Dishevelled is a NEK2 kinase substrate controlling dynamics of centrosomal linker proteins

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CXV: The Class F of G Protein-Coupled Receptors

The class F of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) consists of 10 Frizzleds (FZD1-10) and Smoothened (SMO). FZDs bind and are activated by secreted lipoglycoproteins of the Wingless/Int-1 (WNT) family, and SMO is indirectly activated by the Hedgehog (Hh) family of morphogens acting on the transmembrane protein Patched. The advance of our understanding of FZDs and SMO as dynamic transmembrane receptors and molecular machines, which emerged during the past 14 years since the first-class F GPCR IUPHAR nomenclature report, justifies an update. This article focuses on the advances in molecular pharmacology and structural biology providing new mechanistic insight into ligand recognition, receptor activation mechanisms, signal initiation, and signal specification. Furthermore, class F GPCRs continue to develop as drug targets, and novel technologies and tools such as genetically encoded biosensors and CRISP/Cas9 edited cell systems have contributed to refined functional analysis of these receptors. Also, advances in crystal structure analysis and cryogenic electron microscopy contribute to the rapid development of our knowledge about structure-function relationships, providing a great starting point for drug development. Despite the progress, questions and challenges remain to fully understand the complexity of the WNT/FZD and Hh/SMO signaling systems. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The recent years of research have brought about substantial functional and structural insight into mechanisms of activation of Frizzleds and Smoothened. While the advance furthers our mechanistic understanding of ligand recognition, receptor activation, signal specification, and initiation, broader opportunities emerge that allow targeting class F GPCRs for therapy and regenerative medicine employing both biologics and small molecule compounds.

A comparative analysis of paxillin and Hic-5 proximity interactomes

Focal adhesions serve as structural and signaling hubs, facilitating bidirectional communication at the cell-extracellular matrix interface. Paxillin and the related Hic-5 (TGFβ1i1) are adaptor/scaffold proteins that recruit numerous structural and regulatory proteins to focal adhesions, where they perform both overlapping and discrete functions. In this study, paxillin and Hic-5 were expressed in U2OS osteosarcoma cells as biotin ligase (BioID2) fusion proteins and used as bait proteins for proximity-dependent biotinylation in order to directly compare their respective interactomes. The fusion proteins localized to both focal adhesions and the centrosome, resulting in biotinylation of components of each of these structures. Biotinylated proteins were purified and analyzed by mass spectrometry. The list of proximity interactors for paxillin and Hic-5 comprised numerous shared core focal adhesion proteins that likely contribute to their similar functions in cell adhesion and migration, as well as proteins unique to paxillin and Hic-5 that have been previously localized to focal adhesions, the centrosome, or the nucleus. Western blotting confirmed biotinylation and enrichment of FAK and vinculin, known interactors of Hic-5 and paxillin, as well as several potentially unique proximity interactors of Hic-5 and paxillin, including septin 7 and ponsin, respectively. Further investigation into the functional relationship between the unique interactors and Hic-5 or paxillin may yield novel insights into their distinct roles in cell migration.

NEK2 overexpression aggravates IL-22-induced keratinocyte proliferation and cytokine level increases and IMQ-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is a common inflammatory skin disease characterized by the excessive proliferation and abnormal differentiation of keratinocytes. Protein kinases could act on intracellular signaling pathways associated with cell proliferation.

OBJECTIVE

Identifying more hub protein kinases affecting cellular and molecular processes in psoriasis, and exploring the dynamic effects of baicalin and NEK2 on the IL-22-induced cellular inflammation and IMQ-induced psoriasis-like mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, differentially expressed protein kinases playing a hub role in psoriasis initiation and development were identified using integrative bioinformatics analyses, and NEK2 has been chosen. NEK2 was significantly up-regulated in psoriatic samples according to online datasets and experimental analyses. In IL-22-induced cellular inflammation model in HaCaT cells, NEK2 overexpression promoted, whereas NEK2 knockdown partially abolished IL-22-induced alterations in cell viability, DNA synthesis, cytokine levels, as well as STAT3 phosphorylation and p-RB, cyclin D1, CDK4, and CDK6 protein contents. Baicalin treatment partially suppressed IL-22-induced HaCaT cell viability, DNA synthesis, and increases in cytokine levels, whereas NEK2 overexpression significantly abolished Baicalin-induced protection against cellular inflammation. In IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation model in mice, baicalin markedly ameliorated IMQ-induced psoriasis-like symptoms and local skin inflammation, whereas NEK2 overexpression partially eliminated the therapeutic effects of baicalin.

CONCLUSION

NEK2, up-regulated in psoriatic lesion skin, could aggravate IMQ-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis and attenuate the therapeutic efficiency of baicalin through promoting keratinocyte proliferation and cytokine levels. The STAT3 signaling might be involved.

Autoinhibitory mechanism controls binding of centrosomin motif 1 to γ-tubulin ring complex

The γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) is the principal nucleator of cellular microtubules, and the microtubule-nucleating activity of the complex is stimulated by binding to the γTuRC-mediated nucleation activator (γTuNA) motif. The γTuNA is part of the centrosomin motif 1 (CM1), which is widely found in γTuRC stimulators, including CDK5RAP2. Here, we show that a conserved segment within CM1 binds to the γTuNA and blocks its association with γTuRCs; therefore, we refer to this segment as the γTuNA inhibitor (γTuNA-In). Mutational disruption of the interaction between the γTuNA and the γTuNA-In results in a loss of autoinhibition, which consequently augments microtubule nucleation on centrosomes and the Golgi complex, the two major microtubule-organizing centers. This also causes centrosome repositioning, leads to defects in Golgi assembly and organization, and affects cell polarization. Remarkably, phosphorylation of the γTuNA-In, probably by Nek2, counteracts the autoinhibition by disrupting the γTuNA‒γTuNA-In interaction. Together, our data reveal an on-site mechanism for controlling γTuNA function.

RNA-Seq Analysis Reveals an Essential Role of the cGMP-PKG-MAPK Pathways in Retinal Degeneration Caused by Cep250 Deficiency

Usher syndrome (USH) is characterised by degenerative vision loss known as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), sensorineural hearing loss, and vestibular dysfunction. RP can cause degeneration and the loss of rod and cone photoreceptors, leading to structural and functional changes in the retina. Cep250 is a candidate gene for atypical Usher syndrome, and this study describes the development of a Cep250 KO mouse model to investigate its pathogenesis. OCT and ERG were applied in Cep250 and WT mice at P90 and P180 to access the general structure and function of the retina. After recording the ERG responses and OCT images at P90 and P180, the cone and rod photoreceptors were visualised using an immunofluorescent stain. TUNEL assays were applied to observe the apoptosis in Cep250 and WT mice retinas. The total RNA was extracted from the retinas and executed for RNA sequencing at P90. Compared with WT mice, the thickness of the ONL, IS/OS, and whole retina of Cep250 mice was significantly reduced. The a-wave and b-wave amplitude of Cep250 mice in scotopic and photopic ERG were lower, especially the a-wave. According to the immunostaining and TUNEL stain results, the photoreceptors in the Cep250 retinas were also reduced. An RNA-seq analysis showed that 149 genes were upregulated and another 149 genes were downregulated in Cep250 KO retinas compared with WT mice retinas. A KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that cGMP-PKG signalling pathways, MAPK signalling pathways, edn2-fgf2 axis pathways, and thyroid hormone synthesis were upregulated, whereas protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum was downregulated in Cep250 KO eyes. Cep250 KO mice experience a late-stage retinal degeneration that manifests as the atypical USH phenotype. The dysregulation of the cGMP-PKG-MAPK pathways may contribute to the pathogenesis of cilia-related retinal degeneration.

Role of β-Catenin Activation in the Tumor Immune Microenvironment and Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Recently, the therapeutic combination of atezolizumab and bevacizumab was widely used to treat advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). According to recent clinical trials, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and molecular target agents are expected to be key therapeutic strategies in the future. Nonetheless, the mechanisms underlying molecular immune responses and immune evasion remain unclear. The tumor immune microenvironment plays a vital role in HCC progression. The infiltration of CD8-positive cells into tumors and the expression of immune checkpoint molecules are key factors in this immune microenvironment. Specifically, Wnt/β catenin pathway activation causes "immune exclusion", associated with poor infiltration of CD8-positive cells. Some clinical studies suggested an association between ICI resistance and β-catenin activation in HCC. Additionally, several subclassifications of the tumor immune microenvironment were proposed. The HCC immune microenvironment can be broadly divided into inflamed class and non-inflamed class, with several subclasses. β-catenin mutations are important factors in immune subclasses; this may be useful when considering therapeutic strategies as β-catenin activation may serve as a biomarker for ICI. Various types of β-catenin modulators were developed. Several kinases may also be involved in the β-catenin pathway. Therefore, combinations of β-catenin modulators, kinase inhibitors, and ICIs may exert synergistic effects.

The centrosomal recruitment of γ-tubulin and its microtubule nucleation activity is α-fodrin guided

The regulation and recruitment of γ-TuRCs, the prime nucleator of microtubules, to the centrosome are still thrust areas of research. The interaction of fodrin, a sub-plasmalemmal cytoskeletal protein, with γ-tubulin is a new area of interest. To understand the cellular significance of this interaction, we show that depletion of α-fodrin brings in a significant reduction of γ-tubulin in neural cell centrosomes making it functionally under-efficient. This causes a loss of nucleation ability that cannot efficiently form microtubules in interphase cells and astral microtubules in mitosis. Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching (FRAP) experiment implies that α-fodrin is important in the recruitment of γ-tubulin to the centrosome resulting in the aforementioned effects. Further, our experiments indicate that the interaction of α-fodrin with certain pericentriolar matrix proteins such as Pericentrin and CDK5RAP2 are crucial for the recruitment of γ-tubulin to the centrosome. Earlier we reported that α-fodrin limits the nucleation potential of γ-TuRC. In that context, this study suggests that α-fodrin is a γ-tubulin recruiting protein to the centrosome thus preventing cytoplasmic microtubule nucleation and thereby compartmentalizing the process to the centrosome for maximum efficiency. Summary statementα-fodrin is a γ-tubulin interacting protein that controls the process of γ-tubulin recruitment to the centrosome and thereby regulates the microtubule nucleation capacity spatially and temporally.

Letting go: Dishevelled phase separation recruits Axin to stabilize β-catenin

Dishevelled exerts a molecular force that guides cell fate, but how it does so remains enigmatic. In this issue, Kang et al. (2022. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202205069) show Dvl2 undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation to stabilize β-catenin by pulling Axin into its biomolecular condensate at the plasma membrane.

Never in Mitosis Kinase 2 regulation of metabolism is required for neural differentiation

Wnt and Hh are known signalling pathways involved in neural differentiation and recent work has shown the cell cycle regulator, Never in Mitosis Kinase 2 (Nek2) is able to regulate both pathways. Despite its known function in pathway regulation, few studies have explored Nek2 within embryonic development. The P19 embryonal carcinoma cell model was used to investigate Nek2 and neural differentiation through CRISPR knockout and overexpression studies. Loss of Nek2 reduced cell proliferation in the undifferentiated state and during directed differentiation, while overexpression increased cell proliferation. Despite these changes in proliferation rates, Nek2 deficient cells maintained pluripotency markers after neural induction while Nek2 overexpressing cells lost these markers in the undifferentiated state. Nek2 deficient cells lost the ability to differentiate into both neurons and astrocytes, although Nek2 overexpressing cells enhanced neuron differentiation at the expense of astrocytes. Hh and Wnt signalling were explored, however there was no clear connection between Nek2 and these pathways causing the observed changes to differentiation phenotypes. Mass spectrometry was also used during wildtype and Nek2 knockout cell differentiation and we identified reduced electron transport chain components in the knockout population. Immunoblotting confirmed the loss of these components and additional studies showed cells lacking Nek2 were exclusively glycolytic. Interestingly, hypoxia inducible factor 1α was stabilized in these Nek2 knockout cells despite culturing them under normoxic conditions. Since neural differentiation requires a metabolic switch from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, we propose a mechanism where Nek2 prevents HIF1α stabilization, thereby allowing cells to use oxidative phosphorylation to facilitate neuron and astrocyte differentiation.

Dishevelled phase separation promotes Wnt signalosome assembly and destruction complex disassembly

The amplitude of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is precisely controlled by the assembly of the cell surface-localized Wnt receptor signalosome and the cytosolic β-catenin destruction complex. How these two distinct complexes are coordinately controlled remains largely unknown. Here, we demonstrated that the signalosome scaffold protein Dishevelled 2 (Dvl2) undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). Dvl2 LLPS is mediated by an intrinsically disordered region and facilitated by components of the signalosome, such as the receptor Fzd5. Assembly of the signalosome is initiated by rapid recruitment of Dvl2 to the membrane, followed by slow and dynamic recruitment of Axin1. Axin LLPS mediates assembly of the β-catenin destruction complex, and Dvl2 attenuates LLPS of Axin. Compared with the destruction complex, Axin partitions into the signalosome at a lower concentration and exhibits a higher mobility. Together, our results revealed that Dvl2 LLPS is crucial for controlling the assembly of the Wnt receptor signalosome and disruption of the phase-separated β-catenin destruction complex.

Superresolution microscopy localizes endogenous Dvl2 to Wnt signaling-responsive biomolecular condensates

Wnt signaling governs cell fate and tissue polarity across species. The Dishevelled proteins are central to Wnt signaling cascades. Wnt-mediated multiprotein complexes such as the “signalosome” and the “destruction complex” have been proposed to represent biomolecular condensates. These nonmembranous, specialized compartments have been suggested to form through liquid–liquid phase separation and ensure correctly proceeding physiological reactions. Although biomolecular condensates have increasingly been studied, key questions remain regarding, for example, their architecture and physiological regulation. Here, superresolution microscopy after endogenous labeling of Dishevelled-2 gives insights into protein functions and Wnt signaling at physiological levels. It reveals the distinct molecular architecture of endogenous Wnt condensates at single-molecule resolution and illustrates close interactions at the centrosome.

During organismal development, homeostasis, and disease, Dishevelled (Dvl) proteins act as key signaling factors in beta-catenin–dependent and beta-catenin–independent Wnt pathways. While their importance for signal transmission has been genetically demonstrated in many organisms, our mechanistic understanding is still limited. Previous studies using overexpressed proteins showed Dvl localization to large, punctate-like cytoplasmic structures that are dependent on its DIX domain. To study Dvl’s role in Wnt signaling, we genome engineered an endogenously expressed Dvl2 protein tagged with an mEos3.2 fluorescent protein for superresolution imaging. First, we demonstrate the functionality and specificity of the fusion protein in beta-catenin–dependent and beta-catenin–independent signaling using multiple independent assays. We performed live-cell imaging of Dvl2 to analyze the dynamic formation of the supramolecular cytoplasmic Dvl2_mEos3.2 condensates. While overexpression of Dvl2_mEos3.2 mimics the previously reported formation of abundant large “puncta,” supramolecular condensate formation at physiological protein levels is only observed in a subset of cells with approximately one per cell. We show that, in these condensates, Dvl2 colocalizes with Wnt pathway components at gamma-tubulin and CEP164-positive centrosomal structures and that the localization of Dvl2 to these condensates is Wnt dependent. Single-molecule localization microscopy using photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) of mEos3.2 in combination with DNA-PAINT demonstrates the organization and repetitive patterns of these condensates in a cell cycle–dependent manner. Our results indicate that the localization of Dvl2 in supramolecular condensates is coordinated dynamically and dependent on cell state and Wnt signaling levels. Our study highlights the formation of endogenous and physiologically regulated biomolecular condensates in the Wnt pathways at single-molecule resolution.

Moonlighting at the Poles: Non-Canonical Functions of Centrosomes

Centrosomes are best known as the microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) of eukaryotic cells. In addition to their classic role in chromosome segregation, centrosomes play diverse roles unrelated to their MTOC activity during cell proliferation and quiescence. Metazoan centrosomes and their functional doppelgängers from lower eukaryotes, the spindle pole bodies (SPBs), act as important structural platforms that orchestrate signaling events essential for cell cycle progression, cellular responses to DNA damage, sensory reception and cell homeostasis. Here, we provide a critical overview of the unconventional and often overlooked roles of centrosomes/SPBs in the life cycle of eukaryotic cells.

One shoot, three birds: Targeting NEK2 orchestrates chemoradiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy in cancer treatment

Combinational therapy has improved the cancer therapeutic landscape but is associated with a concomitant increase in adverse side reactions. Emerging evidence proposes that targeting one core target with multiple critical roles in tumors can achieve combined anti-tumor effects. This review focuses on NEK2, a member of serine/threonine kinases, with broad sequence identity to the mitotic regulator NIMA of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Elevated expression of NEK2 was initially found to promote tumorigeneses through abnormal regulation of the cell cycle. Subsequent studies report that NEK2 is overexpressed in a broad spectrum of tumor types and is associated with tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. Intriguingly, NEK2 has recently been revealed to mediate tumor immune escape by stabilizing the expression of PD-L1. Targeting NEK2 is thus becoming a promising approach for cancer treatment by orchestrating chemoradiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. It represents a novel strategy for inducing combined anti-cancer effects using a mono-agent.

Dishevelled-1 DIX and PDZ domain lysine residues regulate oncogenic Wnt signaling

DVL proteins are central mediators of the Wnt pathway and relay complex input signals into different branches of the Wnt signaling network. However, molecular mechanism(s) that regulate DVL-mediated relay of Wnt signals still remains unclear. Here, for the first time, we elucidate the functional significance of three DVL-1 lysines (K/Lys) which are subject to post-translational acetylation. We demonstrate that K34 Lys residue in the DIX domain regulates subcellular localization of β-catenin, thereby influencing downstream Wnt target gene expression. Additionally, we show that K69 (DIX domain) and K285 (PDZ domain) regulate binding of DVL-1 to Wnt target gene promoters and modulate expression of Wnt target genes including CMYC, OCT4, NANOG, and CCND1, in cell line models and xenograft tumors. Finally, we report that conserved DVL-1 lysines modulate various oncogenic functions such as cell migration, proliferation, cell-cycle progression, 3D-spheroid formation and in-vivo tumor growth in breast cancer models. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of DVL-1 domain-specific lysines which were recently shown to be acetylated and characterize their influence on Wnt signaling. These site-specific modifications may be subject to regulation by therapeutics already in clinical use (lysine deacetylase inhibitors such as Panobinostat and Vorinostat) or may possibly have prognostic utility in translational efforts that seek to modulate dysfunctional Wnt signaling.

Regulation of Dishevelled protein activity and stability by post-translational modifications and autophagy

As a key component of Wnt signaling, Dishevelled (Dvl/Dsh) plays essential roles in development processes and adult tissue homeostasis in multicellular organisms, and its deregulation results in human development disorders and other diseases. Dvl integrates and relays complex Wnt signals by acting as a branch-point of β-catenin-dependent canonical and β-catenin-independent noncanonical pathways. It dynamically interacts with multiple proteins to modulate Wnt signaling, while its activity and stability are tightly controlled by other proteins. This Review summarizes the current understanding of regulation of Dvl activity, localization, and stability by post-translational modifications, aggregation, and autophagy, and the impacts on Dvl function in both Wnt signaling and biological processes.

Cullin 1 (CUL1) Promotes Primary Ciliogenesis through the Induction of Ubiquitin-Proteasome-Dependent Dvl2 Degradation

Primary cilia are nonmotile cellular signal-sensing antenna-like structures composed of microtubule-based structures that distinguish them from motile cilia in structure and function. Primary ciliogenesis is regulated by various cellular signals, such as Wnt, hedgehog (Hh), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). The abnormal regulation of ciliogenesis is closely related to developing various human diseases, including ciliopathies and cancer. This study identified a novel primary ciliogenesis factor Cullin 1 (CUL1), a core component of Skp1-Cullin-F-box (SCF) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which regulates the proteolysis of dishevelled 2 (Dvl2) through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Through immunoprecipitation-tandem mass spectrometry analysis, 176 Dvl2 interacting candidates were identified, of which CUL1 is a novel Dvl2 modulator that induces Dvl2 ubiquitination-dependent degradation. Neddylation-dependent CUL1 activity at the centrosomes was essential for centrosomal Dvl2 degradation and primary ciliogenesis. Therefore, this study provides a new mechanism of Dvl2 degradation by CUL1, which ultimately leads to primary ciliogenesis, and suggest a novel target for primary cilia-related human diseases.

CHEK1 and circCHEK1_246aa evoke chromosomal instability and induce bone lesion formation in multiple myeloma

BACKGROUND

Multiple myeloma (MM) is still incurable and characterized by clonal expansion of plasma cells in the bone marrow (BM). Therefore, effective therapeutic interventions must target both myeloma cells and the BM niche.

METHODS

Cell proliferation, drug resistance, and chromosomal instability (CIN) induced by CHEK1 were confirmed by Giemsa staining, exon sequencing, immunofluorescence and xenograft model in vivo. Bone lesion was evaluated by Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining. The existence of circCHEK1_246aa was evaluated by qPCR, Sanger sequencing and Mass Spectrometer.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that CHEK1 expression was significantly increased in human MM samples relative to normal plasma cells, and that in MM patients, high CHEK1 expression was associated with poor outcomes. Increased CHEK1 expression induced MM cellular proliferation and evoked drug-resistance in vitro and in vivo. CHEK1-mediated increases in cell proliferation and drug resistance were due in part to CHEK1-induced CIN. CHEK1 activated CIN, partly by phosphorylating CEP170. Interestingly, CHEK1 promoted osteoclast differentiation by upregulating NFATc1 expression. Intriguingly, we discovered that MM cells expressed circCHEK1_246aa, a circular CHEK1 RNA, which encoded and was translated to the CHEK1 kinase catalytic center. Transfection of circCHEK1_246aa increased MM CIN and osteoclast differentiation similarly to CHEK1 overexpression, suggesting that MM cells could secrete circCHEK1_246aa in the BM niche to increase the invasive potential of MM cells and promote osteoclast differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that targeting the enzymatic catalytic center encoded by CHEK1 mRNA and circCHEK1_246aa is a promising therapeutic modality to target both MM cells and BM niche.

Derangement of cell cycle markers in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of asthmatic patients as a reliable biomarker for asthma control

In asthma, most of the identified biomarkers pertain to the Th2 phenotype and no known biomarkers have been verified for severe asthmatics. Therefore, identifying biomarkers using the integrative phenotype-genotype approach in severe asthma is needed. The study aims to identify novel biomarkers as genes or pathways representing the core drivers in asthma development, progression to the severe form, resistance to therapy, and tissue remodeling regardless of the sample cells or tissues examined. Comprehensive reanalysis of publicly available transcriptomic data that later was validated in vitro, and locally recruited patients were used to decipher the molecular basis of asthma. Our in-silicoanalysis revealed a total of 10 genes (GPRC5A, SFN, ABCA1, KRT8, TOP2A, SERPINE1, ANLN, MKI67, NEK2, and RRM2) related to cell cycle and proliferation to be deranged in the severe asthmatic bronchial epithelium and fibroblasts compared to their healthy counterparts. In vitro, RT qPCR results showed that (SERPINE1 and RRM2) were upregulated in severe asthmatic bronchial epithelium and fibroblasts, (SFN, ABCA1, TOP2A, SERPINE1, MKI67, and NEK2) were upregulated in asthmatic bronchial epithelium while (GPRC5A and KRT8) were upregulated only in asthmatic bronchial fibroblasts. Furthermore, MKI76, RRM2, and TOP2A were upregulated in Th2 high epithelium while GPRC5A, SFN, ABCA1 were upregulated in the blood of asthmatic patients. SFN, ABCA1 were higher, while MKI67 was lower in severe asthmatic with wheeze compared to nonasthmatics with wheezes. SERPINE1 and GPRC5A were downregulated in the blood of eosinophilic asthmatics, while RRM2 was upregulated in an acute attack of asthma. Validation of the gene expression in PBMC of locally recruited asthma patients showed that SERPINE1, GPRC5A, SFN, ABCA1, MKI67, and RRM2 were downregulated in severe uncontrolled asthma. We have identified a set of biologically crucial genes to the homeostasis of the lung and in asthma development and progression. This study can help us further understand the complex interplay between the transcriptomic data and the external factors which may deviate our understanding of asthma heterogeneity.

Planar cell polarity pathway in kidney development, function and disease

Planar cell polarity (PCP) refers to the coordinated orientation of cells in the tissue plane. Originally discovered and studied in Drosophila melanogaster, PCP is now widely recognized in vertebrates, where it is implicated in organogenesis. Specific sets of PCP genes have been identified. The proteins encoded by these genes become asymmetrically distributed to opposite sides of cells within a tissue plane and guide many processes that include changes in cell shape and polarity, collective cell movements or the uniform distribution of cell appendages. A unifying characteristic of these processes is that they often involve rearrangement of actomyosin. Mutations in PCP genes can cause malformations in organs of many animals, including humans. In the past decade, strong evidence has accumulated for a role of the PCP pathway in kidney development including outgrowth and branching morphogenesis of ureteric bud and podocyte development. Defective PCP signalling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of developmental kidney disorders of the congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract spectrum. Understanding the origins, molecular constituents and cellular targets of PCP provides insights into the involvement of PCP molecules in normal kidney development and how dysfunction of PCP components may lead to kidney disease.

Dysregulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by protein kinases in hepatocellular carcinoma and its therapeutic application

Wnt/β-catenin signaling is indispensable for many biological processes, including embryonic development, cell cycle, inflammation, and carcinogenesis. Aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling can promote tumorigenicity and enhance metastatic potential in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Targeting this pathway is a new opportunity for precise medicine for HCC. However, inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin signaling alone is unlikely to significantly improve HCC patient outcome due to the lack of specific inhibitors and the complexity of this pathway. Combination with other therapies will be an important next step in improving the efficacy of Wnt/β-catenin signaling inhibitors. Protein kinases play a key and evolutionarily conserved role in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling and have become one of the most important drug targets in cancer. Targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling and its regulatory kinase together will be a promising HCC management strategy. In this review, we summarize the kinases that modulate the Wnt/β-catenin signaling in HCC and briefly discuss their molecular mechanisms. Furthermore, we list some small molecules that target the kinases and may inhibit Wnt/β-catenin signaling, to offer new perspectives for preclinical and clinical HCC studies.

Distinct Microtubule Organizing Center Mechanisms Combine to Generate Neuron Polarity and Arbor Complexity

Dendrite and axon arbor wiring patterns determine the connectivity and computational characteristics of a neuron. The identities of these dendrite and axon arbors are created by differential polarization of their microtubule arrays, and their complexity and pattern are generated by the extension and organization of these arrays. We describe how several molecularly distinct microtubule organizing center (MTOC) mechanisms function during neuron differentiation to generate and arrange dendrite and axon microtubules. The temporal and spatial organization of these MTOCs generates, patterns, and diversifies arbor wiring.

High expression of NEK2 promotes gastric cancer progression via activating AKT signaling

Never in mitosis gene A-related kinase 2 (NEK2) has been recognized as an oncogene involved in the initiation and progression of various human cancers. However, our knowledge is still lacking in regard to the function of NEK2 in gastric cancer, the most common cancer in Eastern Asia associated with poor prognosis. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the association of NEK2 with gastric cancer. We found that the development of gastric cancer is associated with NEK2 overexpression, particularly in patients with large tumor size and lymph node metastasis. We also provided evidence that NEK2 overexpression binds to and inhibits protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), which subsequently activates AKT and the downstream oncogenic pathways. As a result, via AKT/HIF1α axis, the glucose metabolism is reprogrammed towards aerobic glycolysis to provide rapid energy for the growth of gastric cancer cells. Moreover, the autophagic activity is suppressed via AKT/mTOR axis, leading to impaired response to cancer treatment and enhanced cell survival. In contrast, inactivating AKT by NEK2 silencing decreases aerobic glycolysis and promotes autophagic cell death, which eventually inhibits the growth of gastric cancer cell. All these results revealed that NEK2 promotes gastric cancer progression via activating AKT-mediated signaling pathways, which expanded our knowledge on gastric cancer pathogenesis and also provided novel target for clinical treatment.

The Greatwall kinase safeguards the genome integrity by affecting the kinome activity in mitosis

Progression through mitosis is balanced by the timely regulation of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events ensuring the correct segregation of chromosomes before cytokinesis. This balance is regulated by the opposing actions of CDK1 and PP2A, as well as the Greatwall kinase/MASTL. MASTL is commonly overexpressed in cancer, which makes it a potential therapeutic anticancer target. Loss of Mastl induces multiple chromosomal errors that lead to the accumulation of micronuclei and multilobulated cells in mitosis. Our analyses revealed that loss of Mastl leads to chromosome breaks and abnormalities impairing correct segregation. Phospho-proteomic data for Mastl knockout cells revealed alterations in proteins implicated in multiple processes during mitosis including double-strand DNA damage repair. In silico prediction of the kinases with affected activity unveiled NEK2 to be regulated in the absence of Mastl. We uncovered that, RAD51AP1, involved in regulation of homologous recombination, is phosphorylated by NEK2 and CDK1 but also efficiently dephosphorylated by PP2A/B55. Our results suggest that MastlKO disturbs the equilibrium of the mitotic phosphoproteome that leads to the disruption of DNA damage repair and triggers an accumulation of chromosome breaks even in noncancerous cells.

The role of Anaphase Promoting Complex activation, inhibition and substrates in cancer development and progression

The Anaphase Promoting Complex (APC), a multi-subunit ubiquitin ligase, facilitates mitotic and G1 progression, and is now recognized to play a role in maintaining genomic stability. Many APC substrates have been observed overexpressed in multiple cancer types, such as CDC20, the Aurora A and B kinases, and Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1), suggesting APC activity is important for cell health. We performed BioGRID analyses of the APC coactivators CDC20 and CDH1, which revealed that at least 69 proteins serve as APC substrates, with 60 of them identified as playing a role in tumor promotion and 9 involved in tumor suppression. While these substrates and their association with malignancies have been studied in isolation, the possibility exists that generalized APC dysfunction could result in the inappropriate stabilization of multiple APC targets, thereby changing tumor behavior and treatment responsiveness. It is also possible that the APC itself plays a crucial role in tumorigenesis through its regulation of mitotic progression. In this review the connections between APC activity and dysregulation will be discussed with regards to cell cycle dysfunction and chromosome instability in cancer, along with the individual roles that the accumulation of various APC substrates may play in cancer progression.

Low fluid shear stress promoted ciliogenesis via Dvl2 in hUVECs

This study aims to explore the mechanism of fluid shear stress in regulating the primary cilia assembly or disassembly in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (hUVECs) using microfluidic chamber experiments. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that primary cilia assembled under disturbed fluid shear stress (DF) of 1 dyne/cm², while disassembled under unidirectional shear stress (USS) of 15 dynes/cm². Disheveled (Dvl2) in Wnt signaling pathway was effectively co-immunoprecipitated with Bardet-Biedl syndrome proteins 8 (Bbs8) and γ-tubulin. Compared with those in the control group, the percentages of ciliated cells with Dvl2 overexpression were found to be 67% and 59.667%, respectively, under USS and DF (an increment of 21-38.7%); while, those with Dvl2 silencing were 16% and 32.667%, respectively, under USS and DF (a decrement of 23-30%). Further, the expression of Bbs8 and γ-tubulin was decreased by RNA interference of Dvl2 but increased with Dvl2 overexpression. The results indicated that Dvl2 played a pivotal role during DF-induced primary cilia assembly, and was important for apical docking of basal bodies through Bbs8 and γ-tubulin.

Single-molecule dynamics of Dishevelled at the plasma membrane and Wnt pathway activation

Canonical Wnt signaling is one of the most important and widely distributed pathways in metazoan development. Dishevelled is thought to serve as an essential bridge between the membrane receptors and downstream signaling components, which has the tendency to aggregate in vitro and to form large aggregates of dubious significance in vivo, when overexpressed. To obtain a molecular understanding of the role of Dvl in Wnt signaling, while circumventing these aggregation problems, we have expressed a fluorescent-tagged Dishevelled in cells at its physiological concentration and quantified the size distribution of Dishevelled before and after Wnt treatment. We found that limited oligomerization in response to the Wnt ligand is very dynamic and provides a key step in signal transduction.

Dvl (Dishevelled) is one of several essential nonenzymatic components of the Wnt signaling pathway. In most current models, Dvl forms complexes with Wnt ligand receptors, Fzd and LRP5/6 at the plasma membrane, which then recruits the destruction complex, eventually leading to inactivation of β-catenin degradation. Although this model is widespread, direct evidence for the individual steps is lacking. In this study, we tagged mEGFP to C terminus of dishevelled2 gene using CRISPR/Cas9-induced homologous recombination and observed its dynamics directly at the single-molecule level with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. We focused on two questions: 1) What is the native size and what are the dynamic features of membrane-bound Dvl complexes during Wnt pathway activation? 2) What controls the behavior of these complexes? We found that membrane-bound Dvl2 is predominantly monomer in the absence of Wnt (observed mean size 1.1). Wnt3a stimulation leads to an increase in the total concentration of membrane-bound Dvl2 from 0.12/μm² to 0.54/μm². Wnt3a also leads to increased oligomerization which raises the weighted mean size of Dvl2 complexes to 1.5, with 56.1% of Dvl still as monomers. The driving force for Dvl2 oligomerization is the increased concentration of membrane Dvl2 caused by increased affinity of Dvl2 for Fzd, which is independent of LRP5/6. The oligomerized Dvl2 complexes have increased dwell time, 2 ∼ 3 min, compared to less than 1 s for monomeric Dvl2. These properties make Dvl a unique scaffold, dynamically changing its state of assembly and stability at the membrane in response to Wnt ligands.

Centrosomes are required for proper β-catenin processing and Wnt response

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is central to metazoan development and routinely dysregulated in cancer. Wnt/β-catenin signaling initiates transcriptional reprogramming upon stabilization of the transcription factor β-catenin, which is otherwise posttranslationally processed by a destruction complex and degraded by the proteasome. Since various Wnt signaling components are enriched at centrosomes, we examined the functional contribution of centrosomes to Wnt signaling, β-catenin regulation, and posttranslational modifications. In HEK293 cells depleted of centrosomes we find that β-catenin synthesis and degradation rates are unaffected but that the normal accumulation of β-catenin in response to Wnt signaling is attenuated. This is due to accumulation of a novel high-molecular-weight form of phosphorylated β-catenin that is constitutively degraded in the absence of Wnt. Wnt signaling operates by inhibiting the destruction complex and thereby reducing destruction complex–phosphorylated β-catenin, but high-molecular-weight β-catenin is unexpectedly increased by Wnt signaling. Therefore these studies have identified a pool of β-catenin effectively shielded from regulation by Wnt. We present a model whereby centrosomes prevent inappropriate β-catenin modifications that antagonize normal stabilization by Wnt signals.

Emerging roles of metazoan cell cycle regulators as coordinators of the cell cycle and differentiation

In multicellular organisms, cell proliferation must be tightly coordinated with other developmental processes to form functional tissues and organs. Despite significant advances in our understanding of how the cell cycle is controlled by conserved cell-cycle regulators (CCRs), how the cell cycle is coordinated with cell differentiation in metazoan organisms and how CCRs contribute to this process remain poorly understood. Here, we review the emerging roles of metazoan CCRs as intracellular proliferation-differentiation coordinators in multicellular organisms. We illustrate how major CCRs regulate cellular events that are required for cell fate acquisition and subsequent differentiation. To this end, CCRs employ diverse mechanisms, some of which are separable from those underpinning the conventional cell-cycle-regulatory functions of CCRs. By controlling cell-type-specific specification/differentiation processes alongside the progression of the cell cycle, CCRs enable spatiotemporal coupling between differentiation and cell proliferation in various developmental contexts in vivo. We discuss the significance and implications of this underappreciated role of metazoan CCRs for development, disease and evolution.

Phosphorylation of multiple proteins involved in ciliogenesis by Tau Tubulin kinase 2

Primary cilia are organelles necessary for proper implementation of developmental and homeostasis processes. To initiate their assembly, coordinated actions of multiple proteins are needed. Tau tubulin kinase 2 (TTBK2) is a key player in the cilium assembly pathway, controlling the final step of cilia initiation. The function of TTBK2 in ciliogenesis is critically dependent on its kinase activity; however, the precise mechanism of TTBK2 action has so far not been fully understood due to the very limited information about its relevant substrates. In this study, we demonstrate that CEP83, CEP89, CCDC92, Rabin8, and DVL3 are substrates of TTBK2 kinase activity. Further, we characterize a set of phosphosites of those substrates and CEP164 induced by TTBK2 in vitro and in vivo. Intriguingly, we further show that identified TTBK2 phosphosites and consensus sequence delineated from those are distinct from motifs previously assigned to TTBK2. Finally, we show that TTBK2 is also required for efficient phosphorylation of many S/T sites in CEP164 and provide evidence that TTBK2-induced phosphorylations of CEP164 modulate its function, which in turn seems relevant for the process of cilia formation. In summary, our work provides important insight into the substrates-TTBK2 kinase relationship and suggests that phosphorylation of substrates on multiple sites by TTBK2 is probably involved in the control of ciliogenesis in human cells.

The Centrosome Linker and Its Role in Cancer and Genetic Disorders

Centrosome cohesion, the joining of the two centrosomes of a cell, is increasingly appreciated as a major regulator of cell functions such as Golgi organization and cilia positioning. One major element of centrosome cohesion is the centrosome linker that consists of a growing number of proteins. The timely disassembly of the centrosome linker enables centrosomes to separate and assemble a functional bipolar mitotic spindle that is crucial for maintaining genomic integrity. Exciting new findings link centrosome linker defects to cell transformation and genetic disorders. We review recent data on the molecular mechanisms of the assembly and disassembly of the centrosome linker, and discuss how defects in the proper execution of these processes cause DNA damage and genomic instability leading to disease.

Comparative phosphorylation map of Dishevelled 3 links phospho-signatures to biological outputs

Background

Dishevelled (DVL) is an essential component of the Wnt signaling cascades. Function of DVL is controlled by phosphorylation but the molecular details are missing. DVL3 contains 131 serines and threonines whose phosphorylation generates complex barcodes underlying diverse DVL3 functions. In order to dissect the role of DVL phosphorylation we analyzed the phosphorylation of human DVL3 induced by previously reported (CK1ε, NEK2, PLK1, CK2α, RIPK4, PKCδ) and newly identified (TTBK2, Aurora A) DVL kinases.

Methods

Shotgun proteomics including TiO₂ enrichment of phosphorylated peptides followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry on immunoprecipitates from HEK293T cells was used to identify and quantify phosphorylation of DVL3 protein induced by 8 kinases. Functional characterization was performed by in-cell analysis of phospho-mimicking/non-phosphorylatable DVL3 mutants and supported by FRET assays and NMR spectroscopy.

Results

We used quantitative mass spectrometry and calculated site occupancies and quantified phosphorylation of > 80 residues. Functional validation demonstrated the importance of CK1ε-induced phosphorylation of S268 and S311 for Wnt-3a-induced β-catenin activation. S630–643 cluster phosphorylation by CK1, NEK2 or TTBK2 is essential for even subcellular distribution of DVL3 when induced by CK1 and TTBK2 but not by NEK2. Further investigation showed that NEK2 utilizes a different mechanism to promote even localization of DVL3. NEK2 triggered phosphorylation of PDZ domain at S263 and S280 prevents binding of DVL C-terminus to PDZ and promotes an open conformation of DVL3 that is more prone to even subcellular localization.

Conclusions

We identify unique phosphorylation barcodes associated with DVL function. Our data provide an example of functional synergy between phosphorylation in structured domains and unstructured IDRs that together dictate the biological outcome.

microRNA-138 induces cell survival and reduces WNT/β-catenin signaling of osteoarthritis chondrocytes through NEK2

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by joint pain, stiffness, and function degeneration with high incidence. Recent studies have been inspired based on the association between microRNAs (miRs) and therapeutic research of OA. Hence, the present study evaluates the effects of miR-138 on chondrocyte proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis through the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway in mice with OA by binding to NIMA-related kinase 2 (NEK2). Appropriate dataset was selected from the Gene Expression Omnibus database, and differentially expressed genes and potential miRNAs that could regulate NEK2 were explored. A mouse model of OA was established. The expressions of miR-138, NEK2, β-catenin, GSK3β, Bcl-2, Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), p53, MMP-13, Col2, and Aggrecan and the phosphorylation levels of β-catenin were determined by the reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. The 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and flow cytometry were employed to detect cell proliferation and apoptosis, respectively. The potential functional role of NEK2 was revealed to be related to the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway, and miR-138 was the putative regulator of NEK2. miR-138 expression was downregulated while expressions of NEK2 and β-catenin as well as the phosphorylation levels of β-catenin were upregulated in mice with OA. The chondrocytes treated with miR-138 mimic and siRNA-NEK2 exhibited reduced expressions of NEK2, β-catenin, MMP-13, Bax, and p53 and elevated expressions of Col2, Aggrecan, and Bcl-2 as well as phosphorylation levels of β-catenin along with enhanced chondrocytes' proliferation and suppressed cell apoptosis. Overexpression of miR-138 induces cell survival and reduces WNT/β-catenin signaling of OA chondrocytes through NEK2. © 2019 IUBMB Life, 71(9):1355-1366, 2019.

Dishevelled-3 conformation dynamics analyzed by FRET-based biosensors reveals a key role of casein kinase 1

Dishevelled (DVL) is the key component of the Wnt signaling pathway. Currently, DVL conformational dynamics under native conditions is unknown. To overcome this limitation, we develop the Fluorescein Arsenical Hairpin Binder- (FlAsH-) based FRET in vivo approach to study DVL conformation in living cells. Using this single-cell FRET approach, we demonstrate that (i) Wnt ligands induce open DVL conformation, (ii) DVL variants that are predominantly open, show more even subcellular localization and more efficient membrane recruitment by Frizzled (FZD) and (iii) Casein kinase 1 ɛ (CK1ɛ) has a key regulatory function in DVL conformational dynamics. In silico modeling and in vitro biophysical methods explain how CK1ɛ-specific phosphorylation events control DVL conformations via modulation of the PDZ domain and its interaction with DVL C-terminus. In summary, our study describes an experimental tool for DVL conformational sampling in living cells and elucidates the essential regulatory role of CK1ɛ in DVL conformational dynamics.

Dishevelled enables casein kinase 1-mediated phosphorylation of Frizzled 6 required for cell membrane localization

Frizzleds (FZDs) are receptors for secreted lipoglycoproteins of the Wingless/Int-1 (WNT) family, initiating an important signal transduction network in multicellular organisms. FZDs are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are well known to be regulated by phosphorylation, leading to specific downstream signaling or receptor desensitization. The role and underlying mechanisms of FZD phosphorylation remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigated the phosphorylation of human FZD₆ Using MS analysis and a phospho-state- and -site-specific antibody, we found that Ser-648, located in the FZD₆ C terminus, is efficiently phosphorylated by casein kinase 1 ϵ (CK1ϵ) and that this phosphorylation requires the scaffolding protein Dishevelled (DVL). In an overexpression system, DVL1, -2, and -3 promoted CK1ϵ-mediated FZD₆ phosphorylation on Ser-648. This DVL activity required an intact DEP domain and FZD-mediated recruitment of this domain to the cell membrane. Substitution of the CK1ϵ-targeted phosphomotif reduced FZD₆ surface expression, suggesting that Ser-648 phosphorylation controls membrane trafficking of FZD₆ Phospho-Ser-648 FZD₆ immunoreactivity in human fallopian tube epithelium was predominantly apical, associated with cilia in a subset of epithelial cells, compared with the total FZD₆ protein expression, suggesting that FZD₆ phosphorylation contributes to asymmetric localization of receptor function within the cell and to epithelial polarity. Given the key role of FZD₆ in planar cell polarity, our results raise the possibility that asymmetric phosphorylation of FZD₆ rather than asymmetric protein distribution accounts for polarized receptor signaling.

Dishevelled: A masterful conductor of complex Wnt signals

The Dishevelled gene was first identified in Drosophila mutants with disoriented hair and bristle polarity [1-3]. The Dsh gene (Dsh/Dvl, in Drosophila and vertebrates respectively) gained popularity when it was discovered that it plays a key role in segment polarity during early embryonic development in Drosophila [4]. Subsequently, the vertebrate homolog of Dishevelled genes were identified in Xenopus (Xdsh), mice (Dvl1, Dvl2, Dvl3), and in humans (DVL1, DVL2, DVL3) [5-10]. Dishevelled functions as a principal component of Wnt signaling pathway and governs several cellular processes including cell proliferation, survival, migration, differentiation, polarity and stem cell renewal. This review will revisit seminal discoveries and also summarize recent advances in characterizing the role of Dishevelled in both normal and pathophysiological settings.

PP5 (PPP5C) is a phosphatase of Dvl2

Dishevelled (Dvl) family proteins are key mediators of Wnt signalling and function in both canonical and noncanonical branches. Dvl2, the most studied Dvl protein, is extensively regulated by phosphorylation. Several kinases were found to be critical for Dvl2 localisation, stability control and functional segregation. For example, S143-phosphorylated Dvl2 was detected, together with CK1δ/ε, at the centrosome and basal body of primary cilia and plays pivotal roles during ciliogenesis. However, relatively less is known about Dvl dephosphorylation and the phosphatases involved. Here, we identified PP5 (PPP5C) as a phosphatase of Dvl2. PP5 interacts with and can directly dephosphorylate Dvl2. Knockdown of PP5 caused elevated Dvl2 phosphorylation both at the basal level and upon Wnt stimulation. In the Dvl2 protein, S143, the 10B5 cluster and other sites were dephosphorylated by PP5. Interestingly, comparison of PP5 with PP2A, another known Dvl2 phosphatase, revealed that PP5 and PP2A are not fully redundant in the regulation of Dvl2 phosphorylation status. In hTERT-RPE1 cells, PP5 was found at the basal body of cilia, where S143-phosphorylated Dvl2 also resides. Functional assays revealed modest effects on ciliogenesis after PP5 depletion or over-expression. Taken together, our results provided evidence to suggest PP5 as a new phosphatase for Dvl2.

Mitotic Regulation by NEK Kinase Networks

Genetic studies in yeast and Drosophila led to identification of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), Polo-like kinases (PLKs) and Aurora kinases as essential regulators of mitosis. These enzymes have since been found in the majority of eukaryotes and their cell cycle-related functions characterized in great detail. However, genetic studies in another fungal species, Aspergillus nidulans, identified a distinct family of protein kinases, the NEKs, that are also widely conserved and have key roles in the cell cycle, but which remain less well studied. Nevertheless, it is now clear that multiple NEK family members act in networks to regulate specific events of mitosis, including centrosome separation, spindle assembly and cytokinesis. Here, we describe our current understanding of how the NEK kinases contribute to these processes, particularly through targeted phosphorylation of proteins associated with the microtubule cytoskeleton. We also present the latest findings on molecular events that control the activation state of the NEKs and how these are revealing novel modes of enzymatic regulation relevant not only to other kinases but also to pathological mechanisms of disease.

Expression of COBLL1 encoding novel ROR1 binding partner is robust predictor of survival in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is a disease with up-regulated expression of the transmembrane tyrosine-protein kinase ROR1, a member of the Wnt/planar cell polarity pathway. In this study, we identified COBLL1 as a novel interaction partner of ROR1. COBLL1 shows clear bimodal expression with high levels in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with mutated IGHV and approximately 30% of chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IGHV. In the remaining 70% of chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IGHV, COBLL1 expression is low. Importantly, chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IGHV and high COBLL1 have an unfavorable disease course with short overall survival and time to second treatment. COBLL1 serves as an independent molecular marker for overall survival in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IGHV. In addition, chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IGHV and high COBLL1 show impaired motility and chemotaxis towards CCL19 and CXCL12 as well as enhanced B-cell receptor signaling pathway activation demonstrated by increased PLCγ2 and SYK phosphorylation after IgM stimulation. COBLL1 expression also changes during B-cell maturation in non-malignant secondary lymphoid tissue with a higher expression in germinal center B cells than naïve and memory B cells. Our data thus suggest COBLL1 involvement not only in chronic lymphocytic leukemia but also in B-cell development. In summary, we show that expression of COBLL1, encoding novel ROR1-binding partner, defines chronic lymphocytic leukemia subgroups with a distinct response to microenvironmental stimuli, and independently predicts survival of chronic lymphocytic leukemia with unmutated IGHV.

Recent advances in pericentriolar material organization: ordered layers and scaffolding gels

The centrosome is an unusual organelle that lacks a surrounding membrane, raising the question of what limits its size and shape. Moreover, while electron microscopy (EM) has provided a detailed view of centriole architecture, there has been limited understanding of how the second major component of centrosomes, the pericentriolar material (PCM), is organized. Here, we summarize exciting recent findings from super-resolution fluorescence imaging, structural biology, and biochemical reconstitution that together reveal the presence of ordered layers and complex gel-like scaffolds in the PCM. Moreover, we discuss how this is leading to a better understanding of the process of microtubule nucleation, how alterations in PCM size are regulated in cycling and differentiated cells, and why mutations in PCM components lead to specific human pathologies.

The N-Terminal Part of the Dishevelled DEP Domain Is Required for Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Mammalian Cells

Dishevelled (DVL) proteins are key mediators of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. All DVL proteins contain three conserved domains: DIX, PDZ, and DEP. There is a consensus in the field that the DIX domain is critical for Wnt/β-catenin signaling, but contradictory evidence regarding the function of the DEP domain exists. It has been difficult, until recently, to test the importance of the DEP domain rigorously because of the interference with endogenous DVL, expressed in all Wnt-responsive cell lines. In this study, we took advantage of DVL knockout (DVL1/DVL2/DVL3 triple knockout) cells fully deficient in Wnt3a-induced signaling events and performed a series of rescue experiments. Using these complementation assays, we analyzed the role of individual DVL isoforms. Further domain mapping of DVL1 showed that both the DVL1 DEP domain and especially its N-terminal region are required and sufficient for Wnt3a-induced phosphorylation of LRP6 and TopFlash reporter activation. On the contrary, multiple DEP domain mutants deficient in the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway could fully rescue the Wnt3a response. This study provides conclusive evidence that the DVL DEP domain is essential for Wnt/β-catenin signaling in mammalian cells and establishes an experimental system suitable for further functional testing of DVL.

The connections of Wnt pathway components with cell cycle and centrosome: side effects or a hidden logic?

Wnt signaling cascade has developed together with multicellularity to orchestrate the development and homeostasis of complex structures. Wnt pathway components - such as β-catenin, Dishevelled (DVL), Lrp6, and Axin-- are often dedicated proteins that emerged in evolution together with the Wnt signaling cascade and are believed to function primarily in the Wnt cascade. It is interesting to see that in recent literature many of these proteins are connected with cellular functions that are more ancient and not limited to multicellular organisms - such as cell cycle regulation, centrosome biology, or cell division. In this review, we summarize the recent literature describing this crosstalk. Specifically, we attempt to find the answers to the following questions: Is the response to Wnt ligands regulated by the cell cycle? Is the centrosome and/or cilium required to activate the Wnt pathway? How do Wnt pathway components regulate the centrosomal cycle and cilia formation and function? We critically review the evidence that describes how these connections are regulated and how they help to integrate cell-to-cell communication with the cell and the centrosomal cycle in order to achieve a fine-tuned, physiological response.

Dishevelled Paralogs in Vertebrate Development: Redundant or Distinct?

Dishevelled (DVL) proteins are highly conserved in the animal kingdom and are important key players in β-Catenin-dependent and -independent Wnt signaling pathways. Vertebrate genomes typically comprise three DVL genes, DVL1, DVL2, and DVL3. Expression patterns and developmental functions of the three vertebrate DVL proteins however, are only partially redundant in any given species. Moreover, expression and function of DVL isoforms have diverged between different vertebrate species. All DVL proteins share basic functionality in Wnt signal transduction. Additional, paralog-specific interactions and functions combined with context-dependent availability of DVL isoforms may play a central role in defining Wnt signaling specificity and add selectivity toward distinct downstream pathways. In this review, we recapitulate briefly cellular functions of DVL paralogs, their role in vertebrate embryonic development and congenital disease.

Atypical regulators of Wnt/β-catenin signaling as potential therapeutic targets in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Hepatocellular carcinoma development depends on the inhibition and activation of multiple vital pathways, including the Wnt signaling pathway. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway lies at the center of various signaling pathways that regulate embryonic development, tissue homeostasis and cancers. Activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway has been observed frequently in hepatocellular carcinoma. However, activating mutations in β-catenin, Axin and Adenomatous Polyposis Coli only contribute to a portion of the Wnt signaling hyper-activation observed in hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, besides mutations in the canonical Wnt components, there must be additional atypical regulation or regulators during Wnt signaling activation that promote liver carcinogenesis. In this mini-review, we have tried to summarize some of these well-established factors and to highlight some recently identified novel factors in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma. Impact statement Early recurrence of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a frequent cause of poor survival after potentially curative liver resection. Among the deregulated signaling cascades in HCC, evidence indicates that alterations in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway play key roles in hepatocarcinogenesis. In this review, we summarize the potential molecular mechanisms how the microtubule-associated Protein regulator of cytokinesis 1 (PRC1), a direct Wnt signaling target previously identified in our laboratory to be up-regulated in HCC, in promoting cancer proliferation, stemness, metastasis and tumorigenesis through a complex regulatory circuitry of Wnt3a activities.

Planar cell polarity in development and disease

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is an essential feature of animal tissues, whereby distinct polarity is established within the plane of a cell sheet. Tissue-wide establishment of PCP is driven by multiple global cues, including gradients of gene expression, gradients of secreted WNT ligands and anisotropic tissue strain. These cues guide the dynamic, subcellular enrichment of PCP proteins, which can self-assemble into mutually exclusive complexes at opposite sides of a cell. Endocytosis, endosomal trafficking and degradation dynamics of PCP components further regulate planar tissue patterning. This polarization propagates throughout the whole tissue, providing a polarity axis that governs collective morphogenetic events such as the orientation of subcellular structures and cell rearrangements. Reflecting the necessity of polarized cellular behaviours for proper development and function of diverse organs, defects in PCP have been implicated in human pathologies, most notably in severe birth defects.

FZD10-Gα13 signalling axis points to a role of FZD10 in CNS angiogenesis

Among the 10 Frizzled (FZD) isoforms belonging to the Class F of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), FZD₁₀ remains the most enigmatic. FZD₁₀ shows homology to FZD₄ and FZD₉ and was previously implicated in both β-catenin-dependent and -independent signalling. In normal tissue, FZD₁₀ levels are generally very low; however, its upregulation in synovial carcinoma has attracted some attention for therapy. Our findings identify FZD₁₀ as a receptor interacting with and signalling through the heterotrimeric G protein Gα₁₃ but not Gα_12, Gα_i1, Gα_oA, Gα_s, or Gα_q. Stimulation with the FZD agonist WNT induced the dissociation of the Gα₁₃ protein from FZD₁₀, and led to global Gα_12/13-dependent cell changes assessed by dynamic mass redistribution measurements. Furthermore, we show that FZD₁₀ mediates Gα_12/13 activation-dependent induction of YAP/TAZ transcriptional activity. In addition, we show a distinct expression of FZD₁₀ in embryonic CNS endothelial cells at E11.5-E14.5. Given the well-known importance of Gα₁₃ signalling for the development of the vascular system, the selective expression of FZD₁₀ in brain vascular endothelial cells points at a potential role of FZD₁₀-Gα₁₃ signalling in CNS angiogenesis.

APC/CFzr/Cdh1-Dependent Regulation of Planar Cell Polarity Establishment via Nek2 Kinase Acting on Dishevelled

The Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase, well known for its role in cell-cycle progression. However, it has been linked to additional functions, mainly in neuronal contexts, when using the co-activator Cdh1/Fzr. Here, our data indicate a post-mitotic requirement for the APC/C^Fzr/Cdh1 in epithelial cell patterning and planar cell polarity (PCP) in Drosophila. PCP signaling is critical for development by establishing cellular asymmetries and orientation within the plane of an epithelium, via differential localization of distinct complexes of core PCP factors. Loss of APC/C function leads to reduced levels of Dishevelled (Dsh), a core PCP factor. The effect of APC/C on Dsh is mediated by Nek2 kinase, which can phosphorylate Dsh and is a direct APC/C^Fzr/Cdh1 substrate. We have thus uncovered a pathway of regulation whereby APC/C^Fzr/Cdh1 negatively regulates Nek2, which negatively regulates Dsh, to ensure its proper stoichiometric requirement and localization during PCP establishment.

The APC/C Coordinates Retinal Differentiation with G1 Arrest through the Nek2-Dependent Modulation of Wingless Signaling

The cell cycle is coordinated with differentiation during animal development. Here we report a cell-cycle-independent developmental role for a master cell-cycle regulator, the anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C), in the regulation of cell fate through modulation of Wingless (Wg) signaling. The APC/C controls both cell-cycle progression and postmitotic processes through ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis. Through an RNAi screen in the developing Drosophila eye, we found that partial APC/C inactivation severely inhibits retinal differentiation independently of cell-cycle defects. The differentiation inhibition coincides with hyperactivation of Wg signaling caused by the accumulation of a Wg modulator, Drosophila Nek2 (dNek2). The APC/C degrades dNek2 upon synchronous G1 arrest prior to differentiation, which allows retinal differentiation through local suppression of Wg signaling. We also provide evidence that decapentaplegic signaling may posttranslationally regulate this APC/C function. Thus, the APC/C coordinates cell-fate determination with the cell cycle through the modulation of developmental signaling pathways.

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APC/C inactivation disrupts retinal differentiation in the Drosophila eye

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APC/C inactivation causes the ectopic activation of Wg signaling

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APC/C^Fzr downregulates a Wg modulator, dNek2, by proteolysis upon G1 arrest

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Local dNek2 degradation ensures the coordination of retinal differentiation