis determined by the history of actions chosen previously? The present study addressed these questions with incremental assembly of models for the sequential choice data from a task with hierarchical structure for additional complexity in learning. With systematic comparison and falsification of computational models, human choices were tested for signatures of parallel modules representing not only an enhanced form of generalized reinforcement learning but also action bias and hysteresis. We found evidence for substantial differences in bias and hysteresis across participants-even comparable in magnitude to the individual differences in learning. Individuals who did not learn well revealed the greatest biases, but those who did learn accurately were also significantly biased. The direction of hysteresis varied among individuals as repetition or, more commonly, alternation biases persisting from multiple previous actions. Considering that these actions were button presses with trivial motor demands, the idiosyncratic forces biasing sequences of action choices were robust enough to suggest ubiquity across individuals and across tasks requiring various actions. In light of how bias and hysteresis function as a heuristic for efficient control that adapts to uncertainty or low motivation by minimizing the cost of effort, these phenomena broaden the consilient theory of a mixture of experts to encompass a mixture of expert and nonexpert controllers of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaron T. Colas
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, United States of America
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - John P. O’Doherty
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Scott T. Grafton
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, United States of America
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12
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Tump AN, Deffner D, Pleskac TJ, Romanczuk P, M. Kurvers RHJ. A Cognitive Computational Approach to Social and Collective Decision-Making. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2024; 19:538-551. [PMID: 37671891 PMCID: PMC10913326 DOI: 10.1177/17456916231186964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
Collective dynamics play a key role in everyday decision-making. Whether social influence promotes the spread of accurate information and ultimately results in adaptive behavior or leads to false information cascades and maladaptive social contagion strongly depends on the cognitive mechanisms underlying social interactions. Here we argue that cognitive modeling, in tandem with experiments that allow collective dynamics to emerge, can mechanistically link cognitive processes at the individual and collective levels. We illustrate the strength of this cognitive computational approach with two highly successful cognitive models that have been applied to interactive group experiments: evidence-accumulation and reinforcement-learning models. We show how these approaches make it possible to simultaneously study (a) how individual cognition drives social systems, (b) how social systems drive individual cognition, and (c) the dynamic feedback processes between the two layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan N. Tump
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
- Science of Intelligence, Technische Universität Berlin
| | - Dominik Deffner
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
- Science of Intelligence, Technische Universität Berlin
| | | | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Science of Intelligence, Technische Universität Berlin
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin
| | - Ralf H. J. M. Kurvers
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
- Science of Intelligence, Technische Universität Berlin
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13
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Nunez MD, Fernandez K, Srinivasan R, Vandekerckhove J. A tutorial on fitting joint models of M/EEG and behavior to understand cognition. Behav Res Methods 2024:10.3758/s13428-023-02331-x. [PMID: 38409458 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02331-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
We present motivation and practical steps necessary to find parameter estimates of joint models of behavior and neural electrophysiological data. This tutorial is written for researchers wishing to build joint models of human behavior and scalp and intracranial electroencephalographic (EEG) or magnetoencephalographic (MEG) data, and more specifically those researchers who seek to understand human cognition. Although these techniques could easily be applied to animal models, the focus of this tutorial is on human participants. Joint modeling of M/EEG and behavior requires some knowledge of existing computational and cognitive theories, M/EEG artifact correction, M/EEG analysis techniques, cognitive modeling, and programming for statistical modeling implementation. This paper seeks to give an introduction to these techniques as they apply to estimating parameters from neurocognitive models of M/EEG and human behavior, and to evaluate model results and compare models. Due to our research and knowledge on the subject matter, our examples in this paper will focus on testing specific hypotheses in human decision-making theory. However, most of the motivation and discussion of this paper applies across many modeling procedures and applications. We provide Python (and linked R) code examples in the tutorial and appendix. Readers are encouraged to try the exercises at the end of the document.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Nunez
- Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Kianté Fernandez
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ramesh Srinivasan
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Institute of Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Joachim Vandekerckhove
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Institute of Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Statistics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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14
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Marini M, Colaiuda E, Gastaldi S, Addessi E, Paglieri F. Available and unavailable decoys in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) decision-making. Anim Cogn 2024; 27:3. [PMID: 38388756 PMCID: PMC10884124 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01860-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Decision-making has been observed to be systematically affected by decoys, i.e., options that should be irrelevant, either because unavailable or because manifestly inferior to other alternatives, and yet shift preferences towards their target. Decoy effects have been extensively studied both in humans and in several other species; however, evidence in non-human primates remains scant and inconclusive. To address this gap, this study investigates how choices in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) are affected by different types of decoys: asymmetrically dominated decoys, i.e., available and unavailable options that are inferior to only one of the other alternatives, and phantom decoys, i.e., unavailable options that are superior to another available alternative. After controlling for the subjective strength of initial preferences and the distance of each decoy from its target in attribute space, results demonstrate a systematic shift in capuchins' preference towards the target of both asymmetrically dominated decoys (whether they are available or not) and phantom decoys, regardless of what options is being targeted by such decoys. This provides the most comprehensive evidence to date of decoy effects in non-human primates, with important theoretical and methodological implications for future comparative studies on context effects in decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marini
- IMT School for Advanced Studies, Lucca, Italy
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Edoardo Colaiuda
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Serena Gastaldi
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Elsa Addessi
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Paglieri
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy.
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15
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Li Y, Chu X. The effect of psychological distance on intertemporal choice of the reward processing: an eye-tracking investigation. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1275484. [PMID: 38356761 PMCID: PMC10864453 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1275484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
This study employed eye-tracking technology to investigate how varying dimensions of psychological distance-temporal, probability, and social-affect intertemporal choice. Across three experiments, participants were asked to select between two intertemporal options while their eye movements were monitored. Findings revealed inconsistent impacts of different psychological distances on intertemporal decision-making. Increased temporal and social distances led to a preference for larger delayed rewards (Studies 1 and 3), whereas an increase in probability distance did not significantly alter choice preferences (Study 2). The research also highlighted a general pattern in information processing; as psychological distance widened, participants showed a tendency toward dimension-specific processing in making intertemporal decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiaoyi Chu
- Department of Health Management, Shandong Drug and Food Vocational College, Weihai, China
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16
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Bas LM, Roberts ID, Hutcherson C, Tusche A. A neurocomputational account of the link between social perception and social action. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.02.560256. [PMID: 37873074 PMCID: PMC10592872 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.02.560256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
People selectively help others based on perceptions of their merit or need. Here, we develop a neurocomputational account of how these social perceptions translate into social choice. Using a novel fMRI social perception task, we show that both merit and need perceptions recruited the brain's social inference network. A behavioral computational model identified two non-exclusive mechanisms underlying variance in social perceptions: a consistent tendency to perceive others as meritorious/needy (bias) and a propensity to sample and integrate normative evidence distinguishing high from low merit/need in other people (sensitivity). Variance in people's merit (but not need) bias and sensitivity independently predicted distinct aspects of altruism in a social choice task completed months later. An individual's merit bias predicted context-independent variance in people's overall other-regard during altruistic choice, biasing people towards prosocial actions. An individual's merit sensitivity predicted context-sensitive discrimination in generosity towards high and low merit recipients by influencing other-regard and self-regard during altruistic decision-making. This context-sensitive perception-action link was associated with activation in the right temporoparietal junction. Together, these findings point towards stable, biologically based individual differences in perceptual processes related to abstract social concepts like merit, and suggest that these differences may have important behavioral implications for an individual's tendency toward favoritism or discrimination in social settings.
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17
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Pearson D, Piao M, Le Pelley ME. Value-modulated attentional capture is augmented by win-related sensory cues. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:133-143. [PMID: 36803153 PMCID: PMC10712205 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231160368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Attentional prioritisation of stimuli in the environment plays an important role in overt choice. Previous research shows that prioritisation is influenced by the magnitude of paired rewards, in that stimuli signalling high-value rewards are more likely to capture attention than stimuli signalling low-value rewards; and this attentional bias has been proposed to play a role in addictive and compulsive behaviours. A separate line of research has shown that win-related sensory cues can bias overt choices. However, the role that these cues play in attentional selection is yet to be investigated. Participants in this study completed a visual search task in which they responded to a target shape in order to earn reward. The colour of a distractor signalled the magnitude of reward and type of feedback on each trial. Participants were slower to respond to the target when the distractor signalled high reward compared to when the distractor signalled low reward, suggesting that the high-reward distractors had increased attentional priority. Critically, the magnitude of this reward-related attentional bias was further increased for a high-reward distractor with post-trial feedback accompanied by win-related sensory cues. Participants also demonstrated an overt choice preference for the distractor that was associated with win-related sensory cues. These findings demonstrate that stimuli paired with win-related sensory cues are prioritised by the attention system over stimuli with equivalent physical salience and learned value. This attentional prioritisation may have downstream implications for overt choices, especially in gambling contexts where win-related sensory cues are common.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Pearson
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Meihui Piao
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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18
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Esmaily J, Zabbah S, Ebrahimpour R, Bahrami B. Interpersonal alignment of neural evidence accumulation to social exchange of confidence. eLife 2023; 12:e83722. [PMID: 38128085 PMCID: PMC10746141 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Private, subjective beliefs about uncertainty have been found to have idiosyncratic computational and neural substrates yet, humans share such beliefs seamlessly and cooperate successfully. Bringing together decision making under uncertainty and interpersonal alignment in communication, in a discovery plus pre-registered replication design, we examined the neuro-computational basis of the relationship between privately held and socially shared uncertainty. Examining confidence-speed-accuracy trade-off in uncertainty-ridden perceptual decisions under social vs isolated context, we found that shared (i.e. reported confidence) and subjective (inferred from pupillometry) uncertainty dynamically followed social information. An attractor neural network model incorporating social information as top-down additive input captured the observed behavior and demonstrated the emergence of social alignment in virtual dyadic simulations. Electroencephalography showed that social exchange of confidence modulated the neural signature of perceptual evidence accumulation in the central parietal cortex. Our findings offer a neural population model for interpersonal alignment of shared beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Esmaily
- Department of General Psychology and Education, Ludwig Maximillian UniversityMunichGermany
- Faculty of Computer Engineering, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training UniversityTehranIslamic Republic of Iran
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig Maximilian University MunichMunichGermany
| | - Sajjad Zabbah
- School of Cognitive Sciences, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM)TehranIslamic Republic of Iran
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Aging Research, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Reza Ebrahimpour
- Institute for Convergent Science and Technology, Sharif University of TechnologyTehranIslamic Republic of Iran
| | - Bahador Bahrami
- Department of General Psychology and Education, Ludwig Maximillian UniversityMunichGermany
- Centre for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human DevelopmentBerlinGermany
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19
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Ging-Jehli NR, Arnold LE, Van Zandt T. Cognitive-attentional mechanisms of cooperation-with implications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognitive neuroscience. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 23:1545-1567. [PMID: 37783876 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-023-01129-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
People's cooperativeness depends on many factors, such as their motives, cognition, experiences, and the situation they are in. To date, it is unclear how these factors interact and shape the decision to cooperate. We present a computational account of cooperation that not only provides insights for the design of effective incentive structures but also redefines neglected social-cognitive characteristics associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Leveraging game theory, we demonstrate that the source and magnitude of conflict between different motives affected the speed and frequency of cooperation. Integrating eye-tracking to measure motivation-based information processing during decision-making shows that participants' visual fixations on the gains of cooperation rather than its costs and risks predicted their cooperativeness on a trial-by-trial basis. Using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, we find that a situation's prosociality and participants' past experience each bias the decision-making process distinctively. ADHD characteristics explain individual differences in responsiveness across contexts, highlighting the clinical importance of experimentally studying reactivity in social interactions. We demonstrate how the use of eye-tracking and computational modeling can be used to experimentally investigate social-cognitive characteristics in clinical populations. We also discuss possible underlying neural mechanisms to be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja R Ging-Jehli
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, & Psychological Sciences, Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
| | - L Eugene Arnold
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University, Nisonger Center UCEDD, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Trish Van Zandt
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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20
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Bennett D, Radulescu A, Zorowitz S, Felso V, Niv Y. Affect-congruent attention modulates generalized reward expectations. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011707. [PMID: 38127874 PMCID: PMC10781156 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Positive and negative affective states are respectively associated with optimistic and pessimistic expectations regarding future reward. One mechanism that might underlie these affect-related expectation biases is attention to positive- versus negative-valence features (e.g., attending to the positive reviews of a restaurant versus its expensive price). Here we tested the effects of experimentally induced positive and negative affect on feature-based attention in 120 participants completing a compound-generalization task with eye-tracking. We found that participants' reward expectations for novel compound stimuli were modulated in an affect-congruent way: positive affect induction increased reward expectations for compounds, whereas negative affect induction decreased reward expectations. Computational modelling and eye-tracking analyses each revealed that these effects were driven by affect-congruent changes in participants' allocation of attention to high- versus low-value features of compounds. These results provide mechanistic insight into a process by which affect produces biases in generalized reward expectations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bennett
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Angela Radulescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sam Zorowitz
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Valkyrie Felso
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Yael Niv
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
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21
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Shih WY, Yu HY, Lee CC, Chou CC, Chen C, Glimcher PW, Wu SW. Electrophysiological population dynamics reveal context dependencies during decision making in human frontal cortex. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7821. [PMID: 38016973 PMCID: PMC10684521 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42092-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence from monkeys and humans suggests that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) encodes the subjective value of options under consideration during choice. Data from non-human primates suggests that these value signals are context-dependent, representing subjective value in a way influenced by the decision makers' recent experience. Using electrodes distributed throughout cortical and subcortical structures, human epilepsy patients performed an auction task where they repeatedly reported the subjective values they placed on snack food items. High-gamma activity in many cortical and subcortical sites including the OFC positively correlated with subjective value. Other OFC sites showed signals contextually modulated by the subjective value of previously offered goods-a context dependency predicted by theory but not previously observed in humans. These results suggest that value and value-context signals are simultaneously present but separately represented in human frontal cortical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Yu Shih
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Hsiang-Yu Yu
- College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Epilepsy, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Chia Lee
- Department of Epilepsy, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chien-Chen Chou
- College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Epilepsy, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chien Chen
- College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Epilepsy, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Paul W Glimcher
- Neuroscience Institute, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Shih-Wei Wu
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
- Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
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22
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Tiede KE, Gaissmaier W. How Do People Process Different Representations of Statistical Information? Insights into Cognitive Effort, Representational Inconsistencies, and Individual Differences. Med Decis Making 2023; 43:803-820. [PMID: 37842816 PMCID: PMC10625726 DOI: 10.1177/0272989x231202505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Graphical representation formats (e.g., icon arrays) have been shown to lead to better understanding of the benefits and risks of treatments compared to numbers. We investigate the cognitive processes underlying the effects of format on understanding: how much cognitive effort is required to process numerical and graphical representations, how people process inconsistent representations, and how numeracy and graph literacy affect information processing. METHODS In a preregistered between-participants experiment, 665 participants answered questions about the relative frequencies of benefits and side effects of 6 medications. First, we manipulated whether the medical information was represented numerically, graphically (as icon arrays), or inconsistently (numerically for 3 medications and graphically for the other 3). Second, to examine cognitive effort, we manipulated whether there was time pressure or not. In an additional intervention condition, participants translated graphical information into numerical information before answering questions. We also assessed numeracy and graph literacy. RESULTS Processing icon arrays was more strongly affected by time pressure than processing numbers, suggesting that graphical formats required more cognitive effort. Understanding was lower when information was represented inconsistently (v. consistently) but not if there was a preceding intervention. Decisions based on inconsistent representations were biased toward graphically represented options. People with higher numeracy processed quantitative information more efficiently than people with lower numeracy did. Graph literacy was not related to processing efficiency. LIMITATIONS Our study was conducted with a nonpatient sample, and the medical information was hypothetical. CONCLUSIONS Although graphical (v. numerical) formats have previously been found to lead to better understanding, they may require more cognitive effort. Therefore, the goal of risk communication may play an important role when choosing how to communicate medical information. HIGHLIGHTS This article investigates the cognitive processes underlying the effects of representation format on the understanding of statistical information and individual differences therein.Processing icon arrays required more cognitive effort than processing numbers did.When information was represented inconsistently (i.e., partly numerically and partly graphically), understanding was lower than with consistent representation, and decisions were biased toward the graphically represented options.People with higher numeracy processed quantitative information more efficiently than people with lower numeracy did.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin E. Tiede
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
- Graduate School of Decision Sciences, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Gaissmaier
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Germany
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23
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Nakahashi A, Cisek P. Parallel processing of value-related information during multi-attribute decisions. J Neurophysiol 2023; 130:967-979. [PMID: 37671449 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00230.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
When choosing between options with multiple attributes, do we integrate all attributes into a unified measure for comparison, or does the comparison also occur at the level of each attribute, involving parallel processes that can dynamically influence each other? What happens when independent sensory features all carry information about the same decision factor, such as reward value? To investigate these questions, we asked human participants to perform a two-alternative forced choice reaching task in which the reward value of a target was indicated by two visual attributes-its brightness ("bottom-up," BU feature) and its orientation ("top-down," TD feature). If decisions always occur after the integration of both features, there should be no difference in the reaction time (RT) regardless of the attribute combinations that drove the choice. Counter to that prediction, RT distributions depended on the attribute combinations of given targets and the choices made by participants. RTs were shortest when both attributes were congruent or when the choice was based on the bottom-up feature, and longer when the attributes were in conflict (favoring opposite options). In conflict trials, nearly two-thirds of participants made faster decisions when choosing the option favored by the bottom-up feature than when choosing the top-down-favored option. We also observed mid-reach changes-of-mind in a subset of conflict trials, mostly changing from the bottom-up to the top-down-favored target. These data suggest that multi-attribute value-based decisions are better explained by a distributed process including competition among different features than by a competition based on a single, integrated estimate of value.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that during value-based decisions, humans do not always use all reward-related information to make their choice, but instead can "jump the gun" using partial information. In particular, when different sources of information were in conflict, early decisions were mostly based on fast bottom-up information, and sometimes followed by corrective changes-of-mind based on slower top-down information. This supports parallel decision processes among different information sources, as opposed to a single integrated "common currency."
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayuno Nakahashi
- Department of Neuroscience, SNC, UNIQUE, and CIRCA research groups, University of Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Paul Cisek
- Department of Neuroscience, SNC, UNIQUE, and CIRCA research groups, University of Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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24
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Eum B, Dolbier S, Rangel A. Peripheral Visual Information Halves Attentional Choice Biases. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:984-998. [PMID: 37470671 DOI: 10.1177/09567976231184878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
A growing body of research has shown that simple choices involve the construction and comparison of values at the time of decision. These processes are modulated by attention in a way that leaves decision makers susceptible to attentional biases. Here, we studied the role of peripheral visual information on the choice process and on attentional choice biases. We used an eye-tracking experiment in which participants (N = 50 adults) made binary choices between food items that were displayed in marked screen "shelves" in two conditions: (a) where both items were displayed, and (b) where items were displayed only when participants fixated within their shelves. We found that removing the nonfixated option approximately doubled the size of the attentional biases. The results show that peripheral visual information is crucial in facilitating good decisions and suggest that individuals might be influenceable by settings in which only one item is shown at a time, such as e-commerce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenden Eum
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology
| | | | - Antonio Rangel
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology
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25
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Ryan-Lortie J, Pelletier G, Pilgrim M, Fellows LK. Gaze differences in configural and elemental evaluation during multi-attribute decision-making. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1167095. [PMID: 37694112 PMCID: PMC10485368 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1167095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction While many everyday choices are between multi-attribute options, how attribute values are integrated to allow such choices remains unclear. Recent findings suggest a distinction between elemental (attribute-by-attribute) and configural (holistic) evaluation of multi-attribute options, with different neural substrates. Here, we asked if there are behavioral or gaze pattern differences between these putatively distinct modes of multi-attribute decision-making. Methods Thirty-nine healthy men and women learned the monetary values of novel multi-attribute pseudo-objects (fribbles) and then made choices between pairs of these objects while eye movements were tracked. Value was associated with individual attributes in the elemental condition, and with unique combinations of attributes in the configural condition. Choice, reaction time, gaze fixation time on options and individual attributes, and within- and between-option gaze transitions were recorded. Results There were systematic behavioral differences between elemental and configural conditions. Elemental trials had longer reaction times and more between-option transitions, while configural trials had more within-option transitions. The effect of last fixation on choice was more pronounced in the configural condition. Discussion We observed differences in gaze patterns and the influence of last fixation location on choice in multi-attribute value-based choices depending on how value is associated with those attributes. This adds support for the claim that multi-attribute option values may emerge either elementally or holistically, reminiscent of similar distinctions in multi-attribute object recognition. This may be important to consider in neuroeconomics research that involve visually-presented complex objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Ryan-Lortie
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Gabriel Pelletier
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Matthew Pilgrim
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Lesley K. Fellows
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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26
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Lupkin SM, McGinty VB. Monkeys exhibit human-like gaze biases in economic decisions. eLife 2023; 12:e78205. [PMID: 37497784 PMCID: PMC10465126 DOI: 10.7554/elife.78205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In economic decision-making individuals choose between items based on their perceived value. For both humans and nonhuman primates, these decisions are often carried out while shifting gaze between the available options. Recent studies in humans suggest that these shifts in gaze actively influence choice, manifesting as a bias in favor of the items that are viewed first, viewed last, or viewed for the overall longest duration in a given trial. This suggests a mechanism that links gaze behavior to the neural computations underlying value-based choices. In order to identify this mechanism, it is first necessary to develop and validate a suitable animal model of this behavior. To this end, we have created a novel value-based choice task for macaque monkeys that captures the essential features of the human paradigms in which gaze biases have been observed. Using this task, we identified gaze biases in the monkeys that were both qualitatively and quantitatively similar to those in humans. In addition, the monkeys' gaze biases were well-explained using a sequential sampling model framework previously used to describe gaze biases in humans-the first time this framework has been used to assess value-based decision mechanisms in nonhuman primates. Together, these findings suggest a common mechanism that can explain gaze-related choice biases across species, and open the way for mechanistic studies to identify the neural origins of this behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira M Lupkin
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers UniversityNewarkUnited States
- Behavioral and Neural Sciences Graduate Program, Rutgers UniversityNewarkUnited States
| | - Vincent B McGinty
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers UniversityNewarkUnited States
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27
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Wedel M, Pieters R, van der Lans R. Modeling Eye Movements During Decision Making: A Review. PSYCHOMETRIKA 2023; 88:697-729. [PMID: 35852670 PMCID: PMC10188393 DOI: 10.1007/s11336-022-09876-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews recent advances in the psychometric and econometric modeling of eye-movements during decision making. Eye movements offer a unique window on unobserved perceptual, cognitive, and evaluative processes of people who are engaged in decision making tasks. They provide new insights into these processes, which are not easily available otherwise, allow for explanations of fundamental search and choice phenomena, and enable predictions of future decisions. We propose a theoretical framework of the search and choice tasks that people commonly engage in and of the underlying cognitive processes involved in those tasks. We discuss how these processes drive specific eye-movement patterns. Our framework emphasizes the central role of task and strategy switching for complex goal attainment. We place the extant literature within that framework, highlight recent advances in modeling eye-movement behaviors during search and choice, discuss limitations, challenges, and open problems. An agenda for further psychometric modeling of eye movements during decision making concludes the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Wedel
- Robert H. Smith School of Business, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-1815 USA
| | - Rik Pieters
- Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Católica Lisbon School of Business and Economics, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ralf van der Lans
- Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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28
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Shao H, Li Y, Ren G. Effects of Voluntary Attention on Social and Non-Social Emotion Perception. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:bs13050392. [PMID: 37232629 DOI: 10.3390/bs13050392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Existing studies have focused on the effect of emotion on attention, and the role of attention on emotion has largely been underestimated. To further determine the mechanisms underlying the role of attention on emotion, the present study explored the effects of voluntary attention on both social and non-social aspects of emotional perception. Participants were 25 college students who completed the Rapid Serial Visual Prime (RSVP) paradigm. In this study, the selection rates of participants' emotional intensity, pleasure and distinctness perception of the pictures were measured. The results showed as following: (a) The cued condition selection rate was higher than the non-cued condition in the evaluation of non-social emotional intensity perception and pleasure perception, (b) In the evaluation of social emotional intensity and pleasure perception, there was no significant difference in the selection rate between the cued and non-cued condition, (c) The cued condition selection rate was higher than the non-cued condition in the perception of non-social positive emotional intensity and social negative emotional distinctness. The novel findings of this study revealed that the effect of voluntary attention on emotional perception is influenced not only by emotional valence but also by emotional sociality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongtao Shao
- College of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China
| | - Guiqin Ren
- College of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China
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Cazettes F, Mazzucato L, Murakami M, Morais JP, Augusto E, Renart A, Mainen ZF. A reservoir of foraging decision variables in the mouse brain. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26:840-849. [PMID: 37055628 PMCID: PMC10280691 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01305-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
In any given situation, the environment can be parsed in different ways to yield decision variables (DVs) defining strategies useful for different tasks. It is generally presumed that the brain only computes a single DV defining the current behavioral strategy. Here to test this assumption, we recorded neural ensembles in the frontal cortex of mice performing a foraging task admitting multiple DVs. Methods developed to uncover the currently employed DV revealed the use of multiple strategies and occasional switches in strategy within sessions. Optogenetic manipulations showed that the secondary motor cortex (M2) is needed for mice to use the different DVs in the task. Surprisingly, we found that regardless of which DV best explained the current behavior, M2 activity concurrently encoded a full basis set of computations defining a reservoir of DVs appropriate for alternative tasks. This form of neural multiplexing may confer considerable advantages for learning and adaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luca Mazzucato
- Departments of Biology, Mathematics & Physics, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Masayoshi Murakami
- Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Neurophysiology, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
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30
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Zilker V, Pachur T. Attribute attention and option attention in risky choice. Cognition 2023; 236:105441. [PMID: 37058827 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
Probability weighting is one of the most powerful theoretical constructs in descriptive models of risky choice and constitutes a central component of cumulative prospect theory (CPT). Probability weighting has been shown to be related to two facets of attention allocation: one analysis showed that differences in the shape of CPT's probability-weighting function are linked to differences in how attention is allocated across attributes (i.e., probabilities vs. outcomes); another analysis (that used a different measure of attention) showed a link between probability weighting and differences in how attention is allocated across options. However, the relationship between these two links is unclear. We investigate to what extent attribute attention and option attention independently contribute to probability weighting. Reanalyzing data from a process-tracing study, we first demonstrate links between probability weighting and both attribute attention and option attention within the same data set and the same measure of attention. We then find that attribute attention and option attention are at best weakly related and have independent and distinct effects on probability weighting. Moreover, deviations from linear weighting mainly emerged when attribute attention or option attention were imbalanced. Our analyses enrich the understanding of the cognitive underpinnings of preferences and illustrate that similar probability-weighting patterns can be associated with very different attentional policies. This complicates an unambiguous psychological interpretation of psycho-economic functions. Our findings indicate that cognitive process models of decision making should aim to concurrently account for the effects of different facets of attention allocation on preference. In addition, we argue that the origins of biases in attribute attention and option attention need to be better understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Zilker
- Technical University of Munich, School of Management, Chair of Behavioral Research Methods, Arcisstraße 21, 80333 Munich, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Adaptive Rationality, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Thorsten Pachur
- Technical University of Munich, School of Management, Chair of Behavioral Research Methods, Arcisstraße 21, 80333 Munich, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Adaptive Rationality, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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31
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Gui DY, Dai Y, Zheng Z, Liu S. Losing control without your smartphone: Anxiety affects the dynamic choice process of impulsive decision-making and purchase. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:998017. [PMID: 37008213 PMCID: PMC10060825 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.998017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Different interacting contexts influence the decision-making process, as revealed by the computational modeling. Through four studies, we investigated how smartphone addiction and anxiety influenced impulsive behaviors, along with the underlying psychological mechanisms and dynamic decision-making processes. In the first and second studies, we found no significant correlation between smartphone addiction and impulsive behavior. However, in the third study, we found that smartphone separation increased impulsive decision-making and purchases, and state anxiety, but not trait anxiety, mediated this effect. We explored the dynamic decision-making process using a multi-attribute drift diffusion model (DDM). The results showed that anxiety triggered by smartphone separation changed the trade-offs between decision weights for the fundamental components of the dynamic choice process. In the fourth study, we investigated why smartphone addiction led to increased anxiety and found that extended-self was a mediating factor. Our findings show that smartphone addiction was not correlated with impulsive behaviors, but was correlated with state anxiety in the context of smartphone separation. Further, this study shows how emotional states triggered by different interacting contexts affect the dynamic decision-making process and consumer behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan-Yang Gui
- Department of Marketing, College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yu Dai
- Department of Marketing, College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhichao Zheng
- Department of Marketing, College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shixiong Liu
- Department of Marketing, College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
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32
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Li X, Su R, Chen Y, Yang T. Optimal policy for uncertainty estimation concurrent with decision making. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112232. [PMID: 36924497 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Decision making often depends on vague information that leads to uncertainty, which is a quantity contingent not on choice but on probability distributions of sensory evidence and other cognitive variables. Uncertainty may be computed in parallel and interact with decision making. Here, we adapt the classic random-dot motion direction discrimination task to allow subjects to indicate their uncertainty without having to form a decision first. The subjects' choices and reaction times for perceptual decisions and uncertainty responses are measured, respectively. We then build a value-based model in which decisions are based on optimizing value computed from a drift-diffusion process. The model accounts for key features of subjects' behavior and the variation across the individuals. It explains how the addition of the uncertainty option affects perceptual decision making. Our work establishes a value-based theoretical framework for studying uncertainty and perceptual decisions that can be readily applied in future investigations of the underlying neural mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Li
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ruixin Su
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yilin Chen
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Tianming Yang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
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33
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Zuschke N. Order in multi‐attribute product choice decisions: Evidence from discrete choice experiments combined with eye tracking. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nick Zuschke
- Helmut‐Schmidt‐University/University of the Armed Forces Hamburg—Marketing Hamburg Germany
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34
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He L, Bhatia S. Complex economic decisions from simple neurocognitive processes: the role of interactive attention. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20221593. [PMID: 36750198 PMCID: PMC9904951 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurocognitive theories of value-based choice propose that people additively accumulate choice attributes when making decisions. These theories cannot explain the emergence of complex multiplicative preferences such as those assumed by prospect theory and other economic models. We investigate an interactive attention mechanism, according to which attention to attributes (like payoffs) depends on other attributes (like probabilities) attended to previously. We formalize this mechanism using a Markov attention model combined with an accumulator decision process, and test our model on eye-tracking and mouse-tracking data in risky choice. Our tests show that interactive attention is necessary to make good choices, that most participants display interactive attention and that allowing for interactive attention in accumulation-based decision models improves their predictions. By equipping established decision models with sophisticated attentional dynamics, we extend these models to describe complex economic choice, and in the process, we unify two prominent theoretical approaches to studying value-based decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisheng He
- SILC Business School, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Sudeep Bhatia
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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35
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Saito T, Motoki K, Nouchi R, Sugiura M. Facilitating animacy perception by manipulating stimuli exposure time. Front Psychol 2023; 13:1017685. [PMID: 36710764 PMCID: PMC9879210 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Animacy perception-discriminating between animate and inanimate visual stimuli-is the basis for engaging in social cognition and for our survival (e.g., avoiding potential danger). Previous studies indicate that factors in a target, such as the features or motion of a target, enhance animacy perception. However, factors in a perceiver, such as the visual attention of a perceiver to a target, have received little attention from researchers. Research on judgment, decision-making, and neuroeconomics indicates the active role of visual attention in constructing decisions. This study examined the role of visual attention in the perception of animacy by manipulating the exposure time of targets. Among Studies 1a to 1c conducted in this study, participants saw two face illustrations alternately; one of the faces was shown to be longer than the other. The participants chose the face that they considered more animated and rounder. Consequently, longer exposure time toward targets facilitated animacy perception and preference rather than the perception of roundness. Furthermore, preregistered Study 2 examined the underlying mechanisms. The results suggest that mere exposure, rather than orienting behavior, might play a vital role in the perception of animacy. Thus, in the reverse relationship between visual attention and animacy perception, animate objects capture attention-attention results in the perception of animacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Saito
- School of Fundamental Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan,*Correspondence: Toshiki Saito,
| | - Kosuke Motoki
- Department of Management, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Rui Nouchi
- Institute for Development and Ageing and Cancer, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Motoaki Sugiura
- Institute for Development and Ageing and Cancer, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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36
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Narhi-Martinez W, Dube B, Golomb JD. Attention as a multi-level system of weights and balances. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2023; 14:e1633. [PMID: 36317275 PMCID: PMC9840663 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This opinion piece is part of a collection on the topic: "What is attention?" Despite the word's place in the common vernacular, a satisfying definition for "attention" remains elusive. Part of the challenge is there exist many different types of attention, which may or may not share common mechanisms. Here we review this literature and offer an intuitive definition that draws from aspects of prior theories and models of attention but is broad enough to recognize the various types of attention and modalities it acts upon: attention as a multi-level system of weights and balances. While the specific mechanism(s) governing the weighting/balancing may vary across levels, the fundamental role of attention is to dynamically weigh and balance all signals-both externally-generated and internally-generated-such that the highest weighted signals are selected and enhanced. Top-down, bottom-up, and experience-driven factors dynamically impact this balancing, and competition occurs both within and across multiple levels of processing. This idea of a multi-level system of weights and balances is intended to incorporate both external and internal attention and capture their myriad of constantly interacting processes. We review key findings and open questions related to external attention guidance, internal attention and working memory, and broader attentional control (e.g., ongoing competition between external stimuli and internal thoughts) within the framework of this analogy. We also speculate about the implications of failures of attention in terms of weights and balances, ranging from momentary one-off errors to clinical disorders, as well as attentional development and degradation across the lifespan. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Attention Neuroscience > Cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Blaire Dube
- The Ohio State University, Department of Psychology
| | - Julie D. Golomb
- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Julie Golomb, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210.
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37
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Masís J, Chapman T, Rhee JY, Cox DD, Saxe AM. Strategically managing learning during perceptual decision making. eLife 2023; 12:64978. [PMID: 36786427 PMCID: PMC9928425 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Making optimal decisions in the face of noise requires balancing short-term speed and accuracy. But a theory of optimality should account for the fact that short-term speed can influence long-term accuracy through learning. Here, we demonstrate that long-term learning is an important dynamical dimension of the speed-accuracy trade-off. We study learning trajectories in rats and formally characterize these dynamics in a theory expressed as both a recurrent neural network and an analytical extension of the drift-diffusion model that learns over time. The model reveals that choosing suboptimal response times to learn faster sacrifices immediate reward, but can lead to greater total reward. We empirically verify predictions of the theory, including a relationship between stimulus exposure and learning speed, and a modulation of reaction time by future learning prospects. We find that rats' strategies approximately maximize total reward over the full learning epoch, suggesting cognitive control over the learning process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Masís
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Travis Chapman
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Juliana Y Rhee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - David D Cox
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Andrew M Saxe
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
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38
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Cubillo A, Hermes H, Berger E, Winkel K, Schunk D, Fehr E, Hare TA. Intra-individual variability in task performance after cognitive training is associated with long-term outcomes in children. Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13252. [PMID: 35184350 PMCID: PMC10078259 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The potential benefits and mechanistic effects of working memory training (WMT) in children are the subject of much research and debate. We show that after five weeks of school-based, adaptive WMT 6-9 year-old primary school children had greater activity in prefrontal and striatal brain regions, higher task accuracy, and reduced intra-individual variability in response times compared to controls. Using a sequential sampling decision model, we demonstrate that this reduction in intra-individual variability can be explained by changes to the evidence accumulation rates and thresholds. Critically, intra-individual variability is useful in quantifying the immediate impact of cognitive training interventions, being a better predictor of academic skills and well-being 6-12 months after the end of training than task accuracy. Taken together, our results suggest that attention control is the initial mechanism that leads to the long-run benefits from adaptive WMT. Selective and sustained attention abilities may serve as a scaffold for subsequent changes in higher cognitive processes, academic skills, and general well-being. Furthermore, these results highlight that the selection of outcome measures and the timing of the assessments play a crucial role in detecting training efficacy. Thus, evaluating intra-individual variability, during or directly after training could allow for the early tailoring of training interventions in terms of duration or content to maximise their impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cubillo
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics, Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Henning Hermes
- DICE, Heinrich Heine University of Dusseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Eva Berger
- Chair of Public and Behavioral Economics, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Kirsten Winkel
- Chair of Statistics and Econometrics, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Daniel Schunk
- Chair of Public and Behavioral Economics, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ernst Fehr
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics, Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Todd A Hare
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics, Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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39
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De Martino B, Cortese A. Goals, usefulness and abstraction in value-based choice. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:65-80. [PMID: 36446707 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar, while on the run, purportedly burned two million dollars in banknotes to keep his daughter warm. A stark reminder that, in life, circumstances and goals can quickly change, forcing us to reassess and modify our values on-the-fly. Studies in decision-making and neuroeconomics have often implicitly equated value to reward, emphasising the hedonic and automatic aspect of the value computation, while overlooking its functional (concept-like) nature. Here we outline the computational and biological principles that enable the brain to compute the usefulness of an option or action by creating abstractions that flexibly adapt to changing goals. We present different algorithmic architectures, comparing ideas from artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive neuroscience with psychological theories and, when possible, drawing parallels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedetto De Martino
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK; Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, ATR Institute International, 619-0288 Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Aurelio Cortese
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK; Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, ATR Institute International, 619-0288 Kyoto, Japan.
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40
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Uccula A, Mercante B, Barone L, Enrico P. Adult Avoidant Attachment, Attention Bias, and Emotional Regulation Patterns: An Eye-Tracking Study. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 13:bs13010011. [PMID: 36661583 PMCID: PMC9855192 DOI: 10.3390/bs13010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Proximity-seeking in distress situations is one of attachment theory's primary strategies; insecure individuals often also develop secondary strategies. The mechanisms implied in attachment deactivation constitute a key issue in the current debate related to their role in support-seeking. The main aim of this study is to investigate the attachment deactivation strategy and the processes of proximity/support-seeking under distress conditions by analyzing the attentional processes (i.e., an essential emotion-regulation strategy), using eye-tracking techniques. Seventy-two participants (45 female; Mage 23.9 ± 3.97) responded to the ECR-R questionnaire in order to identify their attachment style. They participated in an experimental situation in which they had to choose between pictures of care or pictures of food, following the presentation of threatening or neutral prime conditions (via the pictures' stimuli). Results showed that a care-consistency response pattern was the most frequent pattern of response, particularly under a threatening condition; on the contrary, only avoidant individuals showed a lower care-consistency response pattern by choosing food pictures. The overall findings demonstrate that avoidant individuals used the deactivation strategy to process comfort-related attachment pictures, suggesting that they considered these stimuli to be threatening. The implications for attachment theory and particularly for avoidant strategies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arcangelo Uccula
- Department of History, Human Sciences and Education, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Beniamina Mercante
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Lavinia Barone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Paolo Enrico
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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41
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Pizzo A, Fosgaard TR, Tyler BB, Beukel K. Information acquisition and cognitive processes during strategic decision-making: Combining a policy-capturing study with eye-tracking data. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278409. [PMID: 36454962 PMCID: PMC9714927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Policy-capturing (PC) methodologies have been employed to study decision-making, and to assess how decision-makers use available information when asked to evaluate hypothetical situations. An important assumption of the PC techniques is that respondents develop cognitive models to help them efficiently process the many information cues provided while reviewing a large number of decision scenarios. With this study, we seek to analyze the process of answering a PC study. We do this by investigating the information acquisition and the cognitive processes behind policy-capturing, building on cognitive and attention research and exploiting the tools of eye-tracking. Additionally, we investigate the role of experience in mediating the relationship between the information processed and judgments in order to determine how the cognitive models of student samples differ from those of professionals. We find evidence of increasing efficiency as a function of practice when respondents undergo the PC experiment. We also detect a selective process on information acquisition; such selection is consistent with the respondents' evaluation. While some differences are found in the information processing among the split sample of students and professionals, remarkable similarities are detected. Our study adds confidence to the assumption that respondents build cognitive models to handle the large amounts of information presented in PC experiments, and the defection of such models is not substantially affected by the applied sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Pizzo
- Copenhagen Business School, Department of Management, Society and Communication, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Toke R. Fosgaard
- Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, København, Denmark
| | - Beverly B. Tyler
- Department of Management, Virginia Tech Pamplin College of Business, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Karin Beukel
- Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, København, Denmark
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42
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A neurocomputational theory of action regulation predicts motor behavior in neurotypical individuals and patients with Parkinson’s disease. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1010111. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Surviving in an uncertain environment requires not only the ability to select the best action, but also the flexibility to withhold inappropriate actions when the environmental conditions change. Although selecting and withholding actions have been extensively studied in both human and animals, there is still lack of consensus on the mechanism underlying these action regulation functions, and more importantly, how they inter-relate. A critical gap impeding progress is the lack of a computational theory that will integrate the mechanisms of action regulation into a unified framework. The current study aims to advance our understanding by developing a neurodynamical computational theory that models the mechanism of action regulation that involves suppressing responses, and predicts how disruption of this mechanism can lead to motor deficits in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients. We tested the model predictions in neurotypical individuals and PD patients in three behavioral tasks that involve free action selection between two opposed directions, action selection in the presence of conflicting information and abandoning an ongoing action when a stop signal is presented. Our results and theory suggest an integrated mechanism of action regulation that affects both action initiation and inhibition. When this mechanism is disrupted, motor behavior is affected, leading to longer reaction times and higher error rates in action inhibition.
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43
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Ebert N, Ackermann KA, Bearth A. When information security depends on font size: how the saliency of warnings affects protection behavior. JOURNAL OF RISK RESEARCH 2022; 26:233-255. [PMID: 36896244 PMCID: PMC9988306 DOI: 10.1080/13669877.2022.2142952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Prior research on how to improve the effectiveness of information security warnings has predominantly focused on either the informational content of warnings or their visual saliency. In an online experiment (N = 1'486), we disentangle the effect of both manipulations and demonstrate that both factors simultaneously influence decision making. Our data indicate that the proportion of people who engage in protection behavior can be increased by roughly 65% by making a particular warning message more visually salient (i.e. a more conspicuous visual design is used). We also show that varying the message's saliency can make people behave very differently when confronted with the same threat or behave very similarly when confronted with threats that differ widely in terms of severity of outcomes. Our results suggest that the visual design of a warning may warrant at least as much attention as the informational content that the warning message conveys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico Ebert
- Center for Process Management & Information Security, Institute of Business Information Technology (IWI), ZHAW SML, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Kurt A. Ackermann
- Center for Behavioral Insights & Pricing, Institute of Marketing Management (IMM), ZHAW SML
| | - Angela Bearth
- Consumer Behavior, Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), ETH Zurich
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44
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Holley D, Fox AS. The central extended amygdala guides survival-relevant tradeoffs: Implications for understanding common psychiatric disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 142:104879. [PMID: 36115597 PMCID: PMC11178236 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
To thrive in challenging environments, individuals must pursue rewards while avoiding threats. Extensive studies in animals and humans have identified the central extended amygdala (EAc)-which includes the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)-as a conserved substrate for defensive behavior. These studies suggest the EAc influences defensive responding and assembles fearful and anxious states. This has led to the proliferation of a view that the EAc is fundamentally a defensive substrate. Yet mechanistic work in animals has implicated the EAc in numerous appetitive and consummatory processes, yielding fresh insights into the microcircuitry of survival- and emotion-relevant response selection. Coupled with the EAc's centrality in a conserved network of brain regions that encode multisensory environmental and interoceptive information, these findings suggest a broader role for the EAc as an arbiter of survival- and emotion-relevant tradeoffs for action selection. Determining how the EAc optimizes these tradeoffs promises to improve our understanding of common psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, depression, alcohol- and substance-use disorders, and anhedonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Holley
- Department of Psychology and the California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Andrew S Fox
- Department of Psychology and the California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Value-directed information search in partner choice. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500009426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
It is a widely held view that people rely on incomplete information to
find a relationship partner, resulting in non-compensatory choice
heuristics. However, recent experimental work typically finds that partner
choice follows compensatory choice strategies. To bridge this gap between
theory and experimental evidence, we characterize the mate choice problem by
distinguishing the information search process from the evaluation process.
In an eye-tracking experiment and a MouseLab experiment, we show that people
display strong value-directed search heuristics in response to all types of
cues and that the magnitude of value-directed searches increases with cue
primacy. Cue primacy also explains the interaction effect of cue type and
participant sex on the extent of valued-directed search. We further argue
that value-directed searching does not necessarily lead to non-compensatory
choice rules but may serve compensatory decision-making. Our results
demonstrate that people may adopt remarkably smart search heuristics to find
an ideal partner efficiently.
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Top-down modulation impairs priming susceptibility in complex decision-making with social implications. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17867. [PMID: 36284155 PMCID: PMC9595095 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22707-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Could social context variables prime complex decisions? Could top-down processes impair this priming susceptibility? Complex decisions have been mainly studied from economic and moral perspectives, and Dual Process Theories provide evidence of how these processes could be affected. To address these issues from a political perspective, online experiments were conducted. Participants (n = 252) were asked to choose a face from 4 options, each associated with different frequencies (repetition priming) or with phrases with different emotional valence (emotional priming), for an unspecified task (UST group) or an important task (IMT group). The most repeated face was chosen most in the UST group, and was associated with lower response times. Positive faces were equally chosen by both groups. To compare results in a more ecological situation, a social study was conducted during the 2019 Argentine Presidential Election, including online surveys (n = 3673) and analysis of news media mentioning candidates. The familiarity and trust to each candidate explained the voting-probability for most of them, as well as correlated with their frequency of mentions in the news, their positive associations, and election results. Our results suggest complex decision-making is susceptible to priming, depending on top-down modulation.
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Predicting Product Preferences on Retailers’ Web Shops through Measurement of Gaze and Pupil Size Dynamics. J Cogn 2022; 5:45. [PMID: 36304586 PMCID: PMC9541120 DOI: 10.5334/joc.240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies used gaze behavior to predict product preference in value-based decision-making, based on gaze angle variables such as dwell time, fixation duration and the first fixated product. While the application for online retail seems obvious, research with realistic web shop stimuli has been lacking so far. Here, we studied the decision process for 60 Dutch web shops of a variety of retailers, by measuring eye movements and pupil size during the viewing of web shop images. The outcomes of an ordinal linear regression model showed that a combination of gaze angle variables accurately predicted product choice, with the total dwell time being the most predictive gaze dynamic. Although pupillometric analysis showed a positive relationship between pupil dilation and product preference, adding pupil size to the model only slightly improved the prediction accuracy. The current study holds the potential to substantially improve retargeting mechanisms in online marketing based on consumers’ gaze information. Also, gaze-based product preference proves to be a valuable metric in pre-testing product introductions for market research and prevent product launches from failure.
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48
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Wei ZH, Li QY, Liang CJ, Liu HZ. Cognitive process underlying ultimatum game: An eye-tracking study from a dual-system perspective. Front Psychol 2022; 13:937366. [PMID: 36237663 PMCID: PMC9552838 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
According to the dual-system theories, the decisions in an ultimatum game (UG) are governed by the automatic System 1 and the controlled System 2. The former drives the preference for fairness, whereas the latter drives the self-interest motive. However, the association between the contributions of the two systems in UG and the cognitive process needs more direct evidence. In the present study, we used the process dissociation procedure to estimate the contributions of the two systems and recorded participants eye movements to examine the cognitive processes underlying UG decisions. Results showed that the estimated contributions of the two systems are uncorrelated and that they demonstrate a dissociated pattern of associations with third variables, such as reaction time (RT) and mean fixation duration (MFD). Furthermore, the relative time advantage (RTA) and the transitions between the two payoffs can predict the final UG decisions. Our findings provide evidence for the independent contributions of preference for fairness (System 1) and self-interest maximizing (System 2) inclinations to UG and shed light on the underlying processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Han Wei
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qiu-Yue Li
- Department of Social Psychology, Zhou Enlai School of Government, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ci-Juan Liang
- Department of Social Psychology, Zhou Enlai School of Government, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Hong-Zhi Liu
- Department of Social Psychology, Zhou Enlai School of Government, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
- Laboratory of Behavioral Economics and Policy Simulation, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Hong-Zhi Liu
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Marini M, Sapienza A, Paglieri F. There is more to attraction than meets the eye: Studying decoy‐induced attention allocation without eye tracking. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marini
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies National Research Council Rome Italy
- Department of Psychology Sapienza University of Rome Rome Italy
| | - Alessandro Sapienza
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies National Research Council Rome Italy
| | - Fabio Paglieri
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies National Research Council Rome Italy
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50
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Wolf C, Belopolsky AV, Lappe M. Current foveal inspection and previous peripheral preview influence subsequent eye movement decisions. iScience 2022; 25:104922. [PMID: 36060066 PMCID: PMC9429799 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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